Section 1

• Galileo
• Forces

• Vectors

• Dynamics

• Energy

www.charranbooks.com 1 Physics Made Simple

 Chapter
Galileo Galilei
Section 1
1 His contributions to science were numerous,
but some claim his greatest contribution was
his method of inquiry. Simply put how he went
about finding out. This method of inquiry is
called the scientific method.

The steps in the scientific method are:

1. Observing
2. Researching
3. Theorising
4. Testing
5. Concluding and if necessary reforming a
theory based on conclusions made.

Even though it may seem to be the ‘common

sense’ approach, most of what scientists
accepted as fact in Galileo’s time were merely
opinions with no scientific evidence to support
Galileo Galilei was born on 15 them.
February 1564 in Italy. He studied
mathematics and philosophy and later From Galileo’s time most scientists have
became professor of mathematics at accepted and applied his method of inquiry
Pisa* [evidence based and mathematically oriented
method] to their work; some of whom include
Sir Isaac Newton and Albert Einstein. Sir Isaac
Newton used Galileo’s method in developing
and conducting experiments to create his laws
of motion.
FOR YOU TO DO AT HOME

Pisa is famous for something else. What

is Pisa also famous for?

Physics Made Simple 2 © Charran Curriculum Specialty 2014

THE SIMPLE PENDULUM
Chapter 1

Section 1
The simple pendulum is a mass (usually a solid sphere) attached to a string and suspended from
a fixed point.

a simple pendulum

string by which mass is suspended

mass or pendulum bob

Fig. 1.1

The pendulum has been a part of science for generations. Some claim that it occupied Galileo’s
mind as he observed the lamps in the cathedral of Pisa swinging.

an oscillation

an oscillation is the movement of

the pendulum from A to B and
back to A

A B
rest position of pendulum
Fig. 1.2

Over the years the period of the pendulum – the time it takes to swing from one extreme to the
next and back – was thought to be affected by the mass of the bob; the angle of release and
even the length of string. So which factors do affect the period of the pendulum? Let’s find out.
We shall look at three separate experiments to test these three factors (you can do them in
school or even at home!).

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 Chapter 1
Experiment 1PERIOD AND THE MASS OFSBA
Section 1

IDEA
THE BOB
Before we begin we need to define a few length of string and angle of release constant
terms and (of course) take care to stick to the while varying the mass of the pendulum bob.
scientific method! Firstly, in any experiment
we have variables. Now, a variable is any Before attempting anything we should do
quantity whose value changes or is changed some RESEARCH – we should READ! It may
during the course of an experiment. There seem strange (to some) but we all need to
are two main types of variables in any read before attempting any experiment. So,
experiment, these are: go read!

• The INDEPENDENT variable – also Now, back to our little pendulum experiment;
known as the controlled variable. let us now list our variables:
This is the quantity the experimenter
varies while looking for changes in… 1. Independent variable (the one we
• The DEPENDENT variable – also change!) – the mass of pendulum bob.
known as the responding variable.
This is the quantity which changes as This means we will have to obtain several
the independent variable is changed. bobs of different masses which should differ
by a constant amount.
There are cases where more than two
quantities are involved and one quantity is bobs of increasing mass
varied, while one changes in response to the
varied quantity and the third is kept constant.
This third quantity is called the constant
variable.

So when looking at the simple pendulum 50g 100g 150g Fig. 1.3
there are three variables which we assume
to have an impact on the period of the 2. Dependent variable - the period of
pendulum, namely: pendulum
3. Constant variables - the length of
• the mass of the pendulum bob pendulum and the angle of release
• the angle of release and
• the length of the string

If we are to investigate the effect each variable

has on the period of the pendulum we must
look at them individually (that means one at
a time). The only way to do this is to keep
two constant while varying the other one.
Therefore to investigate the effect of the
mass of the pendulum bob we must keep the

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 Chapter 1

Section 1
Now that we know our variables we have to graph of period against mass for a
collect suitable apparatus for measuring the simple pendulum
quantities listed. For mass we need a scale
(preferably an electronic scale); for period we
need a stopwatch or a laser timer; for length
a metre ruler and for the angle of release, a gradient = change in y
period of change in x
protractor.
pendulum /s
With that out of the way we need to focus
on how we will go about our experiment.
We need a method. Our method should be
a series of steps – logically arranged and
concise.
mass of bob /g
After the method is obtained we perform the Fig. 1.4
experiment and obtain results. In some cases
the results can give us the answer we were The gradient of this graph would tell us how
looking for by just examining them or we much change there is in the period of the
may need to perform calculations and even pendulum for a change in the mass of the
plot a graph to get the answer we are looking bob; therefore the smaller the gradient the
for (scientists love graphs – they are a really smaller the change and so on. If the gradient
useful tool in data analysis). is zero then there is no change in the period
for any change in the mass of the bob.
Suppose our results looked something like
this: If we wanted results from some other lengths
we could repeat the experiment for several
different lengths; only using one length each
Mass of bob Period of 1 Length of
time.
/g oscillation /s string /cm
50 2.50 30
100 2.51 30
150 2.55 30
200 2.53 30
250 2.52 30

We could simply look at the results and say

for this length of pendulum the mass of the
bob does not affect its period. We must
begin with for this length of pendulum since
we only have results here for one length.
Another option is to plot a graph of Period of
1 oscillation (on the y axis) and mass of bob
(on x).

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 Chapter 1
Experiment 2PERIOD AND THE ANGLE OF RELEASE
Section 1

If we wish to investigate the relationship graph of period against angle of

between the period of a pendulum and its release
angle of release (some call it the amplitude)
we must vary the angle of release and make gradient = change in y
note if any changes in period occur. period of change in x
pendulum /s

angle of release or
amplitude of swing

angle of release /rad

Fig. 1.6
bob

equilibrium Results should be obtained and tabulated

position and a graph of period [y axis] against angle
Fig. 1.5 of release [x axis] plotted. The gradient of
the graph could be used to determine the
influence of angle of release on period for
In this case our variables will be as follows:
that length of pendulum and mass of bob.
1. Independent Variable – the angle of
Just like the first experiment, the gradient of
release
this graph would tell us how much change
2. Dependent Variable – the period of the
there is in the period of the pendulum for any
pendulum
change in the angle of release. Therefore, the
3. Constant Variables – the mass of the
smaller the gradient, the smaller the change
pendulum bob and the length of the
in the period of the pendulum for a change in
pendulum
the angle of release and so on. If the gradient
is zero then there is no change in the period
Once again we create a method to test the
for any change in the angle of release.
relationship between the angle of release
and the period of the pendulum.

