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Site Analysis A Contextual Approach to Sustainable Land
Planning and Site Design 2nd Edition James A. Lagro
Digital Instant Download
Author(s): James A. LaGro
ISBN(s): 9780471797982, 0471797987
Edition: 2
File Details: PDF, 16.63 MB
Year: 2007
Language: english
ii
Site Analysis
i
ii
Site Analysis
A Contextual Approach
to Sustainable Land Planning
and Site Design
Second Edition
James A. LaGro Jr.
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
iii
100%
TOTAL RECYCLED PAPER

100% POSTCONSUMER PAPER
This book is printed on acid-free paper. * 1
Copyright # 2008 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:
LaGro, James A.
Site analysis : a contextual approach to sustainable land planning and site design / James A.
LaGro, Jr.—2nd ed.
p. cm.
First ed. published 2001.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-471-79798-2 (cloth)
1. Building sites—Planning. 2. Building sites—Environmental aspects.
3. Land use—Planning. 4. Land use—Environmental aspects. I. Title.
NA2540.5.L34 2008
720.28—dc22 2007010270
Printed in the United States of America

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
iv
Contents
Preface ix
Acknowledgments xii
PART I PROCESS AND TOOLS 1
CHAPTER 1 SHAPING THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT 3

Introduction 3
Toward Sustainable Built Environments 5
The Power of Place, the Role of Design 12
Site-Planning Process 13
Knowledge, Skills, and Values 20
Conclusion 21
CHAPTER 2 VISUALIZATION OF SPATIAL INFORMATION 23

Introduction 23
Graphic Communication 23
Mapping Fundamentals 26
Principles of Effective Graphic Communication 32
Base Maps 34
Geographic Information Systems (GIS) 37
Conclusion 39
PART II SITE SELECTION AND PROGRAMMING 41
CHAPTER 3 SITE SELECTION 43

Introduction 43
Site Selection Scope 45
The Site Selection Process 47
Conclusion 66
v
vi Contents
CHAPTER 4 PROGRAMMING 77
Introduction 77
Programming Methods 79
Program Documentation 86
Conclusion 89
PART III SITE INVENTORY AND ANALYSIS 99
Chapter 5 SITE INVENTORY: PHYSICAL ATTRIBUTES 101

Introduction 101
Parcel Size and Shape 103
Topography 104
Geology 108
Hydrology 110
Soils 113
Climate 117
Natural Hazards 123
Conclusion 125
Chapter 6 SITE INVENTORY: BIOLOGICAL ATTRIBUTES 127

Introduction 127
Ecological Communities 127
Trees 133
Wildlife 136
Conclusion 138
Chapter 7 SITE INVENTORY: CULTURAL ATTRIBUTES 139

Introduction 139
Land Use and Tenure 140
Land-Use Regulation 141
Property Value 146
Public Infrastructure 148
Building and Neighborhood Character 149
Historic Resources 153
Sensory Perception 155
Conclusion 164
Chapter 8 SITE ANALYSIS: INTEGRATION AND SYNTHESIS 169

Introduction 169
Site Carrying Capacity 171
Suitability Analysis 172
Integration and Synthesis 184
Conclusion 196
Contents vii
PART IV DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION 207
Chapter 9 CONCEPTUAL DESIGN 209

Introduction 209
Context-Sensitive Design 210
Design Determinants 211
Creativity and Conceptual Design 213
The Conceptual Design Process 215
Anatomy of a Concept Plan 217
Concept Plan Graphics 224
Concept Evaluation and Refinement 229
Conclusion 231
Chapter 10 DESIGN DEVELOPMENT 251

Introduction 251
Sustainability and Livability 251
Design Theory 252
Open Space 264
Circulation Systems 269
Buildings 278
Conclusion 288
Chapter 11 PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION 295

Introduction 295
Quality by Design 296
Construction Documentation 305
Contract Administration 307
Permitting and Approvals 308
Conclusion 316
Appendix 329
Glossary 337
References 347
Index 357
Preface
CONTEXT
A context-sensitive approach to sustainable planning and development helps to protect

public health, safety, and welfare. By avoiding inherent site problems, or constraints, and by
capitalizing on inherent site assets, or opportunities, site planners can limit long-term
maintenance costs and, more important, reduce the risks to life and property from natural
hazards. The careful analysis of sites—and the site’s context—can lead to better develop-
ment proposals and, ultimately, to higher-quality built environments.
Qualified site planners and designers are vital to this process. Proposals for carefully sited
projects may receive faster approvals and permitting, improved marketability, and rent and
sales premiums (Bookout, 1994). The emphasis of the second edition, like the first, is on the
site planning process and the organization, analysis, and communication of information
throughout this process. This second edition keeps the same structure and format as the first
but delves into greater depth within each phase of the site planning process.
WHAT’S NEW
New content has been added to every chapter of this second edition. Substantial revisions
were made to Chapter 1 (Shaping the Built Environment), Chapter 2 (Visualization of
Spatial Information), Chapter 3 (Site Selection), Chapter 6 (Site Inventory: Biological
Attributes), Chapter 7 (Site Inventory: Cultural Attributes), Chapter 8 (Site Analysis:
Integration and Synthesis), Chapter 9 (Conceptual Design), Chapter 10 (Design Devel-
opment), and Chapter 11 (Project Implementation). Chapter 10 from the first edition was
divided and expanded to create Chapters 10 and 11 in the second edition. This revised
edition explores in more detail the linkages between site conditions and ecologically
sustainable development—and redevelopment—of the built environment. More attention
ix
x Preface
is also given to finer-scale site and building design issues and to the development regulations
and design review processes that influence the shaping of the built environment.
ORGANIZATION OF THE BOOK
This book is divided into four parts. Part I, Process and Tools, contains Chapter 1 (Shaping
the Built Environment) and Chapter 2 (Visualization of Spatial Information). The first
chapter summarizes the site planning and design process and places site planning and design
in the broader context of sustainable planning and development. The second chapter
addresses the basic principles of mapping and graphic communication in site planning and
design.
Part II, Site Selection and Programming, also has two chapters. Chapter 3 (Site
Selection) examines the goals and methods of site suitability analysis leading to the com-
parison and selection of sites. Chapter 4 (Programming) focuses on programming methods
such as user surveys, focus groups, and market analyses.
Part III, Site Inventory and Analysis, is the core of the book. Chapter 5 (Site Inventory:
Physical Attributes) and Chapter 6 (Site Inventory: Biological Attributes) cover a wide
array of physical and biological attributes that, depending on the unique features of the site
and the program, may be analyzed during the site planning and design process. Chapter 7
(Site Inventory: Cultural Attributes) concentrates on documenting relevant cultural,
historic, and regulatory attributes. Chapter 8 (Site Analysis: Integration and Synthesis)
describes how site opportunities and constraints for specific project programs are identified
and documented in support of the subsequent phases of the site planning and design
process.
The last three chapters of the book are in Part IV, Design and Implementation. Chapter 9
(Conceptual Design) addresses the spatial organization of the programmed uses and
activities on the site. Chapter 10 (Design Development) addresses the spatial articulation
of the organizational framework established in the conceptual design phase. This chapter
explores design theory and ‘‘form-based’’ development regulations, which communities
are increasingly employing to guide development and shape changes to the built environ-
ment. Chapter 11 (Project Implementation), the book’s final chapter, addresses the
permitting and approval processes, techniques for mitigating development impacts, and
construction documentation and contract administration. The book concludes with an
Appendix and a Glossary. The Appendix lists both commercial, non-profit, and govern-
ment resources for data and other relevant planning and design information.
EDUCATIONAL USES
The Council of Landscape Architectural Registration Boards (CLARB) conducted a task

analysis of the profession of landscape architecture in North America in 1998. One goal of
the survey was to document the types of work performed by practicing landscape architects.
The respondents were asked to identify their work tasks and rank them in terms of each
Preface xi
TABLE I-1 Partial results of a survey of more than 2000 landscape architects. Self-
assessment of work tasks (by rank) that affect public health, safety, and welfare.
Rank Task
2 Identify relevant laws, rules, and regulations governing the project.

3 Evaluate natural site conditions and ecosystems (for example, slopes, wetlands,
soils, vegetation, climate).
6 Identify required regulatory approvals.
10 Evaluate the capability of the site and the existing infrastructure to support
the program requirements.
11 Elicit user’s intentions and determine needs.
15 Determine the opportunities and constraints of the site.
Source: CLARB, 1998, p. 7.
activity’s perceived contribution to the protection of public health, safety, and welfare. This
is an important question because state licensing laws for landscape architects, architects, and
other professions are explicitly intended to protect public health, safety, and welfare.
Completed surveys were received from a randomly selected sample of more than 2000
landscape architects. Six of the fifteen most important tasks listed in the CLARB survey—
including two of the top three—involve either site selection or site analysis (Table I-1).
This second edition of Site Analysis is intended for students in introductory design
studios and site inventory/analysis courses in landscape architecture and students in site
planning courses in architecture and urban planning. These include both graduate and
undergraduate courses taught in universities throughout North America and, to a more
limited extent, in Europe, Central and South America, Africa, and Asia. This book is also
intended for practitioners studying for professional licensing exams in landscape archi-
tecture, architecture, or planning. Although the book is most relevant to professional
practice in North America, the text also should have utility in Europe, Asia, and other
developed and developing areas. Finally, this book also can serve as a resource to elected
local officials and citizens in the United States who serve on local boards and commissions
charged with reviewing site plans and land development proposals.
Acknowledgments
Maps and other project graphics for the first edition were generously provided by: Paul
Kissinger (Edward D. Stone, Jr., and Associates); Jim Fetterman (The HOK Planning
Group); Jack Scholl (Environmental Planning & Design); Fran Hegeler (Wallace, Roberts
& Todd, LLC); Meg Connolley (Land Design); and Bob Thorpe (R. J. Thorpe and
Associates).
Several educators provided insightful reviews of an early outline and synopsis of the
book’s first edition. Constructive critiques were received from Jack Ahern (University of
Massachusetts); Gary Clay (California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo);
Randy Gimblett (Arizona State University); Paul Hsu (Oklahoma State University); David
Hulse (University of Oregon); Nate Perkins (University of Guelph); Rob Ribe (University
of Oregon); and Peter Trowbridge (Cornell University). Additional assistance was
provided by Rosi LaGro and David LaGro.
For the second edition, generous contributions of additional maps and project graphics
were made by Jim Fetterman (The HOK Planning Group); Fran Hegeler and Jim Stickley
(Wallace, Roberts & Todd); and Paul Moyer (EDAW, Alexandria). The revision process was
aided by several published reviews of the first edition and by constructive suggestions from
three anonymous reviewers of the author’s second edition proposal to the publisher. David
LaGro also provided helpful comments on the proposal. Bridget Lang advised, cajoled, and
offered thoughtful and constructive reviews of the entire draft manuscript.
Margaret Cummins, acquisitions editor at John Wiley and Sons, facilitated the pro-
duction of both the first and second editions. Additional assistance from the publisher was
provided by Jennifer Mazurkie, James Harper, Kim Aleski, Lauren Poplawski, Amy Zarkos,
and copyeditor Elizabeth Marotta.
xii
part I
Process and Tools
Site planning occurs within an environmental and cultural context. As human populations
have grown, society’s impacts on the earth’s ecosystems have increased. Sustainable
approaches to site planning attempt to minimize development impacts both on the site
and off-site. Vital environmental processes must be protected and, where feasible, degraded
ecosystems restored.
Part I of this book summarizes a contextual approach to site planning and design. The
first chapter addresses important design goals that can help shape better, and more
sustainable, built environments. The second chapter addresses the important role of
mapping and other forms of graphic communication in the site planning and design
process.
1
c h a p t e r 1
Shaping the Built