Physics Made Simple 6 © Charran Curriculum Specialty 2014

 Chapter 1
Experiment 3PERIOD AND THE LENGTH OF THE

Section 1
PENDULUM

Just like the previous two experiments the

effect of changing some quantity (in this
FOR YOU TO DO AT HOME
case the length of the string) on the period
of the pendulum is to be investigated. As
There is a formula which governs the
we did in those two cases we do again, we
behaviour of a simple pendulum for small
assign variables.
oscillations.
It is:
1. Independent variable – the length of
the pendulum
T = 2π √l 2. Dependent variable – the period of the
pendulum
g 3. Constants – the mass of the bob and
angle of release
What terms are represented by T, l
and g? We now create a method, follow it, collect
our results and plot a graph (yes, we love
our graphs). Our graphs are analysed in the
same way as the other two – we calculate
length of a pendulum our gradient and use it to determine if
a change in length produces a change in
period.

length of pendulum graph of period against length

l

gradient = change in y
period of change in x
mass or pendulum bob
pendulum /s
Fig. 1.7

length /m
Fig. 1.8

So, young scientists, go – observe, research,

theorise, and test!

www.charranbooks.com 7 Physics Made Simple

 Chapter
Statics
Section 1
2
Statics refers to those topics which deal with bodies at rest or if they are moving properties such
as acceleration are not considered.

FUNDAMENTAL QUANTITIES

Fundamentally fundamental to the fundamentals of physical science is the fundamental concept

of Fundamental Units (try saying this really fast!)

Fundamental quantities are the quantities upon which all others are based (they combine to
give us all other quantities) and cannot be further broken down or simplified.

Quantity Unit Unit Symbol

Mass kilogram Kg
Length meter M
Time second S
Temperature Kelvin K
Electric Current Ampere A

DERIVED QUANTITIES

The unit of weight is the Newton; but the formula for weight shows that there are three
fundamental quantities (and therefore fundamental units) in the Newton.

W = m × g

weight in Newtons acceleration due to gravity ms-2

mass in kg

The Newton belongs to a group of quantities called derived quantities. Derived quantities are
made up of several fundamental quantities.

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 Derived Quantity
Chapter 2
Derived Unit Derived Unit expressed as Fundamental Units

Section 1
area square meter m × m = m2
volume cubic meter m × m × m = m3
density kilogram per
cubic meter kg
m × m × m = kgm kg/m
-3 3
(or in smaller
units gram per g
cubic centimetre) (or cm × cm × cm = gcm-3 or g/cm3)

velocity meters per m × m = ms-1 OR m/s

second s
Weight Kilogram meters Kg × m × s-2
per second

FORCES, F

The easiest way to understand a force is to observe what it does.

What is happening in this And what is happening in So, what is happening here? The
picture? The tin is crushed – this picture? The cricketer coconut cart moves as the man
the force (from the student’s changes the direction of the pulls it. How do you think the man
arm) changed the size and ball with his cricket bat when stops the cart when it is moving?
shape of the tin. he heats it.

Can you think of any other effects of forces?

As we have seen forces can change the shape of objects; the direction in which they move or
travel and make objects start and stop moving. The unit of force is the Newton (symbol, N).

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 Chapter
Types of forces
2   Magnetic Force – this exists

2
Section 1

between any two magnetic poles

There are four main types of forces, namely: (put any two magnets near each
other, you’ll see)

1
  Nuclear Force – this exists within
the atom and is responsible for
holding the nucleus together

FOR YOU TO DO AT HOME

Fig. 2.0
A fun exercise: try gluing some ping
pong/table tennis balls together; when the
glue dries, try pulling them apart.

Nuclear forces are far stronger than

3
  Electric Forces – this exists
between any two charged objects.

that!!! They have to be, since they hold

atoms and us together!!!

electron

the nucleus of the atom

electron contains neutrons and Fig. 2.1
protons

 Gravitational Force – this exists

4
Fig. 1.9
between any masses, irrespective of
size (yes, you are attracted to this
book!)

Gravity

Gravity is a
downward force
acting towards the
centre of the Earth Fig. 2.2

Physics Made Simple 10 © Charran Curriculum Specialty 2014

WEIGHT
Chapter 2

Section 1
One of the most common forces is weight. Weight is not mass. There are several differences
between weight and mass.

The main difference is the fact that mass is fixed, but weight varies. Your “mass’ is the amount
of matter you contain. The weight of your body is as a result of gravity pulling downwards
(gravity acts towards the centre of the Earth) on your mass.

Can you think of any other differences between weight and mass?

!
EXTRA EXTRA READ ALL ABOUT IT ! !
Newton came up with a formula which says gravity depends on the size of the two
masses involved.

m1m2
F= G
r2
It means an individual standing on the Earth’s surface will experience a greater gravitational
pull than if they we standing on the moon, because the Moon’s gravity is far less than
that of Earth. This is the concept behind black holes; a black hole is a star whose mass
is so great that not even light can escape its gravitational pull.

W = m × g

weight in Newtons acceleration due to gravity ms-2

mass in kg

(acceleration due to gravity is how fast a body accelerates as it falls under the downward pull
of gravity -/ ms-2 OR Nkg-1)

Now, why is weight given in Newtons? Weight is a force and hence a vector (another difference
between weight and mass!). It is a downward force, due to gravity acting on mass, and as such
has the units of force.

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 Chapter 2
Section 1

QUESTION 1 QUESTION 2

A coconut cart has a mass of 75kg. If g If the coconut cart was moved to the moon,
(acceleration due to gravity) is 9.8Nkg-1 what where g = 1.6 ms-2, what would its weight be
is the weight of the cart? on the moon?

answer answer
Weight = mass × acceleration due to gravity W=m×g
W = 75kg × 9.8ms-2 W = 75kg × 1.6ms-2
W = 735N W = 120N

TURNING FORCES

When a force acts on an object that is pivoted (like a door or see-saw) it causes the object to
rotate and creates what is called a moment of force (symbol T). A moment of force is a measure
of the tendency of an object to rotate when acted upon by a force.

The magnitude (size) of a moment of a force can be calculated using the formula:

W = m × g

weight in Newtons acceleration due to gravity ms-2

mass in kg

THE PRINCIPLE OF MOMENTS SBA IDEA

This governs systems that are under the influence of several forces. The principle says for a
(pivoted) system in equilibrium, the sum of clockwise moments is equal to the sum anticlockwise
moments about the same fixed point.

In mathematical terms:

Σ clockwise
moments = Σ anticlockwise
moments
(about the same pivot)

(Σ is the Greek letter sigma; in mathematics it is used to indicate the summation or addition of
several quantities)

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 Chapter 2

Section 1
Caveman Dave

Boulder

Caveman Dave’s Boulder’s Weight

Weight
F1 d1 d2 F2

distance from distance from

Dave to pivot boulder to pivot
Fig. 2.3

In the diagram above, Caveman Dave (our budding physicist) wants to balance the see saw
with his friend Boulder on the other side. For Dave to do this, the moment Dave produces (the
product of his weight and his distance from the pivot) must be equal to the moment produced
by Boulder (the product of his weight and distance from the pivot).

Let us say Dave’s weight is 500N and he stands 1m from the pivot (also called the fulcrum);
Boulder’s weight is 200N and he is placed 1.5m from the pivot on the other side of the see saw.
Is the see saw balanced (or in equilibrium)?

LET’S SOLVE THIS PROBLEM!

Draw a Diagram! Yes, a diagram! It does not matter how simple, a diagram
Step 1  helps in visualising the information. It does not have to be very detailed; it
should have all the forces, their directions and distances from the pivot.

So, here is our diagram:

500N 200N

1.0m 1.5m
Fig. 2.4
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 Chapter 2
Section 1
Determine direction of rotation! This is important since we need to know
Step 2  which forces cause clockwise or anticlockwise rotation.

The 500N force will cause the see saw to rotate clockwise and the 200N force will
cause the see saw to rotate anti-clockwise.

Calculate the magnitude of the moments! Multiply force and distance to

Step 3  find the magnitude of the moments in the problem.

Moment of 500N force = force (500N) × distance from pivot (1.0m)

= 500.0 Nm clockwise

Moment of 200N force = force (200N) × distance from pivot (1.5m)

= 300.0Nm anti-clockwise

Compare moments obtained! This will let us know if the system (in this
Step 4  problem the system is the see-saw) is balanced. The easiest way to do this
is to find the difference of the two moments (subtract one from the other).
If the answer obtained is 0, the system is balanced.

Caveman Dave’s moment is 500.0 Nm clockwise. Boulder’s moment is 300.0Nm anti-

clockwise.

The difference = 500.0Nm – 300.0Nm = 200Nm

The two moments are NOT equal! What does this mean?

It means that there is a resultant moment acting on the see saw. This resultant moment will
cause the see saw to rotate in the direction in which the larger moment acts. In this case, since
Caveman Dave’s moment is larger than Boulder’s moment, the see saw rotates in that direction
– clockwise.

Since there is a resultant moment, Caveman Dave did not balance the see saw. This is because
the moment Caveman Dave produced is greater than the moment Boulder produced. To
solve this problem Caveman Dave intends to place one of Boulder’s friends on the see saw.
Boulder’s friend, Stone, weighs 200N and Caveman Dave intends to place Stone 1m from the
pivot (on the same side with Boulder).

Therefore, for the see-saw to balance:

Magnitude of Stone’s moment = Magnitude of the resultant moment

…and they must act in opposite directions - one clockwise and the other anti-clockwise!

Physics Made Simple 14 © Charran Curriculum Specialty 2014

 Chapter 2
Would the see saw balance? Caveman Dave calculates…

Section 1
Resultant moment = 200.0Nm
Stone’s Weight = 200N Stone’s distance from pivot = 1m
Stone’s moment = 200.0 N × 1.0m = 200.0Nm

Since they cause rotation in opposite directions they cancel each other. Caveman Dave has now
balanced his see saw. We cans say it is in equilibrium!

We should note that the slightest increase in weight on either side of the crowbar will produce
rotation.

TOOLS

Man discovered there were certain tasks he could not accomplish with his bare hands. To open
a coconut he needed a sharp rock which was eventually replaced with a machete. The sharp
rock was a common tool for early man. A tool is anything we use to make a job or task easier.
The most common tool is the lever. Common levers include the crowbar, the bottle opener and
anything we use to pry the lid of a tin open (like a spoon handle!).

Levers utilise the principle of moments to reduce the effort (amount of force) needed to complete
a task. Let us examine how levers work by taking a closer look at the crowbar.

the load the effort

which the required to
crowbar is overcome the
used to move load (the effort is
less than the load)

pivot

d1 d2
Fig. 2.5

The LOAD is the force the crowbar is used to overcome (like the resistance felt in opening a
crate or prying the lid of a tin open). The EFFORT is the force exerted to overcome the load.
Looking at the diagram we see that D1 (the distance between the pivot and point of application
of the load) is very short while D2 (the distance from pivot to point of application of the effort)
is longer. Remember, the magnitude (size) of a moment is given by the formula below:

Moment of force in Nm distance from the pivot to the

T = f × d point of application of the
force m
force applied to produce rotation in N
Fig. 2.6
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 Chapter 2
Numbers help us understand at times so, we will perform some calculations. Let us assume the
Section 1

load is 30N, D1 (the distance between the pivot and point of application of the load) is 0.1m
and D2 (the distance from pivot to point of application of the effort) is 0.4m. What effort is
needed to overcome the load?

We should note that the crowbar will only begin to rotate when the moment the effort produces
just greater than the moment produced by the load (this is because a resultant moment would
exist). You should read this statement again – just in case.

Working
Moment of Load = 30.0N × 0.1m
= 3.0Nm

Therefore, just before rotation the moments are in equilibrium, so:

Moment effort is also 3.0Nm

3.0Nm (moment of effort) = Effort × 0.4m
3.0Nm/ 0.4m = Effort
0.75N = Effort

So the minimum effort needed to overcome a 30.0N load is 0.75N (for this crowbar). Look at
the numbers 0.75N overcomes 30.0N. Cool!

CENTRE OF GRAVITY

The center of gravity of an object is the point (on or even outside of the object) from which all
the body’s weight seems to act.

Every part of His centre of

Dave’s body has gravity is the
its own weight. point from
which all his
weight seems to
act.

Caveman Dave’s
centre of gravity
Fig. 2.7

Physics Made Simple 16 © Charran Curriculum Specialty 2014

 Chapter 2

Section 1
FOR YOU TO DO AT HOME

Gather as many similar coins as you can. Try to stack them as high as you can. What
happens as your coin tower goes higher?

Nuclear forces are far stronger than that! They have to be, since they hold atoms and
us together!

You should have noticed that the higher you go the more unstable (wobbly) the coin tower
becomes. This happens because the weight of the coin tower starts to act outside of it’s base.
A stable object has its weight acting through its base.

centre of gravity and weight

Object’s centre of gravity

Object’s weight
acts downward
from centre of
gravity Fig. 2.8

An object becomes unstable when its weight acts outside of its base. When this happens the
object may topple and eventually fall.

How stable an object is depends on the position of its centre of gravity and how wide its base
is. A Formula 1 car is stable because its centre of gravity is close to the ground and it has a very
wide base (compared to its height).

An object in stable equilibrium will return to its original position if disturbed, for example, a full
barrel of oil is really hard to topple!

An empty bottle placed on its mouth is in . In unstable equilibrium the object will tend to move
to a position of either stable or neutral equilibrium.