Environment
Sustainable design balances human needs (rather than human wants) with the
carrying capacity of the natural and cultural environments. It minimizes
environmental impacts, and it minimizes importation of goods and energy as well as
the generation of waste.
U.S. National Park Service
1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.1.1 Functions of Nature
Landscapes have long been settled, cultivated, and in other ways modified by humans. Yet
our ability to alter the earth’s atmosphere, oceans, and landscapes has exceeded our current
capacity to mitigate the impacts of these changes to our environment. Advances in
telecommunications technologies, combined with extensive transportation networks
and sprawl-inducing land use regulations, continue to loosen the geographic constraints
on land development spatial patterns.
‘‘Economic constraints on locational behavior are relaxing rapidly, and, as they do, the
geography of necessity gives way to a geography of choice. Transportation costs, markets,
and raw materials no longer determine the location of economic activities. We have deve-
loped an information-based economy in which dominant economic activities and the
people engaged in them enjoy unparalleled locational flexibility. In this spatial context,
amenity and ecological considerations are more important locational factors than in the past.
3
4 Site Analysis
TABLE 1-1 Landscapes encompass natural environmental systems that

directly benefit humans.
Function Goods or Services
Production Oxygen
Water
Food and fiber
Fuel and energy
Medicinal resources
Regulation Storage and recycling of organic matter
Decomposition and recycling of human waste
Regulation of local and global climate
Carrier Space for settlements
Space for agriculture
Space for recreation
Information Aesthetic resources
Historic (heritage) information
Scientific and educational information
Source: Adapted from deGroot, 1992, Table 2.0–1.
Cities located in amenity regions of North America are growing more rapidly than others
and such trends will intensify as society becomes more footloose’’ (Abler et al., 1975, p. 301).
The earth’s environmental systems perform a wide array of functions that are essential to
human health and welfare. For example, nature’s ‘‘infrastructure’’ helps protect the quality
of the air we breathe and the water we drink, and it provides many other environmental
‘‘goods and services.’’ In Functions of Nature, deGroot (1992) organizes nature’s beneficial
services into four functional categories: production, regulation, carrier, and information
(Table 1-1). These services sustain life on the planet.
The following indicators reveal, however, that human activities are degrading the
environment and imposing serious impacts on the earth’s capacity to sustain life:
& Tropical forests are shrinking

& Topsoil losses exceed new soil formation
& New deserts are formed annually
& Lakes are dying or drying up
& Groundwater tables are falling as water demand exceeds aquifer recharge rates
& Rates of plant and animal species extinction are increasing
& Groundwater continues to be contaminated with pesticides and other contaminants
& Global climate change and warming (mean temperature is projected to rise)
Shaping the Built Environment 5
& Sea level is projected to rise between 1.4 meter and 2.2 meters by 2100
& Growing hole in the ozone layer over Antarctica
Source: http://earthtrends.wri.org/
Additionally, hurricanes, floods, and other natural hazards increasingly threaten human
health, safety, and welfare. According to the National Science Foundation (NSF), since
1989 natural hazards have accounted for an average of about $1 billion in losses per week in
the United States. Many disasters causing the loss of life and property can be prevented,
or at least mitigated, by proactive decisions to reduce these risks (H. John Heinz, III, Center
for Science, Economics, and the Environment, 2000). Mileti (1999), who led the 132
experts, concludes the following:
The really big catastrophes are getting large and will continue to get larger, partly
because of things we’ve done in the past to reduce risk . . . . Many of the accepted
methods for coping with hazards have been based on the idea that people can
use technology to control nature to make them safe.
There are, in fact, practical limits to growth, and some locations are far more suitable for
development than others. For example, loss of life and property from natural hazards can be
avoided, or at least minimized, if the development of the built environment respects nature’s
patterns and processes.
1.2 TOWARD SUSTAINABLE BUILT ENVIRONMENTS
1.2.1 Community Sustainability
The United Nations Environment Programme (2003) defines sustainability as ‘‘meeting the
needs of current and future generations through integration of environmental protection,
social advancement, and economic prosperity.’’ In Ottawa, Canada, as part of the process
for developing the city’s Official Plan (‘‘A Vision for Ottawa’’), citizens agreed to the
following set of community sustainability principles. A sustainable community
& minimizes harm to the natural environment, recognizes that growth occurs within
some limits, and is ultimately limited by the environment’s carrying capacity;
& respects other life forms and supports biodiversity;
& uses renewable and reliable sources of energy and fosters activities that use materials in
continuous cycles;
& does not compromise either the sustainability of other communities by its activities
(a geographic perspective) or the sustainability of future generations (a temporal
perspective);
& values cultural diversity;
6 Site Analysis
& employs ecological decision making (for example, integration of environmental criteria
into all municipal government, business, and personal decision-making processes);
& makes decisions and plans in a balanced, open, and flexible manner that includes the
perspectives from the community’s social, health, economic, and environmental
sectors;
& has shared values within the community (promoted through sustainability educa-
tion) and makes the best use of local efforts and resources (nurtures solutions at the
local level).
Source: www.web.net/ortee/scrp/20/23vision.html
Public policy plays a significant role in shaping the built environment (Ben-Joseph and
Szold, 2005). For example, zoning codes in the United States emerged in the early
twentieth century to protect public health, safety, and welfare (Platt, 2004). These land use
controls were effective in separating new residential areas from polluting industries and
ensuring that new housing construction met basic health and safety standards. Separating
incompatible land uses has long been justified in the United States as a legitimate ‘‘police
power’’ of local government (Platt, 2004). Some land use combinations, such as heavy
industry and housing, are inherently incompatible. However, zoning codes routinely
separate residential development from shops, restaurants, and other commercial uses, often
with detrimental consequences for the built environment and public health.
This approach to land use planning typically weakens community identity by facilitating
low-density suburban sprawl. In combination with transportation policy and planning
decisions, many zoning codes in the United States not only encourage sprawl but also
inhibit more sustainable forms of development. Although some communities have made
significant strides toward sustainable growth and pedestrian-friendly development, there is
a significant need in the United States for land use planning and regulatory reforms
(Schilling and Linton, 2005).
1.2.2 Community Resources
A vital step toward developing a sustainable community is to first identify the community’s
natural and cultural assets. The conservation of natural and cultural resources is a
fundamental site planning concern (Figure 1-1). Diamond and Noonan (1996, p. xix)
call for recognition of a broad set of community resources:
A constituency for better land use is needed based on new partnerships that
reach beyond traditional alliances to bring together conservationists, social justice
advocates, and economic development interests. These partnerships can be mobi-
lized around natural and cultural resources that people value.
According to Arendt (1999), there are nine fundamental types of natural and cultural
resources that should be inventoried at the community level:
Figure 1-1 Natural and man-made factors influencing a greenway planning project along the Mississippi River in
St. Louis, Missouri, USA. Source: The HOK Planning Group.
& Wetlands and wetland buffers

& Floodways and floodplains
& Moderate and steep slopes
& Groundwater resources and aquifer recharge areas
8 Site Analysis
& Woodlands
& Productive farmland
& Significant wildlife habitats
& Historic, archaeological, and cultural features
& Scenic viewsheds from public roads
Collectively, these resources form a unique mosaic or ‘‘signature’’ that defines a

community’s sense of place to residents and visitors alike. Given their ecological, economic,
and psychological importance within the built environment, these natural and cultural
resources should be primary determinants of urban form, from the regional to the site scale
(Figure 1-2).
1.2.3 Planning Better Communities
The City of Portland, Oregon, has an Office of Sustainable Development whose mission is
‘‘to provide leadership and contribute practical solutions to ensure a prosperous community
where people and nature thrive, now and in the future’’ (www.portlandonline.com/osd).
Region
Spatial
Grain
Landscape
Site
Figure 1-2 Spatial hierarchy— Spatial

regions, landscapes, sites. Extent
Through outreach, technical assistance, policy and research, the Office of Sustainable
Development works to do the following:
& Increase the use of renewable energy and resources
& Reduce solid waste and conserve energy and natural resources
& Prevent pollution and improve personal and community health
Making the built environment more sustainable involves creating more transportation
options, more housing choices, and more pedestrian-friendly, mixed-use neighborhoods.
Smart Growth principles, endorsed by the American Planning Association and the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, are practical goals for shaping—and reshaping—the
built environment. These principles, guiding both public and private sector decision
making, are summarized below.
Smart Growth Planning Goals

& Foster distinctive, attractive communities with a strong sense of place
& Preserve open space, farmland, natural beauty, and critical environmental areas
& Strengthen and direct development toward existing communities
& Mix land uses
& Foster compact building design
& Create a range of housing opportunities and choices
& Create walkable neighborhoods
& Provide a variety of transportation choices
Smart Growth Process Goals

& Make development decisions predictable, fair, and cost effective
& Encourage community and stakeholder collaboration in development decisions
Source: www.smartgrowth.org
Smart growth and sustainable design are complementary paradigms for shaping the built
environment. Both approaches encourage the development of pedestrian-friendly com-
munities that not only conserve but celebrate local cultural and natural resources.
1.2.4 Sustainable Site Design
Most communities grow incrementally through a continual process of development and

redevelopment. Typically, most of this growth occurs through projects at the site scale. Each
10 Site Analysis
Figure 1-3 Suitability for

sustainable development is
determined by existing patterns
of natural and cultural
resources, as well as by the
patterns of physical and
socioeconomic attributes.
site’s carrying capacity is a measure of the type and density of development that can be
supported without detrimental effects to society, the economy, or the environment
(Figure 1-3). The development of unsuitable sites—or poorly designed development
on otherwise suitable sites—can have many negative impacts.
Development impacts vary widely and affect a broad array of natural and cultural
resources (Sanford and Farley, 2004). On-site impacts may diminish visual quality and
reduce habitat for native vegetation and wildlife. Off-site impacts may include traffic
congestion, flooding, or pollution of local surface waters. In Guiding Principles of
Sustainable Design, for example, the U.S. National Park Service (1993) assesses the
potential environmental impacts of new park facility construction by seeking answers to
these questions:
& What inputs (energy, material, labor, products, and so on) are necessary to support a
development option and are the required inputs available?
& Can waste outputs (solid waste, sewage effluent, exhaust emissions, and so on) be
dealt with at acceptable environmental costs?
& Can development impacts be minimized?
A sustainable approach to site planning pays close attention to development intensity and
location and considers the initial benefits and impacts of development, as well as the
project’s life cycle costs. Site planning that is responsive to inherent environmental
constraints reduces construction costs, allows the continuation of critical environmental
processes, and protects intrinsic natural and cultural amenities. Sustainable site planning is
context-sensitive, therefore, minimizing negative development impacts by respecting the
Figure 1-4 Sustainable planning, design, and management is a holistic approach to

creating environmentally sensitive development and mitigating environmental degradation.
landscape’s natural patterns and processes (Figure 1-4). In Fostering Living Landscapes (1997,
p. 275), Carol Franklin writes:
It is the growing realization of the interconnectedness of development and

environmental processes worldwide and within our communities that drives
the evolution of sustainable design. At every scale, sustainable design is funda-
mentally about integrating the natural structure of the site with the built
environment.
The U.S. Green Building Council’s Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design
(LEED) rating systems for buildings, sites, and neighborhoods are voluntary guidelines that
are incrementally improving the sustainability of the built environment. Green buildings
enhance employee job satisfaction and productivity (Rocky Mountain Institute) and cost
substantially less to operate and maintain than conventional buildings. Careful choices of
construction materials and the use of energy and water conserving technologies also
reduce development impacts on the environment. Increased productivity, of course, can
enhance business profitability (Russell, 1997, pp. 54–55; Stein, 1997, pp. 54–55).
Sustainable development is good for business in other ways as well, such as improving
market competitiveness by creating favorable ‘‘experiences’’ that enhance customer
satisfaction. According to Pine and Gilmore (1999), customer ‘‘experiences’’ are the
foundation for future economic growth. Because unsustainable business practices can
12 Site Analysis
reduce profitability and competitiveness, sustainability is an issue that is now commonly

addressed in a business school education (Burch, 2001).
1.3 THE POWER OF PLACE, THE ROLE OF DESIGN
1.3.1 Good Design Makes a Difference
Mayors, bankers, real estate developers, and many others involved in urban affairs
contribute to the ‘‘design’’ or spatial configuration of the built environment. Some designs,
however, are far better than others. The arrangement and articulation of streets, buildings,
and all other site elements are ‘‘design decisions’’that—for better or worse—shape the built
environment. Design professionals, such as architects and landscape architects, are trained
to base these decisions on fundamental design principles, ethical standards, and a thorough
understanding of social and environmental context.
The average citizen may think that good design is a frill, or that it simply costs too much
to justify the expense. There are many reasons, however, to justify the expense of investing
in competent site planning and design. In Designing the City: A Guide for Advocates and Public
Officials, interviews with mayors, real estate developers, and other individuals expressed
strong opinions about the value of good design in the built environment (Bacow, 1995), as
follows:
& ‘‘Good design promotes public health, safety, and welfare.’’