In neutral equilibrium an object would move but the distance between the height of the centre
of gravity and the ground (or surface it is on) does not change; for example, a barrel rolling on
its side.

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 Chapter 2
Section 1

CENTRE OF GRAVITY OF AN IRREGULAR LAMINA SBA IDEA

For a regularly shaped object with uniform mass distribution the centre of gravity is found in
the geometric center of the object, on the other hand the centre of gravity of an irregularly
shaped object is not that easy to locate. The simplest method of doing this is called the plumb
line method. A plumb line is similar to a pendulum; it is a mass tied to a piece of string. When
suspended from any point the plumb line forms a perfectly vertical line.

a plumb line

string by which mass is suspended

mass or pendulum bob

Fig. 2.9

If an irregularly shaped object is suspended from the same point as a plumb line and the two
allowed to come to rest the centre of gravity of the object will lie along the plumb line. If the
object is suspended from several different points and the position of the plumb line along the
object traced a single point of intersection should be obtained. This point is the objects centre
of gravity.

Physics Made Simple 18 © Charran Curriculum Specialty 2014

Vectors
Chapter 3

Section 1
SCALAR AND VECTOR QUANTITIES

In physics quantities may be classified as being either scalar or vector. A scalar quantity is
a quantity which has magnitude only – it only has size or a number to describe it. A vector
quantity has both magnitude and direction – both a number and a direction.

Mass is a scalar quantity – it is the amount of substance in an object. It is just a number. Weight
is vector quantity it is the downward force mass experiences due to gravity. It is a number (how
much) and a direction (down).

SCALARS AND VECTORS

Mass - a scalar Weight - a vector

mass is 1.5 kg weight is 15N

(it does not act in acting downwards
any direction)
Fig. 3.0

REPRESENTING VECTORS

A force can be represented by an arrow pointing in the direction it acts and a number indicating
its magnitude.

A VECTOR
the direction of the
vector

35N
the magnitude of
the vector
Fig. 3.1

In some cases more than one force acts on an object (like a boat being pulled in the ocean
with two forces acting on it – the force with which it was pulled and the ocean current), when
this happens the object behaves as if only one force is acting on it. This one force is called the
resultant force.
www.charranbooks.com 19 Physics Made Simple
 Chapter 3
Section 1

FOR YOU TO DO AT HOME

Can you think of any situations in which

more than one force acts on an object?

If an object is shown (drawn) with the resultant acting on it, the resultant may be considered to
be made up of at least two separate forces – like the example of the force pulling the boat and
the ocean current.

Resultant force acting on a boat being towed in the ocean

resultant force on boat

force pulling boat

force from ocean current

Fig. 3.2

The resultant force is formed from BOTH the ocean current and the force pulling the boat. If
only the vector representation of the forces is drawn it would like the diagram below.

resultant force

force pulling boat

force from ocean current

Fig. 3.3

Physics Made Simple 20 © Charran Curriculum Specialty 2014

 Chapter 3
Rearranging the vectors and adding some numbers (for the magnitude of the vectors) we have:

Section 1
15N

3N
? What is the magnitude
of the resultant force?

Fig. 3.4

For our vector problems we use vectors which act mostly at right angles. In this case they (the
ocean current and the force pulling the boat) do act at right angles and each vector represents
a side of a right angled triangle. We can therefore apply Pythagoras’ theorem to solve this
problem.

PYTHAGORAS’ THEOREM

b
as an equation:
a2 = b2 + c2
a c

a, b, and c are the lengths

of the sides of the triangle
Fig. 3.5

Let “?“represent the magnitude of the resultant vector. We can now write an equation to show
the information we have:

Working
?2 = (3N)2 + (15N)2
?2 = 9N2 + 225N2 = 234N2
? = √234N2
? = 15.30N

This is how we calculate the magnitude of the resultant vector using Pythagoras’ theorem.

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 Chapter 3
In other cases the only information given is the magnitude of the resultant vector and the angle
Section 1

at which it acts.

resultant vector

40N

30°

angle at which it acts

Fig. 3.6

This one vector can be considered to be made up of two separate vectors acting at right angles
to each other. In this case the components are A and B.

40N
A
30°

the two vectors act

at right angles to B
each other
Fig. 3.7

We now have a right angled triangle with three vectors. To find the magnitudes of the unknown
vectors we use trigonometric ratios. For the vector A (the yellow one) we use the Sine ratio, as
follows:

Working
Sine 30° = A/40N
0.5 = A/40N
A = 0.5 × 40N
A = 20.0N

And for the vector B [the blue one],

Cos 30° = B/40N

0.866 = B/40N
B = 34.64N

Physics Made Simple 22 © Charran Curriculum Specialty 2014

 Chapter 3

Section 1
The scale diagram is another method for finding the magnitude of the resultant vector and
resolving the vector into its components. In this method the length of the lines used to represent
the vectors gives us the magnitude of each vector.

The simplest scale to use is a 1 to 1 scale, where 1 unit of length (mm, cm or any other unit) is
equal to I Newton of force. Therefore if the magnitude of a vector was 35N, its length would be
35 units according to a 1 to 1 scale. Sometimes a 1 to 1 scale my not work since the diagram
may be really big because of large forces; other scales can be used where 1 unit of length
represents several units of force.

For these diagrams the scale should be stated somewhere near the diagram. The angles at
which the vectors act are not drawn to scale but rather as they occur in the actual situation.

www.charranbooks.com 23 Physics Made Simple

 Chapter 4
Straight line motion
Section 1

Man always asks why. Why he asks why? (that is beyond the scope of this book) How bodies
behave as they move is no different. From stones rolling down a hill to birds in flight, motion
has always intrigued man.

In Guyana horse drawn carts are still used [PICTURE]. Aristotle is thought to have observed the
motion of such carts (yes, they’ve been around that long!) and postulated (Dictionary, please!])
that the velocity of the cart was proportional to the force used to move it.

V ∝ F

Now, before going into this theory of Aristotle’s let’s define a few terms.

Distance – this is the length of a journey, i.e. – how many centimeters, meters and kilometers
you actually travelled while moving between two points, e.g. when travelling from Bridgetown
to Oistins it is approximately so many km. (use map – geography link!)