& ‘‘Good design makes a city work better, not just look better.’’
& ‘‘Good design attracts people to a city, and those people help pay for essentials that
help instill pride and satisfaction in what citizens get for their taxes.’’
& ‘‘Well-designed (real estate) products will succeed in tight markets where poorly
designed products will not.’’
Public investment in physical amenities, including historic districts, parks, and

waterfront areas, are important community assets that can spur economic growth and
serve as catalysts for additional development. These kinds of amenities may also attract
companies and individuals seeking to relocate to areas that can provide a high quality
of life.
Quality of life is dependent on many factors, including our safety and sense of security,
individual freedom, our physical and mental health, leisure and recreation, and oppor-
tunities for self-expression as individuals (Kaplan and Kivy-Rosenberg, 1973). Most, if not
all, of these factors are affected by the spatial organization and articulation of the built
environment. Single-use, sprawling development patterns tend to reduce people’s housing
choices and limit opportunities for healthier, active living (Frumkin, 2002; Transportation
Research Board, 2005).
TABLE 1-2 Benefits of context-sensitive, sustainable site planning and design.
SOCIETY Pedestrian/bicyclist safety

Opportunities for active living
Sense of community
Attractive surroundings
Safe neighborhoods
Proximity to public services
Minimizes negative impacts on surrounding properties
Protects cultural and historic resources
ECONOMY Attracts investment
Attracts visitors and tourists
Adds property value
Creates marketable ‘‘experiences’’
Quicker real estate sales and rentals in tight markets
Attracts high-skilled employees and employers
Less time spent commuting
Uses land efficiently
ENVIRONMENT Conserves energy
Protects biodiversity
Reduces air and water pollution, and urban heat islands)
Protects natural processes and sensitive natural areas
Good design that is sustainable can reduce the long-term life-cycle costs of operating
and maintaining buildings, infrastructure, and sites within the built environment.
According to Joseph Romm (1995), up-front building and design costs may represent
only a fraction of the building’s life-cycle costs. When just 1 percent of a project’s up-front
costs are spent, up to 70 percent of its life-cycle costs may already be committed; when 7
percent of project costs are spent, up to 85 percent of life-cycle costs have been
committed. Consequently, sustainable design benefits society, the economy, and the
environment (Table 1-2).
1.4 SITE-PLANNING PROCESS
Site planning is a multiphased process (Figure 1-5). Kevin Lynch (1971, pp.3–4) defined
site planning as follows:
Site planning is the art of arranging the external physical environment to support
human behavior. It lies along the boundaries of architecture, engineering, land-
scape architecture, and city planning, and it is practiced by members of all these
professions. Site plans locate structures and activities in three-dimensional space
and, when appropriate, in time.
14 Site Analysis
Figure 1-5 Site planning and

design process.
Site
Inventory
(Physical)
Programming
Site
Site Conceptual Design Construction Project
Inventory
Analysis Design Development Documentation Implementation
(Biological)
Site
Selection
Site
Inventory
(Cultural)
Equally important, site planning also involves choices about where not to build. Site
planning must be informed, therefore, by a thorough understanding of the site’s
character and context. Sustainable site planning protects and restores degraded natural
and cultural resources and minimizes detrimental impacts of development on the
environment.
1.4.1 Preproject (or Predesign) Phases
Clients initiate site-planning projects. Clients may be private individuals; partnerships;

corporations; nonprofit organizations; or federal, state, or local governments. In some
cases, a client may simply choose a firm that it has worked with in the past. Or the firm may
be chosen for its reputation, specializations, or proximity to the client or site. In other cases,
a client—especially if it is a government agency—may solicit firms with a Request for
Qualifications (RFQ) or a Request for Proposals (RFP). Once the firm is selected, a
contract for professional services typically defines the work that will be completed on the
project. This contract includes a scope of services, a schedule for delivering the services, and
a budget and payment schedule.
Programming
Site-planning projects vary not only in site areas and locations within the urban-rural
continuum but also in prospective site uses. One project might involve the construction of
roads, buildings, and other infrastructure. Another project might not have any new
construction but focuses instead on the conservation, restoration, and management of
natural areas or cultural resources. Programming defines the project’s objectives and
functional requirements, including the proposed activities, area allocated for each activity,
and the functional or spatial relationships among those activities.
TABLE 1-3 Example of program elements for an affordable housing project.

Building height Unit Density Number of units (by type)
Three-story 20 DU/AC Studio 1BR 2BR 3BR

10 30 50 10
Five-story 30 DU/AC Studio 1BR 2BR 3BR

15 45 75 15
Source: Adapted from Affordable Housing Design Advisor. (www.designadvisor.org)
The program focuses the subsequent analysis and design activities. The program for a
multifamily housing project, for example, might include the number, type, and density of
housing units that will be constructed on the site (Table 1-3).
The program may be developed by the client alone, or with the assistance of consultants
with programming expertise. Programming often includes market analyses, or user
demand studies, and the analysis of relevant precedents. Client objectives and preferences
for the project are also considered, including the desired uses, special features, design styles,
budgets for various project components, and maintenance concerns. An in-depth dis-
cussion of programming can be found in Chapter 4.
1.4.2 Site Assessment Phases
Site Selection
Land development typically occurs in one of two ways: clients have a site and choose a
program to develop on that site, or clients have a program of intended uses and need a site
for those uses. Across the urban–rural continuum, parcels of land vary greatly in size, shape,
character, and context. Site selection involves identifying and evaluating alternative sites
and selecting the best location for the intended program. More details on the site selection
process can be found in Chapter 3.
Site Inventory
Collectively, the features of the site and its surroundings, in conjunction with the project’s
program, determine the attribute data that are collected for the site inventory. Site
inventories map important physical, biological, and social or cultural attributes (Table
1-4). These may include circulation patterns and traffic volumes, existing utility systems,
or architectural character within the surrounding built environment. On large projects,
attribute mapping and analysis are particularly well suited for applications of geographic
information systems. Ecologists, hydrologists, anthropologists, and other experts may
participate in collecting, mapping, and analyzing site and contextual attribute data. Yet
for any given program and site, there are always attributes that can be ignored to make the
process more efficient. The project’s program—or intended uses of the site—helps limit
the scope of this data collection effort. Chapters 5, 6, and 7 examine the site inventory
processes in greater detail.
TABLE 1-4 Examples of physical, biological, and cultural attributes that may be mapped
at the site scale.
Categories Subcategories Attributes
Physical Soils Bearing capacity

Porosity
Stability
Erodibility
Fertility
Acidity (pH)
Topography Elevation
Slope
Aspect
Hydrology Surface drainage
Water chemistry (e.g., salinity nitrates
or phosphates)
Depth to seasonal water table
Aquifer recharge areas
Seeps and springs
Geology Landforms
Seismic hazards
Depth to bedrock
Climate Solar access
Winds (i.e., prevailing or winter)
Fog pockets
Biological Vegetation Plant communities
Specimen trees
Exotic invasive species
Wildlife Habitats for endangered or threatened
species
Cultural Land use Prior land use
Land use on adjoining properties
Legal Political boundaries
Land ownership
Land use regulations
Easements and deed restrictions
Utilities Sanitary sewer
Storm sewer
Electric
Gas
Water
Telecommunications
Circulation Street function (e.g., arterial or collector)
Traffic volume
Historic Buildings and landmarks
Archaeological sites
Sensory Visibility
Visual quality
Noise
Odors
16
Figure 1-6 Relationship

between attribute mapping and
Physical land use suitability analysis.
Attributes
Biological
Biological
Attributes
Cultural
Attributes
Land Use
Suitability
Site Analysis
The site analysis summarizes the site’s suitability for the programmed uses. A variety of
physical, biological, and cultural attributes can influence the site’s suitability for the project
under consideration. Information contained in the site’s inventory maps can be synthesized
to create one or more maps of the site’s suitability for development, generally, or its
suitability for specific program objectives (Figure 1-6).
Site suitability for a specific project is a function of the site’s assets and liabilities—or
opportunities and constraints. The assets (opportunities) associated with a site may be
unique natural or cultural resources that warrant protection. These assets may enhance the
site’s aesthetic quality and contribute to the site’s sense of place within the community or
region. Many sites include degraded natural areas that should be restored or enhanced in
conjunction with the site’s development. Site constraints include chemical contamination
from prior commercial or industrial uses. The site analysis may assess whether environ-
mental remediation is needed, what action should be taken to protect adjacent properties
from contamination, and what buildings and infrastructures can be used or recycled (Platt
18 Site Analysis
TABLE 1-5 Hazards, constraints, or nuisances that may influence site selection and
development
Categories Hazards Constraints Nuisances
Physical Flooding Shallow bedrock

Storm surge Shallow water table
Hurricane Erosion susceptibility
Earthquake Hardpan soils
Landslide Expansive clay soils
Volcano Open water
Avalanche Wetlands
Aquifer recharge areas
Springs and seeps
Steep slopes
Biological Wildfire Endangered Species Insects
Cultural Toxic waste Wellheads Harsh views
Unstable fill Historic sites Odors
Archaeological sites Noise
and Curran, 2003). The site analysis also considers regulatory constraints such as zoning and
other land use controls.
Mapping the site’s opportunities and constraints is essential for sustainable land planning
and design (Table 1-5). Providing an understanding of the site within its biophysical and
socio-cultural context, the site analysis can be useful to allied professions engaged in the
land development and impact mitigation process (see Figure 1-7). More detailed informa-
tion on this process is available in Chapter 8.
Law Planning
(Due diligence) (Site plan review)
Real Site Landscape

Estate Analysis Architecture
(Land development) (Site planning)
Figure 1-7 Information

from the site analysis is
utilized by many
professions engaged in the Engineering Architecture
land development process. (Environmental remedation) (Building design)
A site inventory—mapping the site’s physical, biological, and cultural attributes—is not
a site analysis. A vegetation map, for example, may show the site’s existing conditions for a
single attribute—the locations of plant communities and also, perhaps, individual specimen
trees. This map, like other inventory maps, is valid for any use that might be considered for
that site. The fate of the existing vegetation depends on the decisions made in subsequent
phases of the site-planning process.
1.4.3 Design Phases
Conceptual Design
Site design is an iterative process transitioning from the general to the more specific.
Concept development, the process of adapting the program to the site, flows directly
from the site analysis. Sustainable site design adapts the project’s program elements to
the unique features of the site. Topography, climate, and hydrology, for example, are
important environmental factors that shape the design of the built environment.
Cultural attributes, including local history and architecture, are also important design
determinants.
Concept plans spatially organize the project’s proposed elements and on-site improve-
ments. If the program is unrealistic, the design concept and, potentially, budget estimates
should reveal those deficiencies, resulting either in a revision of the program and concept,
or the selection of a different site. Creating two or more concept plans is particularly useful
when seeking consensus from a diverse set of stakeholders. If one concept is clearly superior
to the others, then the evidence supporting the better alternative is made more persuasive
by comparing it to feasible, but less desirable, alternatives. Frequently, the best concept will
be a hybrid plan that is created by merging ideas from two or more alternative concepts.
Examples of concept plans, and a more detailed discussion of conceptual design, can be
found in Chapter 9.
Design Development
On a concept plan, major program elements—and important existing conditions—are
drawn diagrammatically. Circulation pathways are often portrayed as ‘‘arrows,’’ for
example, and major uses or activity zones are portrayed as ‘‘bubbles.’’ The design
development process refines, or spatially articulates, these diagrammatic elements of the
concept plan. Regardless of the project’s program, design development involves docu-
menting—with plans, sections, elevations, and three-dimensional perspectives—how the
plan’s components will appear and relate to one another functionally. Subsequent design
iterations define and articulate the buildings, walls, parking lots, pathways, and other
‘‘hard’’ and ‘‘soft’’ spaces within each of the general land use areas.
Construction Documentation
The construction drawings (that is, plans, elevations, sections, and details) together with
the written construction specifications comprise the construction documents (C.D.s). The
C.D.s are prepared to ensure that the implementation of the project accurately reflects the
20 Site Analysis
approved designs. Once this documentation is complete and the necessary financing and
approvals are acquired, the project can be implemented.
1.4.4 Implementation Phase
Depending on the location and scope of the project, approvals and permits may be required
from government agencies at the local, state or provincial, and national levels. Local
government, especially, plays a significant role in shaping the built environment through
the site plan and development review process. More detailed information on this process
can be found in Chapter 11.
1.5 KNOWLEDGE, SKILLS, AND VALUES
Site planning is a location-specific, problem-solving endeavor. Unique combinations of

site and program create design problems that may have dozens of potentially satisfactory
solutions. Some of these solutions, however, are better than others. A satisfactory solution
meets the program’s functional requirements, while also creating a sustainable and livable
place within the built environment.
Site-planning projects typically fall into three basic types:
& Projects with no buildings

& Projects with one building
& Projects with two or more buildings
Projects with no buildings include parks, greenways, and other active and/or passive
recreation or nature conservation areas. These are an important but relatively small
percentage of professional site planning. Projects involving the siting of one or more
commercial or residential building, for example, are much more common. Ideally, the
design of the site’s building is integrally linked with the planning and design of the site. This
typically requires close coordination—particularly during the design-development
phase—between the project’s architects and landscape architects. Projects involving the
siting of several buildings offer opportunities to arrange the buildings in connected
sequences of carefully designed outdoor space.
Good site planning requires not only a broad set of skills and knowledge but also the
ethics and values to protect critical environmental areas and create sustainable and livable
places. Poor site planning may create a variety of unintended consequences. A poorly
designed site may, for example, create a vehicle-dominated development that ignores
pedestrian needs. Poor design may also create vehicle circulation conflicts, increase human
exposure to natural hazards, or degrade environmental quality.
The site planning and design process is far from trivial, as evidenced by professional
licensing examinations for architects and landscape architects (NCARB, 2005; CLARB,
2006). According to the National Council of Architectural Registration Boards (NCARB,

2005, p.36), the Architect Registration Exam (ARE) expects registered architects to
integrate: ‘‘human behavior, historic precedent, and design theory in the selection of
systems, materials, and methods related to site design and construction.’’ The ARE also tests
for the ability to
delineate areas suitable for the construction of buildings and other site improve-
ments responding to regulatory restrictions and programmatic requirements . . .
and define a site profile and maximum buildable envelope based on zoning
regulations and environmental constraints.
Both the ARE and the Landscape Architect Registration Exam (LARE) recognize the
complexity of site planning, and test for competence in relevant areas. The LARE’s ‘‘site
design’’ section, for example, states:
Landscape architects are expected to develop site or land use plans that take into
consideration the off-site and on-site influences to development. Landscape
architects must consider various codes, consultant studies, and principles of sus-
tainability when creating a site design.
Furthermore, the Comprehensive Planning Examination administered by the Amer-

ican Institute of Certified Planners (AICP) also expects planners to be familiar with site-
planning issues. The exam’s ‘‘Plan Implementation’’section, for example, includes material
on ‘‘Plan and development project review (including maps, site plans, and design review).’’
1.6 CONCLUSION
Development suitability is not uniformly distributed across the landscape. A comprehen-

sive understanding of the site and its context is an essential precursor to ‘‘fitting’’ a project’s
program to the site. Each site has a unique set of physical, biological, and cultural attributes,
and some of these attributes substantially limit the site’s suitability for certain uses. If the
site’s existing conditions are poorly understood, the site’s development can result in
detrimental environmental, social, and economic impacts.
Site planning by qualified professionals is a multiphased activity to ensure that land is
utilized in ways that are functionally efficient, aesthetically pleasing, and environmentally
sustainable. In addition to the construction of buildings, walkways, or other structures,
sustainable site development often involves the restoration and enhancement of the site’s
ecological infrastructure.
c h a p t e r 2
Visualization of Spatial
Information
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Visual or graphic imagery are an effective and efficient way to communicate both abstract
and concrete ideas (Ackoff, 1989, pp. 3–9). Adapting the project’s program to the unique
conditions of the site requires information—typically, derived from an analysis of the site
and its immediate surroundings. Transforming this data into spatially explicit information
(for example, maps) is an essential part of the site planning and design process.
This chapter addresses the visualization of spatial information in site planning. It
summarizes important principles of cartography—or mapmaking—describes the com-
ponents of a geographic information system (GIS), and explores some of the ways that this
information technology can facilitate the site inventory and analysis process. Sources of
spatial data, including aerial photographs, LIDAR, and global positioning systems (GPS),
are discussed. This chapter also examines fundamental principles of graphic communica-
tion for planning and design.
2.2 GRAPHIC COMMUNICATION
2.2.1 Communication Theory
The site planning and design process is a series of activities that involves the visualization of
diverse spatial information. Communicating this information graphically helps clients,
consultants, and other stakeholders understand—and participate in—the planning and
design process. Maps, models, and other illustrative materials play an important role in
23
24 Site Analysis
effective communication about the project objectives, existing conditions of the site and its
context, and ideas for the site’s design.
Systems theorists speculate that the content of the human mind can be classified into the
following five categories (Ackoff, 1989, pp. 3–9; Bellinger et al., 2004):
& Data
& Information
& Knowledge
& Understanding
& Wisdom
The first four categories concern what is or has been known about the present or the past.
Information, for example, answers the questions of ‘‘who,’’ ‘‘what,’’ ‘‘where,’’ and ‘‘when’’;
knowledge answers the question of ‘‘how’’; and understanding provides an appreciation of the
question ‘‘why’’ (Ackoff, 1989, pp. 3–9). The fifth category, wisdom, concerns the future,
enabling the application of knowledge, understanding, and the utilization of information to
design and visualize alternative futures.
Site planners must understand a site’s past and present, within its spatial and temporal
context, to effectively design the site’s sustainable future. Design, therefore, is an expression
of wisdom—building on and synthesizing information, knowledge, and understanding of
the natural and built environments (Figure 2-1).
Symbols are used alone and in combination to convey information about existing
site and contextual conditions. Important features of a site and its surroundings may be
graphically depicted as points, lines, or polygons. In some instances, individual elements
are portrayed by a combination of two or more symbols. Whether drawn by hand or
with the aid of a computer, symbols convey information about both existing and
proposed site elements. This information includes site hazards and constraints. It also
includes site assets, amenities, and opportunities to accommodate the project program and
add value— aesthetically, ecologically, and/or economically.
Figure 2-1 Information,

knowledge, understanding, and
wisdom. Source: Reprinted from
‘‘The Futurist’’ with permission
from the artist, Tom Chalkley.
Visualization of Spatial Information 25
Effective diagrams and other graphics simplify reality and reveal significant patterns and
processes. Edward T. White (1983, p.1) comments:
We designers are often more comfortable and skilled at drawing plans, elevations,
sections, and perspectives than at diagramming project needs, issues, and require-
ments. We sometimes seem overly anxious to draw the architectural answers to
ill-defined project questions and reluctant to invest in graphic techniques that
help us better understand the project needs and that stimulate responsive and
creative design concepts.
Diagramming is also an effective way to communicate information about the proposed
design of a project. Diagrams may convey information, for example, about the desired
relationships among existing and proposed site elements. Without this supporting evi-
dence, why should public sector reviewers believe that a land development proposal is
appropriate for the site? And how can they or other community stakeholders offer
suggestions for possible improvements to the plan?
When preparing to communicate project information graphically, five factors should be
considered: message, medium, audience, setting, and time (Wester, 1990).
Message
Efforts to communicate graphically may have one of three results: the message is received as
sent; the message is not received; or a message is received, but the message is not what was
intended. The message will vary from one phase of the planning and design process to the
next, of course, and from one site to another. During the site inventory, for example,
essential information will include the locations of significant constraints such as steep
slopes, shallow bedrock, or wetlands. During concept development, however, essential
information includes the locations of proposed buildings and pedestrian and vehicular
circulation systems, including the physical linkages among them.
Medium
Because the messages vary throughout the site planning and design process, the techniques
for communicating this diverse information must also vary. Construction drawings, for
example, are not only technical but also legal documents that are part of the contract for a
project’s implementation. These drawings must be precisely drafted—whether by hand or
with a computer. In contrast, concept plans may be simple ‘‘bubble’’diagrams. The concept
plan is a diagram showing the future spatial organization of the site. This is relatively
informal and is often drawn—not drafted—in a ‘‘loose’’ graphic style (Linn, 1993). Clarity
is achieved by simplifying the message and by omitting extraneous information. Too much
precision may convey to reviewers that the plan is already ‘‘etched in stone.’’ Consequently,
a highly refined concept plan may inhibit ‘‘buy in’’ of stakeholders and limit constructive
dialogue on potential improvements to the plan.
Audience
Project graphics should help orient and inform the intended audience. In site planning and
design, graphic communication is often intended for multiple audiences. On many
26 Site Analysis
projects, the audience includes the client, design team, government officials, planning
commissions, and other community stakeholders. An audience’s expertise and familiarity
with planning and design should determine what—and how—project information is
conveyed. This often requires emphasizing the most important information and omitting
less important and potentially distracting information.
Setting
The setting for communicating project information should be considered when preparing
and organizing graphic information. If a presentation will occur in a large public meeting
room, digital photographs and illustrations may be projected with a laptop computer and
video projector in a Microsoft PowerPoint presentation. In a smaller setting, like a
conference room, drawings mounted on foam-core presentation boards may be more
appropriate. Displaying the full array of drawings can help facilitate a more productive
dialogue with the audience.
Time
The amount of time available to prepare and present the graphic materials determines, in
part, which graphic techniques to employ. A ‘‘quick and dirty’’ tracing paper presentation
may be appropriate for discussing alternative concepts with the client and other members
of the design team. Whether the images will be available to the audience for subsequent
review is also a consideration. If the audience has the opportunity to study the work, then
more information can be conveyed with detailed labels, notes, and—if appropriate—tables
and graphs.
2.3 MAPPING FUNDAMENTALS
2.3.1 What Is a Map?
A map is a graphic representation, or model, of a geographic setting (Robinson et al.,

1995). Maps are an efficient way to graphically portray important physical, biological, and
cultural conditions of the site and adjacent areas. Jenks (1976, p. 19) states:
Maps are created to provide information about spatial relationships. No other

medium communicates distance, directional, and areal pattern relationships as well.
To make a map, the following three basic elements must be known (Fisher, 1982, p. 5):
& Study space
& Information or values to be displayed
& Locations, within the space, to which the information applies
Throughout human history, maps have been drawn or printed on cloth, paper, mylar,
and other surfaces. Today, site planners increasingly rely on computer-generated digital
maps—or hard-copy maps plotted from digital data. Regardless of the medium by which
TABLE 2-1 Two common ways of expressing a map’s scale.