Displacement – this is distance along a straight line between two points, e.g. the displacement
from Bridgetown to Oistins is so many km (use map again)

Speed – this is the rate of change of distance with time

change in distance [m]
speed [ms-1] =
change in time [s]

Velocity – this is the rate of change of displacement with time

change in displacement [m]
velocity [ms-1] =
change in time [s]

Acceleration – this is the rate of change of velocity with time

change in velocity [ms-1]
acceleration [ms ] =
-2
change in time [s]

Physics Made Simple 24 © Charran Curriculum Specialty 2014

DISPLACEMENT – TIME GRAPHS
Chapter 4

Section 1
This is a plot of how a moving object’s displacement varies over time. The gradient of this graph
gives the velocity of the object.

change in displacement
gradient =

Displacement /m
change in time

gradient = Velocity in ms-1

time /s
Fig. 3.8

VELOCITY – TIME GRAPHS

This is a plot of velocity as it varies over time. Velocity is plotted on the y-axis and time on the
x-axis. The gradient of this graph gives us the acceleration of the body.

change in velocity
gradient =
Velocity /m-2

change in time

gradient = Acceleration in ms-2

time /s
Fig. 3.9

Another useful feature of this graph is the area under the graph gives the displacement of the
body for the time it was in motion.

www.charranbooks.com 25 Physics Made Simple

 Chapter 4
Section 1

Velocity - time graph

The area of the triangle is given by:

Velocity /m-2

½ base × height

Since the base is a measure of time and the height

is a measure of velocity, when we multiply the two
units we obtain:

S × ms-1

The units of time cancel each other leaving only m

time /s the unit of displacement.
Fig. 4.0

Newton’s laws of Motion

Sir Isaac Newton (yes, sir! He was a Sir!) put forward three Laws governing motion and forces
which helped iron out the kinks in the theory of force being proportional to velocity.

1 st
LAW
An object will remain either at rest or in constant straight line motion,
unless a force acts on it.

 imply put, if you are at rest you will remain at rest; and if you are moving in
S
a straight line you will remain on a straight line at a particular velocity until
a force slows you down or moves you off that path or makes you speed up.
In even simpler terms a force must act to put you into motion, to change
the direction of motion and to stop motion. This law highlights the concept
of inertia: the tendency of an object to remain at rest. Large objects tend
to be harder to move, and once motion has started even harder to change
their direction; it can be inferred that the mass of an object is a measure of
its inertia.

Physics Made Simple 26 © Charran Curriculum Specialty 2014

 Chapter 4
2

Section 1
nd The force applied to a body is directly proportional to the rate of
LAW change of its momentum.

Here force is said to be proportional to the rate at which the momentum

of a body changes, not the velocity of the body. Momentum is the product
of the mass and velocity of a body; so if momentum is to change velocity
must change and according to the first law, there is only a change in motion
if a force acts to cause it. It is from this law that we get the famous F = ma
equation.

3 rd
LAW
To every action there is an equal but opposite reaction (we all know
some variation of this one!).

As long as there is equilibrium, every force which acts produces another
force which reacts; for example, if you press down on the ground, it presses
up on you with the same force.

MOMENTUM

Now, back to the assumption that the velocity of an object is directly proportional to the force
applied to move the object. This argument couldn’t stand up to one important question – why
would an object continue to move even after the force which was applied to it was removed?
(Ever pushed a supermarket trolley and then let go?)

If the force causing motion is 0 the velocity should be 0 also. So what causes an object to
move even after the force pushing it stops? The answer is momentum. Any moving object has
momentum; momentum is what keeps moving objects in motion even when the force causing
motion is removed. The amount of momentum an object possess is equal to the mass of the
object times its velocity. In an equation:

p = m × v

momentum of velocity of object in ms-1

mass of object
object in kgms-1
in kg

The symbol for momentum is p (yes, I know! p!) and its units are kgms-1.

www.charranbooks.com 27 Physics Made Simple

 Chapter 4
COLLISIONS
Section 1

Moving objects have kinetic energy (more about this in chapter *) when they collide energy
is lost as mostly sound and heat (we hear most collisions – like clapping your hands!) and the
objects involved tend to change shape. Inelastic collisions are collisions in which energy is lost
and the objects involved are damaged – these are real life collisions.

Inelastic Collisions
Before the objects collide After the objects collide

Fig. 4.1

Elastic collisions are collisions in which no energy is lost and the objects involved are undamaged
- these are not real life collisions.

An Elastic Collision
Before the objects collide After the objects collide

Fig. 4.2

Physics Made Simple 28 © Charran Curriculum Specialty 2014

 Chapter 4
PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION OF LINEAR MOMENTUM

Section 1
This says that in a closed system (no external forces acting) the total momentum before the
objects collide is equal to the total momentum after they collide. Some numbers may help us
better understand this principle.

Suppose we have to vehicles, a truck of mass 1500kg and a car of mass 500kg. The truck is
moving at 8ms-1 towards the car and the car is stationary (it has velocity of 0ms-1). The total
momentum of the system (the car and the truck) is the sum of the truck’s momentum and that
of the car; using numbers

Working
PT [momentum of truck] = mass of truck × velocity of truck
PT [momentum of truck] = 1500 kg × 8ms-1 = 12,000 kgms-1
PC [momentum of car] = 0 [the car is not moving; no velocity = no momentum]
Total momentum of system [truck + car] = 12,000 kgms-1 + 0 kgms-1
= 12,000 kgms-1

Now, if after they collide the truck moves in the same direction (just slower) at 2ms-1 and the
car moves in the same direction (direction is important, since when objects move in opposite
directions we have to subtract their momentum) as the truck, what is the velocity of the car?

We have already established that the total momentum before the truck hits the car is 12,000
kgms-1; it therefore it means that the total momentum after the collision should be the same,
12,000kgms-1.

Working
PT [after they collide] = 1500kg × 2ms-1 = 3000kgms-1
PC [after the collide] = 500kg × VC

Therefore, the total momentum after they collide = 3000kgms-1 + 500VC kgms-1

So by the principle of conservation of linear momentum,

12,000 kgms-1 = 3000kgms-1 + 500VC kgms-1

With some simple mathematical manipulation,

12,000 kgms-1 – 3000 kgm-1 = 500VC kgms-1

9000 = 500VC kgms-1
9000/500 ms-1 = VC
18 ms-1 = VC

www.charranbooks.com 29 Physics Made Simple

 Chapter
Energy
Section 1
5
Energy is all around us. As cliché as this may sound we are surrounded by various types of
energy - kinetic, electrical, chemical, elastic, gravitational, thermal (heat) and sound, to name
a few. Energy keeps us and our world going. Everything around us needs energy – from plants
that use the sun’s energy to hybrid cars which run on electricity and gasoline.

So, what is energy?

For you to walk around your house you use energy; for you to lift this book you use energy; for
plants to photosynthesise they need energy; for your car to drive it needs energy; for the sun to
produce light it needs energy. Energy is needed for all these processes. Energy enables us to
do, perform, to carry out a task. Energy is measured in Joules (symbol J). The unit of energy is
named after physicist James Prescott Joule However, this is physics and we love our formulae
and numbers so here’s a formula:

W = F × d

the amount of distance the object moves as a

the force result of the force in metres
work done in
applied to move
Joules
the object in
Newtons

This means the unit of energy (the Joule) can be expressed, in terms of fundamental units, as
the Newton metre or Nm.