Ratio Equation
1:24,000 1 inch = 24,000 inches, or 1 inch = 2,000 feet

1:10,000 1 centimeter = 10,000 centimeters, or 1 centimeter = 10 meters
maps are presented, several issues must be considered, including map scale, measurement
scale, and map projection.
2.3.2 Map Scale
Map scale defines the spatial relationship between mapped features and the actual
dimensions represented on the map. The map scale is the ratio of the distance on the
map to the distance on the surface portrayed by the map. Map scale, therefore, is commonly
expressed as a reduction ratio (e.g., 1:24,000). A map of the world, for example, would have
a very large unit of surface measurement (e.g., 1:12,000,000), whereas a map of a city would
have a much smaller unit of surface measurement (e.g., 1:5000). Small map ratios (with
large units of surface measurement) correspond to large map scales. In other words, a map’s
scale gets larger as the map’s unit of measurement becomes closer in size to the geographic
unit of measurement. As a rule of thumb, large-scale maps have reduction ratios of 1:50,000
or less; small-scale maps have reduction ratios of 1:500,000 or more (Robinson et al., 1995).
Map scale also may be expressed in actual units of distance measure. In the United States,
where businesses and governments still employ the English measurement system, map scale
is often expressed in inches and feet (e.g., 1 inch = 200 feet). This is especially common
in site planning. Converting map scale from a ratio to an equation is straightforward
(Table 2-1). Converting linear or area measurements between English and metric scales also
may be necessary (Table 2-2).
TABLE 2-2 Conversion of length and area between metric and English units of
measurement.
Measure Unit (English) Unit (Metric)
Length 1 foot = 12 inches 0.3048 meter

1 yard = 3 feet 0.914 meter
1 mile = 1,760 yards 1.61 kilometers
0.39 inches 1 centimeter
3.28 feet = 1.09 yards 1 meter = 100 centimeters
0.62 miles 1 kilometer = 1,000 meters
Area 1 square yard 0.84 square meters
1 acre = 43,560 square feet 0.40 hectares
1 square mile 2.59 square kilometers
1.20 square yards 1 square meter
2.47 acres 1 hectare = 10,000 square meters
0.39 square miles 1 square kilometer
28 Site Analysis
TABLE 2-3 Common measurement scales and examples of

site attributes expressed in each scale.
Scale Site Attributes
Nominal Land use

Plant communities
Slope aspect
Ordinal Soil drainage capability
Visual quality
Interval Terrain elevation
Ratio Slope gradient
2.3.3 Measurement Scale
Attribute values may be mapped as either absolute or derived values, but these values are
typically expressed in one of the following four measurement scales (Table 2-3):
& Nominal
& Ordinal
& Interval
& Ratio
Each of these measurement scales can be useful in site planning.
Nominal Scale
Attribute values that do not imply rank or order are expressed as nominal categories. Land
use, for example, is an attribute that is expressed in this way. Land use classes include
residential, commercial, and industrial uses. Although these land uses differ in many ways,
land use is not an attribute that implies rank or quantity. Land cover is another attribute that
can be mapped and displayed on a nominal scale.
Ordinal Scale
The ordinal scale of measurement conveys a gradation or ranking of elements. For example,
the U.S. Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) ranks soils by the limitations
they present to various types of agriculture, recreation, and construction. Site limitations
for excavations to construct building foundations range from no significant constraints at
one end of the gradient to severe constraints at the other end.
Interval Scale
The interval scale of measurement applies to attributes with continuous spatial distribu-
tions. This measurement scale has equal increments between units, but zero does not have
to be included within the range of interval values. Topographic elevation is an example of a

continuously distributed attribute measured on an interval scale. Development intensity—
measured by the percentage of a parcel’s area covered by buildings and other impervious
surfaces—is another attribute that can be expressed on an interval scale.
Ratio Scale
The ratio scale of measurement divides one attribute value by another. Topographic slope,
for example, is an attribute measured on the ratio scale. Gradient values are computed by
dividing the slope’s vertical change in elevation by the slope’s horizontal length. Slope
values may be expressed as either a ratio (e.g., 3:1) or a percentage (e.g., 33 percent). A slope
expressed as a percentage value is the angle of the slope relative to a horizontal, or flat,
surface. Percentages are typically used to quantify the slope gradient of hillsides and
unpaved site surfaces. Ratio values are commonly used in the building industry to quantify
roof slopes, or pitches.
2.3.4 Map Types
Maps are classified by scale, function, or subject matter (Robinson et al., 1995). Three basic
map types, distinguished by function, are as follows:
& Reference maps

& Thematic maps
& Charts
Although serving different purposes, each map type may have features occurring in one of
the other types. Reference maps and thematic maps are particularly useful in planning and
design (Table 2-4).
TABLE 2-4 Examples of reference maps, thematic maps, and navigational charts.
Class Information Conveyed
Reference maps Topography

Flooding hazards
Bathymetry
Thematic maps Elevation ranges
Land use types
Vegetation communities
Soil suitability for building construction
Charts Aeronautical routes and airports
Nautical routes and hazards
Streets and highways
30 Site Analysis
Figure 2-2 Parcel map for

Washington County,
Washington. Source: Roger
Livingston, Washington County,
Washington.
Reference Maps
Reference maps convey information about a variety of natural and cultural phenomena.
Plat maps (Figure 2-2), for example, portray land ownership by showing the individual land
parcels delimited by ownership boundaries. A plat map is a planimetric reference map,
portraying only the horizontal positions of features (in two-dimensional space). A
topographic map is another common form of reference map. These maps show natural
and built features and the terrain’s relief. Landforms are graphically portrayed with
contours—isolines that link points of equal elevation—and some topographic maps use
shading and color. Typically, these maps also show buildings, utility corridors, and roads.
Other potentially useful reference maps include street and utility maps, flood hazard maps,
and wetland maps (see Appendix).
Old reference maps may be valuable sources of information to learn about the historic uses
of a site. These historic maps can be particularly useful when a site’s prior land uses suggest
that hazardous wastes may exist on the site (American Society of Civil Engineers, 1996).
Sanborn maps of cities in the United States were created between 1867 and 1970 to assist fire
insurance companies in assessing the risks of insuring properties (Environmental Data
Resources, Inc., www.edrnet.com). A collection of more than 1.2 million Sanborn maps
document the history of approximately 12,000 cities and towns. These maps are available
online at most university libraries, major public libraries, and at the U.S. Library of Congress.
Thematic Maps
Thematic maps express information about a single, spatially distributed attribute. Bio-
physical as well as cultural site attributes can be portrayed with two types of thematic maps:
& Chloropleth maps

& Isopleth maps
A chloropleth map expresses attribute data as discrete classes or categories. Classifica-

tion, a form of generalization or spatial aggregation, partitions the range of attribute data
values into intervals. Each of these intervals, or classes, is represented on the chloropleth
map by a single color or texture (Muller, 1976, pp. 169–175).
Chloropleth maps are effective ways of visually expressing important site attributes,
such as soil type, slope gradient, and land use suitability (Figure 2-3). Land use—a
cultural attribute—can be classified into many different categories. A land use classi-
fication system developed by the U.S. Geological Survey (Anderson et al., 1976) has
three classification levels. Categories are arranged within a nested hierarchy, ranging
from the general (Level I) to the specific (Level III). For example, the ‘‘urban’’ land use
class is a Level I category. Level II subcategories of the urban class include residential,
commercial, and industrial uses.
An isopleth map, in contrast to a chloropleth map, displays the locations and
numerical values of a single attribute. For example, an isopleth map of topographic
= Suitable
= Unsuitable Figure 2-3 Schematic

examples of a two-class
chloropleth map of a site’s
suitability for two different land
LAND USE A LAND USE B uses.
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
säälivään suojelukseen? Tapahtuiko sellaista, vieläpä niiden
ihmispetojen taholta, jotka olivat panneet vallankumouksen toimeen?
Taipuessaan käyttämään hyväkseen toisen tarjousta

mademoiselle de Montsorbier ei ollut sallinut kauniilta kuulostavien
ehdotusten itseään pettää. Hän oli tarttunut oljenkorteen
epätoivoisena mahdollisuutena, kun mitään muuta ei ollut.
Suostuessaan hän oli valmistautunut luottamaan omiin voimiinsa,
rohkeuteensa ja neuvokkuuteensa, käyttääkseen ripeästi hyväkseen
tilaisuutta, joka mahdollisesti tarjoutuisi, puijatakseen mieheltä
kaiken edun, jota hän ehkä itselleen tavoitteli, pakottaakseen
auttajansa toimimaan mahdollisimman pitkälle antamiensa
näennäisten lupausten mukaan.
Oliko hän näillä ajatuksillaan tehnyt toiselle vääryyttä? Oliko tuo

mies todellakin se epäitsekäs ystävä, joksi hän itseään vakuutteli,
ponnistellen hänen pelastuksekseen ilman palkinnon toivoa, kuten
oli sanonut? Hänen selvästä järjestään se tuntui haavemaiselta.
Mutta mitä muuta oli pääteltävä aikomuksista, jotka hän juuri oli
ilmaissut? Vai oliko tuo puhe pelkkää unijuomaa, jolla tahdottiin
tuuditella hänet petollisen turvallisuuden huumaukseen, jotta hän
sitten olisi sitä avuttomammin miehen mielivallassa?
Näitä hän mietiskeli pitkän tovin aikana, joka seurasi edusmiehen

ilmoitusta, kunnes tämä jälleen katkaisi hänen mietteensä, pakottaen
hänet puhumaan.
»Te pysytte vaiti, kansalainen. Ettekö täydellisesti hyväksy tätä

järjestelyäni? Vai onko teillä itsellänne parempi suunnitelma?»
»Ei, ei. Ei se sitä ole.» Neitonen pysähtyi hillitäkseen heikon

värähdyksen äänessään. — Vaunujen puolihämärässä
Chauvinièresta näytti, että tyttö oli tullut hiukan vaaleammaksi, kun
hän katseli sivulta hienopiirteisiä huulia ja sirosti kaartuvaa nenää.
»Olen syvästi liikutettu, kansalainen, teidän huolenpidostanne, kun
olette niin hartaasti suunnitellut minun hyväkseni — teidän
huolenpitonne epäitsekkäästä jaloudesta.»
Miehen silmissä välähti. Se oli kuin liekin äkillinen leimahdus ja

yhtä nopea sammuminen pimeässä. Mutta neitonen ei katsellut
häneen, vaan tuijotti suoraan eteensä.
»Minä en löydä sanoja teitä kiittääkseni. Minun kiitollisuuteni ja

ihmettelyni mykistää minut. Teidän suunnitelmanne on paras, mitä
voisin toivoa. Sveitsissä minulla on ystäviä. Minä…»
Hänen äänensä vapisi ja heikkeni hiljaisuudeksi. Ei ollut

teeskentelyä, että hän oli liikutettu ja menettämäisillään
itsehallintansa. Tarve hallita itseään, se häntä juuri peloittikin, tarve
olla varuillaan, valpas ja valmis kaikkien tapahtumain varalta, jotka
äkkiarvaamatta ja väijyen voisivat häntä kohdata. Hänen rohkea
mielenlaatunsa, joka ehkä olisi säilyttänyt jäntevyytensä ilmivaaran
uhatessa, lannistui nyt epävarmuudesta ja hermostuttavasta
odotuksesta.
Chauvinièren ääni kuului silkinpehmoisena huokauksen

säestämänä hajamielisesti mietiskelevän tytön korvaan.
»Koska te niin täydellisesti hyväksyitte suunnitelmani, voimme siis

pitää asian päätettynä ja toimia niinkuin äsken ehdotin.»
Hän nojautui takaisin nurkkaansa, sulki silmänsä ja näytti sen

jälkeen uinahtelevan ne kolme tuntia, jotka matka vielä kesti. Tuntui
siltä kuin hänen mielenkiintonsa matkatoveria kohtaan olisi
vähenemässä, nyt kun hänen aikomansa palvelus jo oli puoliksi
suoritettu ja loppuosa selvästi suunniteltu.
NELJÄS LUKU
He ajoivat kolisten Melunin katujen mukulakivien yli hämärän

langetessa ja pysähtyivät Kansakunnan hotellin — entisen
Kuninkaallisen hotellin — edustalle. Tuskin oli kyytipoika kuiskannut,
kuka matkustajamme oli, kun isäntä, tallirenki ja kamaripalvelija
tulivat ulos lausumaan edusmiehen vapisevan nöyrästi
tervetulleeksi.
Chauvinière otti vastaan tämän hänen suuruudelleen maksetun

veron niin ylvään ylimielisesti, että harvat despootit olisivat hänelle
siinä vetäneet vertoja eikä kukaan häntä ylittänyt. Talon parhaat
huoneet annettiin hänen ja hänen nuoren kirjurinsa käytettäviksi,
paras illallinen, mitä Melunissa voitiin hankkia, valmistettiin ylevän
vieraan nautittavaksi, ja kellarista etsittiin kaikkein parasta vanhaa
burgundinviiniä, joka siellä oli ollut koskemattomana, melkein
unohdettuna, ja tuotiin pöytään edusmiehen ilahduttamiseksi.
Aterialla ja sen jälkeen oli hänen käytöksensä mademoiselle de