Question: Which other quantity has the same fundamental units as the Joule?

You would have noticed the formula is for calculating the amount of WORK done. The assumption
we make is that all the energy used up is equal to the amount of work done. Therefore if we
calculate the amount of work done, we can assume that amount of energy has been used up
to do the work.

Work
Force applied by Dave
Caveman Dave only
does work when the
boulder moves in the
direction he pushes
Fig. 4.3
Physics Made Simple 30 © Charran Curriculum Specialty 2014
 Chapter 5
So simply put, work is done when a force produces motion (in the direction in which the force

Section 1
is applied!)

QUESTION

How much work is done by a man who uses a force

of 15N to push a coconut cart 25m?

Working
W=F×d
W = 15N × 25m
W = 375J

answer
The moment of force is similar to the Joule in
terms of fundamental units.

ENERGY CONSERVATION AND ENERGY TRANSFORMATIONS

The Principle of Conservation of Energy says energy cannot be created or destroyed; it is only
converted from one form to another. For example, in a really simplified version of how a car
works, a car needs an electrical spark from its spark plug to ignite the fuel in the engine. An
explosion occurs, pistons move and so does the car. So the electrical energy in the battery along
with the chemical potential energy from the fuel produces thermal energy which produces
kinetic energy (the energy of motion).

Energy Conversions
A simple look at the energy conversions which occur between a hydro-electric dam and a radio

hydro-electric dam
hydro-electric
power plant

The water stored GPE to mechanical

behind the dam has energy to electrical
gravitational potential energy in power
energy (GPE) plant electric energy to sound
energy in radio
Fig. 4.4

www.charranbooks.com 31 Physics Made Simple

 Chapter 5
The energy undergoes several conversions – changing from one form to another. Most systems
Section 1
operate this way; energy enters in one form and leaves in another. Plants absorb thermal (heat)
energy and this energy becomes food (chemical energy). Toasters turn electrical energy into
thermal energy. Energy conversions are like energy – they are everywhere!

KINETIC ENERGY

An object in motion has Kinetic Energy (abbreviated as KE). The amount of KE depends of the
velocity of the body. The amount of KE a body possesses is found using the formula:

1
KE = 2
m × v2

the Kinetic Energy the velocity of

of the object in the mass of the object in ms-1
Joules the object in
kilograms

QUESTION

An object has a mass of 15kg and moves with a velocity of 3ms-1. How much kinetic energy
does it have?

working
Substituting the values for mass and velocity; remembering only the value for velocity is
squared…

KE= ½ mv2
KE = ½ × 15kg × [3ms-1]2
KE = ½ × 135J

answer
KE = 67.5J

POTENTIAL ENERGY

When we hear the term potential we think of an ability to do, something hidden, latent. Potential
energy is energy a body has as a result of its position or makeup. Fuels (of all types) have
chemical potential energy – when ignited they generate heat. A stretched rubber band has
elastic potential energy – release it after stretching and it will generate motion.

Physics Made Simple 32 © Charran Curriculum Specialty 2014

GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY
Chapter 5

Section 1
Gravitational Potential Energy (abbreviated GPE or PE) is the energy a body has as a result of
being above the ground (the Earth’s surface). The amount of GPE is given by the formula:

GPE = m × g × h
the height of the
Gravitational object above the
Potential Energy the mass of acceleration due ground in metres
the object in to gravity in ms-2
kilograms

QUESTION

A book of mass 0.4kg is on a shelf 1.2m above the ground, how much GPE does it possess?
(Take g as 9.8ms-2)

working
GPE = m × g × h
GPE = 0.4kg × 9.8ms-2 × 1.2m

answer
GPE = 4.7 J

POWER

Power is the rate at which energy is used up or the rate at which work is done. The unit of power
is the Watt and is named after James Watt, an inventor and engineer. As an equation:

the energy used to

complete a task in
the Power Joules
E
exerted in Watts P = t
time in seconds

www.charranbooks.com 33 Physics Made Simple

 Chapter 5
Section 1

QUESTION

A water pump uses 2500J of energy in 7seconds. What is its power?

working
P = E/t
P = 2500J/7s

answer
P = 357.14W

PRESSURE

Pressure if defined as the force acting on unit area.

Force in Newtons
Pressure in F
Pascals, Pa P = A
Area in m2

The above formula only gives the pressure exerted on a solid. Liquids and gases too exert
pressure; this pressure is called fluid pressure. Fluid pressure is determined by the density of
the fluid, the height (or depth) of fluid and acceleration due to gravity.

P = ρ × g × h
the height of fluid
in metres
Pressure, in
Pascals (Pa) density of fluid, acceleration due
in kgm-3 to gravity, in ms-2

From this formula we can conclude that the greater the height of fluid, the greater the pressure it
exerts. In simple terms if h is large, P should be large also; this is the reason deep sea exploration
vehicles must be built so that they can withstand the immense pressure they experience. A
simple experiment can demonstrate this fact, see the ‘for you to do at home’ section below.

Physics Made Simple 34 © Charran Curriculum Specialty 2014

 Chapter 5

Section 1
FOR YOU TO DO AT HOME

You will need: three Styrofoam cups

Instructions
• Punch one hole in each cup. WAIT! Not yet! Each hole must be at a different
height on each cup. The first hole (in the first cup) should be near the top of the
cup (NEAR to! Not at the brim!) about 1 cm from the top should be good enough.
The second hole (in the second cup. Notice a pattern?) should be in the middle of
the cup. The third cup should have a hole near the bottom of the cup (please do
not puncture the bottom of the cup!)

• Place the cups side-by-side

• With your finger over the hole in the first cup, fill it with water. When the cup is
full remove your finger. Observe how far from the cup the water spouts.

• Repeat this step for the other two cups.

ARCHIMEDES’ PRINCIPLE AND BUOYANCY

It is said that Archimedes’ was asked by his king to determine if his crown was actually made of
gold (the king suspected that his golden crown had been switched with a crown made of some
other metal). Archimedes’ pondered over this problem for some time, then while taking a bath,
he realised that as he went into the tub, water came out. EUREKA! He ran from his bath through
the streets shouting EUREKA!

Archimedes’ principle says that an object, when placed in fluid, experiences an upthrust,
equal to the weight of fluid displaced.

Now, let me explain. Have you ever stood on the sidewalk as a large truck sped past? What
happened after the truck passed you? Did you feel a slight or strong movement of air? When
the truck moves it moves through the air; it displaces it – move it aside. Air is matter and two
objects cannot occupy the same space at the same time; so, the truck pushes the air aside to
pass through. This is the reason racing cars (especially Formula 1 cars) are carefully designed,
to ensure they can easily pass through the air.

So if an object is in a fluid (a liquid or gas) it must move some of the fluid aside first. However
that fluid wants its space back, so it pushes against the object, exerting a force on the object.
That force is called upthrust. Upthrust is the force that causes objects which are in fluids (liquids
in particular) to feel much lighter. Upthrust acts against the weight of the object making them
appear lighter; it makes the object buoyant.

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Section 2
• Nature of Heat
• Macroscopic Props & Phenomena

• Thermal Measurements

• Transfer of Thermal Energy

• Energy

www.charranbooks.com 37 Physics Made Simple

 Chapter
The Nature of Heat
Section 2
1
Heat has always been of importance to man. Count Rumford (born Benjamin Thompson),
It kept us warm at night and during winter; it was charged with producing cannons, the
cooked our food, helped us work metals and method used to do this was well, ‘simple’; a
make bricks. Simply put, heat had a great deal solid cylindrical mould was drilled from one end
to do with man’s survival and the development to the other to create the cannon. This method
of civilization. produced cannons but also an incredible
amount of heat! Rumford later realised that
But, heat has always been mysterious from its heat was only generated when work was
origins to its behaviour, questions have always being done (when boring was taking place)
existed about heat. One of the first theories on and that as long as work was done, heat was
the nature and source of heat was the Caloric generated. He concluded that the generation
Theory. The idea this theory put forward was of heat was not influenced by the amount of
that heat was an invisible fluid which flowed caloric the solid metal cylinder contained but
from hotter objects (objects with more caloric) by the amount of work done.
to colder objects (objects with less caloric). This
theory however has some issues; firstly, if heat Rumford’s work is cited as one of the most
is a fluid the object can only contain a certain important works in establishing the Kinetic
amount of fluid (an amount proportional to Theory of Heat as the accepted theory.
the object’s volume). This idea was replaced
by the Kinetic Theory of heat which proposed James Prescott Joule, through a series of
that heat was the byproduct of work being experiments established that the amount of
done (mainly due to friction). This explained mechanical work done in rotating paddles
why two objects, irrespective of size would through a barrel of water, was equivalent
continue to produce heat if they were rubbed to the temperature change of the water.
against each other. This experiment proved to be influential in
establishing the fact that energy is conserved.

Physics Made Simple 38 © Charran Curriculum Specialty 2014

 Chapter
Macroscopic Properties and
2

Section 2
Phenomena
PHASES OF MATTER

The three most commonly occurring phases of matter are solid, liquid and gas (some say plasma
is a phase of matter – it is superheated, charged material it is found in stars). These three phases
(or states) are quite different from each other in ways we can feel and otherwise experiences
with our senses. We can see through most gases (air is one such gas); we can float objects
on liquids, even liquids float on other liquids (oils floats on water); and we can used solids
to support other solids. The differences in the three phases of matter are all because of the
spacing of the molecules in each phase.

Phases of Matter

Solid: molecules Liquid: molecules Gas: molecules are

are arranged in a are randomly randomly arranged
regular pattern and arranged and closer and widely spaced -
are closely packed than in gas but this makes them less
further than in a dense than solids
solid and liquids
Fig. 4.5

In solids, molecules are closely packed and arranged in a regular pattern; they touch each other.
They remain this close because of inter-molecular forces which are particularly strong in solids
(stronger than in the other phases). In liquids, the intermolecular forces are not as strong as in
solids and this allows the molecules to move further apart; the molecules in a liquid are not in
any pattern since they are free to move about . Finally in gases the molecules are quite far apart
since the intermolecular forces are very weak; the molecules can move so freely that gases must
be kept in sealed containers. Liquids and gases are called fluids; they are so called since they
do not have a fixed ‘shape’ they simply take the shape of the container they are in.

www.charranbooks.com 39 Physics Made Simple

 Chapter 2
EXPANSION
Section 2

When a substance is heated it tends to expand. This expansion is as a result of some interesting
molecular behaviour. As heat is applied the molecules tend to gain kinetic energy; this means
they move faster. If sufficient energy is applied the molecules will eventually move fast enough
to overcome the intermolecular forces which keep them close together in the solid phase. As
most substances expand there are some obvious external signs – there is a change in volume;
the substance takes up more space becoming deformed. Plastic water pipes tend to bend and
become deformed over time when run along the ground in the open; telephone and electric
cables tend to sag over time.

THE GAS LAWS

The Gas Laws provide a means of examining the effects of changes in pressure, volume and
temperature on each other. Since there are three quantities one must be held constant while
the effect of varying one on the other. The other consideration is the amount of gas present. As
we learnt when looking at the different phases of matter, the molecules of a gas are responsible
for creating pressure in a container. The more molecules of gas in a container, the greater
the pressure in the container; this leads us to conclude that the amount of gas must be kept
constant.

BOYLE’S LAW – PRESSURE AND VOLUME

This law says for a fixed mass of gas at constant temperature (all the Laws tend to start with this
statement) Pressure is indirectly proportional to Volume. In other words if we increase volume
the pressure decreases.

An explanation of Boyle’s Law

container
wall
gas molecules

gas
molecule container

When a gas In a smaller container In a larger container

molecule strikes (smaller volume) the (larger volume) the gas
the wall of the gas molecules have a molecules have a greater
container it is short distance to travel distance to travel to reach
in it generates to reach the container the container walls - there
pressure walls is a longer break between
collisions = less pressure
Fig. 4.6

Physics Made Simple 40 © Charran Curriculum Specialty 2014

 Chapter 2
The pressure exerted by a gas comes from the fact that its molecules collide with the internal

Section 2
walls of the container and, as such if the molecules are made to travel a greater distance (say
by increasing the size of the container) they will take longer to collide with the container’s walls,
thereby decreasing pressure in container. As an expression,

1
P∝
2
As an equation,

PV = k

If we consider a gas with initial and final conditions we have:

P1V1 = P2V2

initial conditions of pressure final conditions in pressure and

and volume for the gas volume of gas (after a change in either
pressure or volume has occured)

CHARLES’ LAW – VOLUME AND TEMPERATURE

This says for a fixed mass of gas at constant pressure, Volume is directly proportional to
Temperature. In other words, if we increase the temperature (in a container that could expand),
the volume would increase also.