Montsorbieria kohtaan niin moitteettoman mallikelpoinen kuin tämä
konsaan olisi voinut odottaa omaan säätyynsä kuuluvan miehen
taholta. Chauvinière oli huolehtivainen, mutta aina arvokkaan
säädyllinen, ystävällinen, mutta poikkeuksettoman kunnioittava. Ja
hän huvitti sitten neitosta juttelemalla, osoittaen siinä
odottamattoman syvällistä sivistystä tuntemalla ei ainoastaan
Scarronin ja Voltairen teoksia, vaan myöskin klassillisia kirjailijoita,
joiden lauseita hän tavantakaa kertasi. Hänen persoonallisuutensa
pani neitosen hiukan hämilleen, teki hänet ikäänkuin ujommaksi,
sikäli kuin hän havaitsi tämän miehen kohoavan niin paljon sen
yläpuolelle, mitä hän alussa oli aavistellut. Edusmies osoitti
hienostusta, jota hänen valtiollisen tunnustuksensa miehessä täytyi
pitää melkein uskomattomana; hänen tapansa olivat moitteettomat.
Kun neitonen vihdoin poistui makuuhuoneeseensa, oli hän entistä

suuremmassa epävarmuudessa. Chauvinière avasi hänelle oven,
pää kunnioittavasti kumartuneena, ja toivotti hänelle kohteliaasti
hyvää lepoa. Huoneessaan, joka oli edusmiehen suojan vieressä,
valtasi neitosen äkkiä säikähdys. Hän työnsi kiinni salvat, joilla ovi oli
varustettu ylhäältä ja alhaalta, ja meni sitten avaamaan ikkunan
nähdäkseen, mikä pakokeino saattaisi tarpeen tullen olla
käytettävissä. Oli kylmä ja tihutti sadetta, taivas oli pilvien peitossa ja
yö pilkkopimeä. Mutta alikerran ikkunasta virtaavassa valossa hän
näki pihan kiveyksen kiiltävän runsaasti viidentoista jalan päässä
alhaalla. Tarpeen tullen hän saattoi köydeksi kierretyn lakanan avulla
sitä tietä poistua. Mutta mitä sitten? Sellainen menettely oli
ajateltavissa vain epätoivoisessa tilassa, eikä hänen tilansa vielä
ollut epätoivoinen. Yrittipä hän jo vakuuttaa itselleen, ettei hänellä
ollut minkäänlaista syytä pitää sitä epätoivoisena, ja että hän oli
pikku raukka, joka säikähti varjoja.
Tämä hänen käsityksensä vahvistui vielä, kun hän aamulla heräsi

keskeytymättömän unen virkistämänä, keväisen päiväpaisteen
valellessa valoaan hänen huoneeseensa, ja silloin hän totesi, kuinka
aiheettomasti hänen mielikuvituksensa oli tehnyt hänestä pelkurin.
Hän tuli reippaana ja siistittynä aamiaiselle, niin reippaana ja
sirona, että palvelustyttö käytävässä vilkaisi ujosti hymyillen
edusmieskansalaisen nuoreen kirjuriin ja tunsi kenties mielensä
haikeaksi nähdessään, kuinka vähän tuo vakava nuori mies hänen
suloistaan välitti.
Chauvinière istui jo pöydässä. Kun huoneessa oli palvelija, ei hän

noussut. Hän nyökkäsi hiukan ja tervehti pisteliäällä äänensävyllä.
»Jaha, Antoine! Kaipa sinä nukuit hyvin?»
»Kiitos, oivallisesti, kansalainen edusmies.»
»Älähän vastedes nuku ihan niin hyvin. Minä en pidä

myöhästymisestä enkä nuorista miehistä, jotka vastahakoisesti
lähtevät vuoteistaan. Aamiaisesi on kylmä, ja hevosia jo valjastetaan.
Me lähdemme kymmenen minuutin päästä. Koetahan olla valmis.»
He matkustivat koko sen päivän vimmatulla vauhdilla, pysähtyen

vain kahdesti ruokailemaan, levähtämään ja hevosia vaihtamaan,
niin että he iltamyöhällä olivat tulleet ajaneeksi satakunta kilometriä
ja yöpyivät Chåtillon-sur-Laingin kylään Orléannaisissa. Täällä
uudistui edellisen yön kokemus. Taaskin Chauvinière osoitti miltei
liioiteltua kunnioitusta, taaskin hän rupatteli sujuvasti ja hupaisesti
ikäänkuin pannakseen näkyville kaikki sielunsa jalokivet
huikaistakseen ja hurmatakseen seuralaisensa. Tyttö suli hiukan. Oli
tosiaan mahdotonta pysyä viileän eristyneenä näin suuren
hyvänsuopeuden hehkussa. Kerran tai kahdesti, kun hän äkkiä nosti
katseensa, hän huomasi kansanedustajan silmien tähystelevän
häntä. Ne kääntyivät heti poispäin, ja sudenilme, jonka hän ehti
havaita hänen kasvoillaan, peittyi heti ikäänkuin naamioon. Mutta
vaikutelma siitä jäi hänen muistiinsa ja herätti äkillisen
kuvaamattoman pelon, samanlaatuisen kuin se oli, jonka hänen
silmänsä olivat nostattaneet Conciergeriessa.
Chauvinière joi ehkä hiukan liiaksi sinä iltana ja sen seurauksena

hellitti hiukan itsehallintaohjaksia. Hänen avatessaan neitoselle oven
tämän lähtiessä ja toivottaessaan hyvää yötä oli virnistys hänen
kasvoillaan ja silmien nälkäinen palo selvästi havaittavissa. Niin
suuren pelon ne herättivät neitosessa, että hän lukittuaan ja
salvattuaan oven heittäytyi täysin puettuna vuoteellensa herkän
valppaana, ennen päivänkoittoa melkein ollenkaan nukkumatta.
Mitään ei kuitenkaan tapahtunut, mikä olisi oikeuttanut hänen
sielunsa värähtelyt, ja kun hän saapui aamiaiselle, odotteli edusmies
häntä niin säädyllisen mallikelpoisena esiintymisessään, että tyttö
taaskin kyseli itseltään, eikö hänen mielikuvituksensa viime yönäkin
ollut häntä pettänyt.
Kaiken päivää se kysymys askarrutti häntä vaunujen keinuessa ja

tanssiessa huimaavaa vauhtiaan ja Chauvinièren puolittain
torkkuessa nurkassaan melkein epäkohteliaan välinpitämättömänä
matkatoveristaan. Se kysymys askarrutti yhä hänen mieltään, kun
heille kello viideltä iltapäivällä vajaan kilometrin päässä Loiren
varrella sijaitsevasta La Charitén kylästä sattui äkillinen ja
odottamaton keskeytys akselin nastan katketessa, jolla tapauksella
ilman kyytipojan valppautta olisi saattanut olla vakavammatkin
seuraukset.
Chauvinière astui vaunuista kamalasti noituen. Hänen

aikomuksensa oli ollut sinä iltana päästä Neversiin puhuakseen
siellä yleisen turvallisuuden komitean kokouksessa ja järjestää niin,
että hän seuraavana aamuna saattaisi lähteä tarkastukselleen. Siitä
suunnitelmasta hänen täytyi nyt luopua ja tyytyä sellaiseen hökkeliin,
joka La Charitélla olisi tarjottavana tälle kansanvaltaiselle
hekumoitsijalle.
Mutta kun he olivat tallustaneet mutaista tietä pitkin kylään,

tapasivatkin he siellä oivallisen majatalon, missä heille tarjottiin
illallinen hyvässä yläkerran huoneessa. Sen kummaltakin sivulta
avautui ovi makuukammioon. Ennenkuin tunti oli kulunut heidän
saapumisestaan, kattoi viinikauppias komean rouvansa kera pöydän,
jolle tuotu illallinen oli erinomainen, eivätkä he säästelleet vaivojaan
ansaitakseen kiitosta ja tunnustusta suurelta pariisilaiselta, joka,
heidän omia sanojaan käyttääksemme, oli heidän matalaa majaansa
kunnioittanut.
Hyvin silavoitua salvokukkoa syötäessä Chauvinière lausui

sihteerilleen:
»Tästä minä päättelen, että täällä teidän Nivernaisissanne on vielä

jäljellä paljon aristokraatteja.»
»Teidän tuli olla siitä kiitollinen, koska senvuoksi olette saanut

hyvän illallisen.»
»Tässä maailmassa, kuten vielä saanette havaita, on asian laita

niin, että mitä suurempi kiitollisuus toiselta puolen, sitä suurempi syy
mureksimiseen toiselta. Sillä tavoin onnetar lahjojaan jakelee —
ottaa aina maksun.»
»Velan suorittaminen ei ole mikään närkästymisen aihe»,

huomautti tyttö.
Edusmies katsoi häneen niin tarkkaavaisesti, niin tutkimattomin

ilmein, että tytön kaikki eilisiltainen pelko äkkiä palasi ja hän värisi.
Toinen huomasi sen.
»Teitä palelee», sanoi hän, ja tyttö kuvitteli hymyn häivän melkein

huomaamattomasti värähtävän hänen kasvoillaan. »Sallikaa minun
sulkea ikkuna.» Hän nousi ja astui lattian poikki, ja nyt hänen
seisoessaan selin ja hypistellessään ristikon hakaa neitonen
vihdoinkin päätti lopettaa jännityksen ja panna miehen aikomukset
itseensä nähden välittömälle koetukselle. Ja hänen älykäs mielensä
vihjaisi heti hänelle siihen tarvittavat ainekset. Hän odotti, kunnes
edusmies oli palannut pöytään.
»Te olette ollut minulle kovin hyvä, uskomattoman hyvä,

kansalainen.»
Chauvinière pysähtyi häneen tuijottamaan, käsi takaapäin

kohotetun tuolin selustalla.
»Mitäpä siitä tarvitsee puhua?»
Neitonen katseli karkeasti kudottua pöytäliinaa; etusormensa ja

peukalonsa välissä hän vatvoi pientä leivänmurua.
»Minun täytyy siitä puhua, koska on tullut aika teitä kiittää —

kiittää ja lähteä.»
Hän vilkaisi äkkiä mieheen nähdäkseen hänen ilmeensä ja yllätti

siinä epäluuloa, suuttumusta ja säikähdystä.
»Lähteä?» Mies rypisti kulmiaan lausuessaan tuon sanan. Ja yhä

epäilevämmällä, ihmettelevällä äänellä hän toisti: »Lähteä?»
Neitonen selitti tarkoituksensa. »Olemme jo Nivernaisissa. Tämä

on minun kotiseutuani. Minulla on ystäviä kautta maakunnan…»
»Ystäviä? Mitä ystäviä?» Hänen äänensä vihjaisi, että heidän
mainitsemisensa olisi heidän kuolemantuomionsa.
»Minä en tahdo mainita heidän nimiään, jotten saattaisi heitä

vaaraan. Se ei olisi oikein heitä kohtaan eikä aivan oikein teitäkään
kohtaan. Se saattaisi koetella teidän velvollisuuttanne liian paljon.
Eikä myöskään olisi oikein teitä kohtaan, että huomenna kirkkaassa
päivänvalossa seuraisin teitä Neversiin. Eihän ole kulunut
montakaan kuukautta siitä, kun minut siellä hyvin tunnettiin. Siellä on
vielä monta, jotka saattaisivat minut tuntea. Mitä he otaksuisivatkaan
nähdessään minut teidän seurassanne ja tässä asussa. Te joutuisitte
vaaraan ja…»
»Vaaraan!» Hänen pilkallinen naurunsa tärisytti ravistuneita

ikkunoita.
»Ja kuka Neversissä tohtisi antaa minut ilmi?»
Neitonen hymyili hänelle melkein kaihomielisesti, verkalleen

nyökäten kauniilla päällänsä. »Te olette perin rohkea, kansalainen;
häikäilemättömän rohkea, kuten olen huomannut. Mutta minä en salli
teidän lisätä jo muutenkin raskaaseen kiitollisuudenvelkaani vaaraa,
jossa ehkä menettäisitte henkenne…»
»Hst! Ei siitä sen enempää, kansalainen! Minä en joudu mihinkään

vaaraan. Mutta jos joutuisinkin, niin entä sitten? Elämäni on minun
omani, jonka saan panna vaaraan milloin tahdon, pyytämättä siihen
lupaa teiltä tai keltään muultakaan. Me olemme kaikki vapaita
ihmisiä tässä uudistetussa Ranskassa.» Hänen äänensä sai
tavallisen ivallisen sävynsä. »Meidän ei tarvitse pyytää lupaa
teoillemme. Kaikki se loppui hirmuvallan kukistuessa.»
»Teidän jalomielisyytenne ei voi minua pettää.» Neitosen
sinivihreät silmät katselivat häntä päättäväisesti. »Ja siksi me
eroamme tänä iltana.»
Edusmies kurottautui pöydän yli. Hänen kasvonsa olivat kovin

vakavat. Ne olivat menettäneet tai näkyivät menettäneen jonkun
verran tavallisesta väristään.
»Te kerrotte minulle uutisia, kansalainen. Mekö eroaisimme tänä

iltana? Tänäkö iltana? Vai niin! Ja sanoisitteko minulle, mihin sitten
menisitte?»
»Minä en voisi sitä sanoa saattamatta muita vaaraan.»
Edusmies nauroi. »Te saatatte koko Nivernaisin vaaraan,

ennenkuin minä sallin teidän lähteä.» Hänen äänensä oli hurja,
ärisevä, niinkuin ärisee koira, kun siltä yritetään riistää luu. Mutta
melkein samassa hän hillitsi tuon liian paljastavan sävyn. Hänen
äänensä oli tasainen jälleen. »Tarkoitan, ennenkuin sallin teidän sillä
tavoin panna itsenne vaaroille alttiiksi. Suokaa anteeksi
itsepäisyyteni, kansalainen. Mutta minä en ole pannut vaaraan omaa
kaulaani pelastaakseni teidän kaulanne giljotiinin kidasta, jotta te
ihan vallattomasti heittäisitte lahjani hukkaan. En suinkaan. Minä
takaan teidän turvallisuutenne, ennenkuin teistä eroan.» Hän istuutui
vihdoin.
»Mutta sanoittehan Pariisissa…»
»Vähät siitä, mitä minä Pariisissa sanoin.» Hänen äänessään oli

vihainen mörähdys. Siinä oli taaskin koiran ärähdys, kun siltä
tahdotaan riistää luu, jolla se on aikonut herkutella. »Ajatelkaa vain,
mitä minä olen täällä sanonut. Minä en eroa teistä, ennenkuin olen
varma teidän turvallisuudestanne.»
Neitonen istui siinä katsellen häntä pöydän yli kauhu

sydämessään ja silmät hiukan laajentuneina, kun ne kohtasivat
miehen kytevän hehkun, havaitsivat punan hänen ulkonevilla
poskipäillään ja vihaiset rypyt korkealla otsalla, jolle oli valahtanut
suortuva hänen nihkeästä mustasta tukastaan ikäänkuin verhoksi.
Hän oli saanut vastauksen. Ainakin hänen jännityksensä, hänen

epäilynsä ja kysymyksensä olivat nyt lopussa. Tuo mies oli sellainen
susi kuin hän oli aluksi luullutkin, ja hän itse oli saalis, jota himoittiin.
Mutta miksi, ihmetteli tyttö, vaanittiin häntä niin varovaisesti ja
kärsivällisesti? Hän ei voinut käsittää tuon miehen hekumallista
nirsoutta, joka teki hänelle vastenmieliseksi ajatuksen käyttää
valtaansa ilman todellista valloitusta.
Säikähdyksestään tyttö ei sallinut Chauvinièren nähdä

vilahdustakaan. Sen kaiken häneltä peitti jäykkä hämmästyksen
tuijotus. Sitten hämmästys haihtui hymyn karkoittamana — suloisen
ja lempeän hymyn, jollaista hän ei vielä koskaan ollut auttajalleen
suonut. Neitonen käänsi silmänsä pois.
»Teidän ystävällisyytenne… teidän jalomielisyytenne tekee minut

sanattomaksi. Minä olen purskahtamaisillani itkuun, kansalainen,
kiitollisuuden kyyneliin. Ja kuitenkin…»
»Älkää lisätkö mitään», pyysi mies. Hänen äänensä kävi käheäksi.

»Te saatte vielä oppia tuntemaan, kuinka syvä on se harras
kiintymys, joka ei teitä palvellakseen mitään kaihtaisi, Cléonie.»
Toinen hänen pitkistä käsivarsistaan kurottui pöydän yli, ja hänen
hieno kätensä puristi tytön kättä, joka oli lautasen vieressä. Hetkisen
sitä siedettiin, vaikka tyttö inhosi sen kosketusta, hilliten puistatusta,
joka voisi ilmaista hänen tunteensa, ja vihaten itseään sen
kaksimielisyyden vuoksi, johon olosuhteet pakottivat hänen
alistumaan. Sitten hän polttavassa häpeäntunnossa, jonka
nostattaman punan mies käsitti ihan väärin, hymyillen melkein
surkean kaihomielisesti, irroitti hiljaa kätensä ja nousi.
»Sallikaa minun mennä», pyysi hän. »Minä olen… olen hieman

hämilläni.»
»Ei, odottakaa!» Edusmieskin oli noussut ja seisoi innokkaana

erottavan pöydän takana, joka oli niin kiusallisesti sijoitettu hänen
tielleen.
»Huomenna!» pyysi tyttö heikolla äänellä. »Me puhumme

uudestaan huomenna, kansalainen. Sallikaa minun nyt mennä! Ah,
sallikaa minun mennä!»
Hän melkein liioitteli näyttelyään, melkein liiaksi vihjaisi henkiseen

ponnistukseen miehen magneettista vaikutusta vastaan. Jonkun
muun seurassa se olisi saattanut olla kerrassaan tuhoisaa. Mutta
Chauvinière, sielutieteilijä, tunsi pidättymisen arvon, tiesi, kuinka
paljoa täydellisempi lopullinen antautuminen oli jalomieliselle
vastustajalle. Hän kumarsi syvään sanaa sanomatta, hiukan huoaten
vain, ja kun hän jälleen suoristausi, oli hän yksinään. Neitonen oli
livahtanut kuin haamu toiseen huoneeseen. Hän näki valkoisen oven
suljettuna, kuuli salpojen napsahtavan kiinni. Hän hymyili
seisoessaan siinä. Sitten hän jälleen huoahti, yhä hymyillen, painui
takaisin tuoliinsa ja kaatoi itselleen viiniä.
Salvatun oven takana seisoi mademoiselle de Montsorbier
henkeään pidätellen ja hiukan huumaantuneena: Hän nojasi sitä
vasten, kuunnellen miehen liikkeitä, ja vähitellen hänen
itsehallintansa palasi.
Vihdoin hän astui pukupöydän luo ja tarkasti sillä palavan ainoan

kynttilän valossa kasvojaan. Hän huomasi ne kalpeiksi ja syytti
itseänsä siitä, vakuutellen itselleen, ettei ollut mitään pelättävää, veti
sitten esille tuolin ja istahti peilinsä eteen, mutta ei ajatellutkaan
valmistua levolle.
Näin kului puoli tuntia, jonka jälkeen hän kuuli tuolin narahduksen
ulommasta huoneesta ja senjälkeen edusmiehen askeleet hänen
kävellessään edestakaisin kuin häkkiin suljettu eläin. Kerran nämä
askeleet saapuivat aivan hänen ovelleen ja pysähtyivät siihen.
Neitonen jäykistyi. Hän tunsi ihonsa käyvän kananlihalle, tunsi
valtimoittensa sykkivän kiivaammin tuon vaitiolon aikana, joka tuntui
hänestä loppumattomalta, ja odotti kolkutusta. Se kuului vihdoin
terävästi napautettuna, ja siitä hän karahti seisaalleen.
Ihmeellistä kyllä pysyi hänen äänensä levollisena. »Kuka siellä?»
»Minä olen, kansalainen; Chauvinière.»
»Mitä haluatte, kansalainen?»
Oli pitkä väliaika ennenkuin vastaus kuului: »Ilmoittaa teille, että

lähdemme aikaisin aamulla. Vaunut ovat valmiit kello kahdeksalta.»
»Minä olen täsmällinen, kansalainen. Hyvää yötä!»
»Hyvää yötä, kansalainen.»

Hänen askeleensa loittonivat. Tuskin uskoen korviaan neitonen
kuunteli, kuinka hän astui ulomman huoneen poikki. Sitten hän kuuli
hänen menevän omaan huoneeseensa ja lopuksi oven
sulkeutumisen. Hän kykeni jälleen hengittämään. Mutta turhaan hän
yritti selittää tätä vähäpätöistä tapausta. Oliko mies ehdoin tahdoin
yrittänyt häntä säikyttää vain osoittaakseen, että kaikki pelko oli
joutavaa, ja siten tuuditellakseen hänet petolliseen turvallisuuteen,
vai oliko hänen menettelynsä ollut teeskentelemätöntä?
Hän astui huoneensa lattian poikki täysissä pukimissaan, edes

riisumatta ratsassaappaitaan, mutta jätti kynttilän palamaan eikä
yrittänytkään nukkua.
Maltillisena ja tunteitaan hilliten, mikä oli melkein ihmeellistä, kun

ottaa huomioon, mitä hänen mielessään liikkui, hän lojui siinä
kuunnellen ja odottaen kaksi kokonaista tuntia, kunnes oli
varmistunut siitä, että talossa kaikki nukkuivat. Sittenhän vihdoin
nousi ja riisui saappaansa. Hän otti valuvan kynttilän käteensä ja
avasi hyvin hiljaa oven salvat. Varovaisesti, äänettömästi hän avasi
sen ja äänettömästi hiipi takana sijaitsevaan huoneeseen, jossa nyt
oli ihan pimeä. Hetkiseksi hän pysähtyi kuuntelemaan. Etäisemmän
oven takaa kuului heikko kuorsaus. Edusmies-kansalainen oli
vaipunut uneen.
Saappaat toisessa kädessään ja toisella pidellen kynttilää

korkealla hän meni varpaillaan portaille johtavaa ovea kohti. Jotakin
sinervää kiilsi sivupöydällä, ja se kiinnitti hänen huomionsa. Se oli
edusmies-kansalaisen salkun hakanen. Hän pysähtyi epäröiden,
säikähtäen kiusausta, joka hänet valtasi ja jolle hän vihdoin kalpeasti
hymyillen antoi perää. Hän sieppasi salkun ja pisti sen kainaloonsa.
Sitten hän astui ulos ja hiipi sukkasillaan varovaisesti ritiseviä
portaita alas.
Alhaalla käytävässä hän pysähtyi vetämään saappaat jalkaansa.

Sitten hän hyvin varovasti avasi erään sivuoven salvat ja astui
tallipihaan. Täällä hän sai kokea säikähdyksen. Vaikka keskiyö oli
ohi, kiilsi tallirakennuksesta valkea; tallinoven yläpuolisko oli auki, ja
suljetun alapuoliskon yläpuolella hän näki sitä vastaan nojaavan
miehen rinnan. Tämä oli nähnyt hänen lähtönsä ja suoristausi nyt
kysymään kuka hän oli. Silmänräpäyksessä tehden päätöksensä
neitonen ehti hänen edelleen.
»Ah, te olette valveilla! Sepä onni, sillä muutoin minun olisi

täytynyt noutaa teidät vuoteestanne. Minä tarvitsen heti hevosen,
kansalainen.»
»Hevosen? Hyväinen aika! Hevosenko tällä tunnilla?»
»Kansan asioissa.» Nuoren kirjurin ääni oli ankara ja käskevä.

Hän heilutti salkkuaan. »Minun on ratsastettava edusmiehen edellä
Neversiin. Kova kiire. Rientäkää tai muutoin saatte vastata
edusmies-kansalaiselle.»
Tallirenki ei kysellyt enempää. Satuloitiin nopeasti hevonen, ja sille

nuori kirjuri nousi istumaan ottaen ryhdin, joka pikemminkin muistutti
metsästäjästä kuin yksityissihteeristä, ja hävisi nelistävine ratsuineen
yön pimentoon.
VIIDES LUKU
Vastikään noussut edusmies, joka oli tarkasti ajanut partansa ja

pukeutunut huolitellen kuin ylimys, astui makuuhuoneiden välissä
olevaan saliin ja tilasi ripeästi suklaata.
Odotellessaan hän asteli ikkunan luo ja katseli siellä alakuloisen

maaliskuun aamun harmautta ja sateentihutusta. Sitten kuitenkin
yleinen hiljaisuus herätti hänen huomionsa, niinkuin äkillinen ääni
olisi saattanut sen herättää toisessa tilanteessa. Hän kallisti
päätänsä ja kuunteli, oliko mademoiselle de Montsorbierin
huoneessa mitään liikettä. Keskeytymätön äänettömyys herätti
hänessä pahoja aavistuksia. Hän astui nopeasti ovelle ja napsautti
siihen rystysillään. Ei kuulunut mitään vastausta. Hän koetti
ovenripaa. Se kääntyi, ja ovi lennähti sisäänpäin, paljastaen hänelle
asumattoman huoneen. Hän astui kynnyksen yli ja katseli otsa
rypyssä ympärilleen. Hän pani merkille vuoteen, joka oli
käyttämätön, lukuunottamatta tytön ruumiin painamaa syvennystä,
niin heikkoa, että se vihjaisi hänen levänneen siinä jo usea tunti
sitten eikä silloinkaan kauan.
Hän kääntyi takaisin saliin, kasvot synkkinä ja nelikulmainen leuka

eteenpäin työnnettynä. Hänen silmänsä etsivät sivupöytää, jolle hän
muisti liian huolettomasti ja luottavaisesti jättäneensä salkkunsa.
Kuten hän oli aavistellutkin, ei sitä siinä enää ollut. Vielä hetkiseksi
hän jäi tarkastamaan, eikö sitä ollut muuallakaan. Sitten hän syöksyi
kiroten päistikkaa huoneesta, törmäten palvelustyttöä vasten, joka oli
tuomassa hänelle suklaata. Tytön kiljahdus ja särkyvien astioiden
helinä seurasi häntä hänen harpatessaan portaita alas ja mylvimällä
kutsuessaan majatalon isäntää. Säikähtyneenä edusmiehen rajusta
saapumisesta ja myrskyisistä tiedusteluista, missä hänen kirjurinsa
oli, joita hän korosti kauheilla uhkauksilla ja giljotiinista mainitsemalla
kavalluksen tai karkaamisen varalta, isäntä vannoi tutisten vanhan
järjestelmän Jumalan ja uudella kaudella hallitsevan järjen
jumalattaren kautta, ettei hän tiennyt kerrassaan mitään
kadonneesta henkilöstä ja nyt vasta ensi kertaa kuuli hänen
poistumisestaan. Mutta lähettyvillä seisoskeleva tallirenki, joka kuuli
tuon vihaisen kuulustelun, astui esille antamaan vastauksen, joka
kykeni sammuttamaan Chauvinièren viimeisenkin toivonkipinän.
Edusmies-kansalainen tuijotti höpisevään tolvanaan niin hurjasti

leimuavin silmin, että mies perääntyi säikähtyneenä.
»Ja sinä päästit hänet menemään?» ärjyi Chauvinière hammasta

purren.
Hän hymyili kamalasti. »Sinä päästit hänet menemään sillä tavalla?»
»Kuinka minä saatoin tietää, että…»
»Kuinka sinä mitään tietäisit, elukka? Eikö sinulle, järjetön

luontokappale, juolahtanut mieleesikään, ettei rehti mies hiivi pois
keskiyöllä niinkuin varas?» Hän herjasi miespoloista rivoilla
nimityksillä, iski häntä ylivuotavassa vimmassaan nyrkeillään, ja kun
toinen vapauden, yhdenvertaisuuden ja veljeyden nimessä pani
vastalauseen sellaisen kohtelun johdosta, sai hän vielä navakampia
nyrkiniskuja.
»Korotatko sinä äänesi minua vastaan, ryökäle? Jos sinun täytyy

puhua, niin sano minulle edes, mihin päin hän läksi. Käytä kelvotonta
päätäsi, elukka, tai saatat sen tämän johdosta menettää.»
Tallirenki vastasi umpimähkään, että nuorukainen oli ratsastanut

Neversiin päin.
Vihdoin Chauvinière hillitsi itsensä.
»Satuloi minulle hevonen», käski hän; ja sillä hevosella hän

kymmenen minuutin kuluttua lähtisi itse ratsastamaan Neversiin
päin, jättäen kyytipojan seuraamaan vaunuilla.
Hän ratsasti vauhdilla, joka kuvasti hänen sielunsa vimmaa. Vielä

enemmän kuin tytön menetys kiukutti häntä, että niin älykäs ja
teräväpäinen mies kuin hän oli sallinut tuon makeakielisen,
valehtelevan pienen ylimyksen pettää hänet eilen illalla
teeskennellyllä hymyllään ja muka taipuvalla heikkoudellaan, siten
narraten hänet typerään kärsivällisyyteen sitä täydellisemmän
lopullisen voiton toivossa. Hän sai ansaitun palkan typerästä
mukautumisestaan. Mutta kun hän karkurin tapaisi, — ja hän
tapaisikin, vaikka siinä etsinnässä tuhoaisi kokonaisen maakunnan
— opetettaisiin tytölle armottomasti, mitä merkitsi leikitellä moisen
miehen tunteilla.
Hänessä oli varsin paljon sutta sinä aamuna — sutta, joka etsii
kynsistään livahtanutta karitsaa ja edeltäpäin nuoleskelee huuliaan
ajatellessaan säälimätöntä ateriaa, jonka ahmien nauttisi, sittenkun
tuo karitsa vihdoin olisi löydetty ja palautettu hänen haltuunsa.
Hän pysähtyi Rouguesiin hiukan haukkaamaan ja juomaan
lasillisen konjakkia ja vettä, sillä hän oli einehtimättä ratsastanut La
Charitésta, kannusti sitten jälleen ratsunsa laukkaan ja saapui
puolenpäivän aikaan Neversiin. Hän meni suoraapäätä Neversin
vallankumouskomitean puheenjohtajan, lihavan, raskasruumiisen
nahkurin luo, nimeltä Desjardins ja ilmoitti, mitä hän välittömästi
tarvitsi. Hänen paperinsa oli viime yönä La Charitéssa varastanut
muuan nuorukainen, jota hän oli holhonnut ja joka, kuten hän nyt
tiesi, olikin tyttö, epäilemättä joku kirottu ylimysmielinen. Hänen
tiedettiin ratsastaneen Neversiin päin. Kenties hän yrittäisi esiintyä
Chauvinièren kirjurina. Hänen vangitsemisensa oli äärimmäisen
tärkeää. Päitä putoilisi, jollei häntä tavoitettaisi. Chauvinière pitäisi
siitä huolen. Desjardinsin oli heti kerättävä turvallisuuskomitean
toimitsijat, selostettava heille tapaus ja usutettava heidät varasta
tavoittamaan.
»Ja heidän on parasta toimia ripeästi», vannoi Chauvinière;

»muutoin minä, pyhän Giljotiinin nimessä, annan heille opetuksen
virkainnossa».
Näin lausuttuaan puoliksi nälkiintynyt edusmies meni syömään

päivällistä Auringon majataloon, jonne vaunujen oli määrä häntä
seurata.
Että komitean apurit olivat toimeliaita, sitä ei tarvitse epäillä. Ja

toimeliaisuutensa todistuksena he tavoittivatkin aamulla Chatillonin
lähettyviltä hevosen, jolla tyttö oli ratsastanut, ja löysivät myöhemmin
Souvignyn lähistöltä ojasta ratsastakin, saappaat ja muita
vaatekappaleita, jotka Chauvinière tunsi pakolaisen käyttämiksi,
samoin kuin mustan, tyhjän, metallihaalla varustetun nahkasalkun,
jonka edusmies tunsi varastetuksi omaisuudekseen. Mutta

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Site Analysis A Contextual Approach to

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Sustainable Site Design Criteria Process and Case Studies

Site Seeing A Visual Approach to Web Usability 1st Edition

Building a web site for dummies David A. Crowder

Landscape Architecture Site Non Site Architectural Design

Field hydrogeology a guide for site investigations and

Site engineering for landscape architects workbook to

Harney Flats A Florida Paleoindian Site 1st Edition I.

A Social Justice Approach to Survey Design and Analysis

James A. LaGro Jr.

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

TOTAL RECYCLED PAPER

This book is printed on acid-free paper. * 1

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

Printed in the United States of America

PART I PROCESS AND TOOLS 1

CHAPTER 1 SHAPING THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT 3

CHAPTER 2 VISUALIZATION OF SPATIAL INFORMATION 23

PART II SITE SELECTION AND PROGRAMMING 41

CHAPTER 3 SITE SELECTION 43

PART III SITE INVENTORY AND ANALYSIS 99

Chapter 5 SITE INVENTORY: PHYSICAL ATTRIBUTES 101

Chapter 6 SITE INVENTORY: BIOLOGICAL ATTRIBUTES 127

Chapter 7 SITE INVENTORY: CULTURAL ATTRIBUTES 139

Chapter 8 SITE ANALYSIS: INTEGRATION AND SYNTHESIS 169

PART IV DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION 207

Chapter 9 CONCEPTUAL DESIGN 209

Chapter 10 DESIGN DEVELOPMENT 251

Chapter 11 PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION 295

A context-sensitive approach to sustainable planning and development helps to protect

ORGANIZATION OF THE BOOK

The Council of Landscape Architectural Registration Boards (CLARB) conducted a task

2 Identify relevant laws, rules, and regulations governing the project.

Process and Tools

Shaping the Built

U.S. National Park Service

1.1.1 Functions of Nature

TABLE 1-1 Landscapes encompass natural environmental systems that

& Tropical forests are shrinking

1.2 TOWARD SUSTAINABLE BUILT ENVIRONMENTS

1.2.1 Community Sustainability

1.2.2 Community Resources

& Wetlands and wetland buffers

Collectively, these resources form a unique mosaic or ‘‘signature’’ that deﬁnes a

1.2.3 Planning Better Communities

Figure 1-2 Spatial hierarchy— Spatial

Smart Growth Planning Goals

Smart Growth Process Goals

1.2.4 Sustainable Site Design

Most communities grow incrementally through a continual process of development and

Figure 1-3 Suitability for

Figure 1-4 Sustainable planning, design, and management is a holistic approach to

It is the growing realization of the interconnectedness of development and

reduce proﬁtability and competitiveness, sustainability is an issue that is now commonly

1.3 THE POWER OF PLACE, THE ROLE OF DESIGN

1.3.1 Good Design Makes a Difference

& ‘‘Good design promotes public health, safety, and welfare.’’

Public investment in physical amenities, including historic districts, parks, and