An explanation of Charles’ Law

HEAT
Heat increases the Kinetic Energy the gas molecules collide with
of the gas molecules; they move the container’s walls forcing the
faster and collide harder with the container to expand
container walls
Fig. 4.7

www.charranbooks.com 41 Physics Made Simple

 Chapter 2
Repeating what was done for Boyle’s Law, as an expression we have:
Section 2

V ∝ T

As an equation,

V
= k
T
If we consider a gas with initial and final conditions we have:

V1 V2
=
T1 T2
initial conditions of volume final conditions of volume and
and temperature temperature (after some change in either
volume or temperature has occured)

The variation of volume with temperature for a fixed mass of gas at constant pressure was
plotted on a graph, yielding results that we would expect: an upward sloping graph or an
increase in volume as temperature increases. The graph was then extended left, across to
negative temperatures and an important discovery was made: absolute zero. Absolute zero is
the temperature at which the kinetic energy of the gas molecules would be 0. The temperature
at this point is -273° C and is the beginning of what is known as the Absolute or Thermodynamic
Scale of temperature; this scale is used in science since the point used to define its origin does
not depend on the physical property of a material or substance.

Charles’ Law and Absolute Zero

Volume
graph extrapolated
to obtain this
portion

Temperature

Absolute Zero: a resonably cool -273°C.

This is the start of the Absolute or
Thermodynamic Scale of temperature
Fig. 4.8

Physics Made Simple 42 © Charran Curriculum Specialty 2014

 Chapter 2
Any temperature given in degrees Celsius can be converted into Kelvin using the following

Section 2
formula:

K = °C + 273

temperature in Kelvin (not the temperature at the

temperature in beginning of the Kelvin scale
degrees Kelvin, just Kelvin!
degrees Celsius

THE PRESSURE LAW – PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE

This says for a fixed mass of gas at constant volume, the Pressure is directly proportional to
Temperature of the gas. In other words, if the temperature of the gas is increased the pressure
it exerts on the container increases also.

The Pressure Law

container cannot
expand - its volume is
fixed

HEAT
Before heat is After heat is applied the
applied to the gas molecules gain kinetic
the molecules move energy and move faster,
slowly and have low collied harder and more
kinetic energy often with the container
walls increasing pressure
Fig. 4.9

www.charranbooks.com 43 Physics Made Simple

 Chapter 2
Once again, as an expression,
Section 2

P ∝ T

As an equation,

P = k
T
If we consider a gas with initial and final conditions we have:

P1 P2
=
T1 T2
initial conditions of pressure final conditions of pressure and
and temperature temperature (after some change in either
pressure or temperature has occured)

COMBINED GAS EQUATION

So far we have three separate equations; however, they can be combined into one equation –
the combined gas equation.

P1V1 P2V2
=
T1 T2
initial conditions of final conditions of pressure, volume, and
pressure, volume, and temperature (after some change in either
temperature has occured)

Physics Made Simple 44 © Charran Curriculum Specialty 2014

 Chapter
Thermal Measurements
3

Section 2
Smooth, rough, bumpy are all words which can be used to describe how an object feels; such
terms however cannot describe the thermal behavior of an object. To describe how an object
handles heat we use terms such as heat capacity, specific heat capacity and latent heat. These
terms all describe thermal measurements.

HEAT CAPACITY, C

This is the amount of heat energy needed to raise the temperature of a substance by 1 Kelvin
[K]. The symbol for heat capacity is C and it has units of Jkg-1.

SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY, C

SHC is the amount of heat energy needed to raise the temperature of 1 kg of a substance by
1 Kelvin. This quantity is called ‘specific’ since it deals with a particular mass of substance. The
symbol for SHC is C and it has units of Jkg-1K-1.

C = m × c

Heat Capacity in JK-1 Specific Heat Capacity in Jkg-1K-1

mass in kg

The SHC of a substance can be determined by two methods, the electrical method and the
method of mixtures.

THE ELECTRICAL METHOD

The apparatus for finding the SHC of a solid by the electrical method
electric heater thermometer

insulation to
prevent heat
loss

solid being
heated
Fig. 5.0
www.charranbooks.com 45 Physics Made Simple
 Chapter 3
In the electrical method the substance is weighed and its initial temperature recorded. The
Section 2

electrical heater is turned on and allowed to heat the substance for a measured period of time;
the final temperature of the substance is then recorded. Now for the calculations!

The first quantity to be calculated is the ENERGY the electrical heater supplied to the substance.

Energy = Power × time

This energy is responsible for the change in temperature of the substance and is related to the
SHC of the substance by the formula below.

Heat energy EH = mc∆θ

mass in Joules
Specific heat temperature change in K or °C
capacity in Jkg-1K-1

Rearranging the formula we have:

E
c=
m∆θ
If we now calculate the temperature change of the substance we have all we need to find c.

METHOD OF MIXTURES

The method of mixtures uses a different approach but the same quantities are measured and
recorded; this method is used when the electrical method is not an option. This method uses
the temperature change of a substance of known SHC to determine the ENERGY supplied by
a quantity of unknown SHC.

Physics Made Simple 46 © Charran Curriculum Specialty 2014

 Chapter 3

Section 2
The Method of Mixtures for finding the SHC of a solid
STEP 1 STEP 2

thermometer stirrer
solid

liquid of
HEAT known SHC
Step 1: The solid
of UNKNOWN
SHC is heated heated solid

Step 2: The heated solid

is placed in the liquid of
KNOWN SHC and the
maximum temperature the
liquid reaches is recorded
Fig. 5.1

The mass and initial temperature of the substance of unknown SHC is measured and recorded.
It is then heated (not by an electric heater, but by open flame) and placed in a known mass of a
substance of known SHC, which has its initial temperature measured and recorded. The mixture
is stirred until there is no temperature change; this final temperature is measured and recorded.
Again, off to the calculations!

We start with the substance of known SHC. We need to find the energy supplied TO it to cause
its temperature to change. We use our good old friend:

E = mc∆θ

Where in this case, the mass, SHC and temperature change are all for the substance of KNOWN
SHC. The value of energy obtained here is assumed to the same as the energy released by the
heated substance; in other words we assume that no heat energy is lost.

www.charranbooks.com 47 Physics Made Simple

 Chapter 3
LATENT HEAT
Section 2

Energy is needed to change state or phase; this is called latent heat. Latent heat is the heat
energy supplied to a substance to cause a change in phase or state without a change in
temperature after phase change.

Specific latent heat is the heat energy supplied to cause a change in state of 1kg of a substance
without a change in temperature. There are two specific latent heats; the first is the specific
latent heat of fusion, lf - this is the heat energy needed to change 1kg of a substance from solid
to liquid without a change in temperature.

EH = m × If

heat energy supplied to the latent heat of fusion

change solid to liquid mass of substance
changed from solid to
liquid

The second is the specific latent heat of vaporisation, lV; this is the heat energy needed to
change 1kg of a substance from liquid to gas without a change in temperature.

EH = m × Iv

heat energy supplied to the latent heat of vaporisation

change liquid to gas mass of substance
changed from liquid to
gas

As a substance moves from solid to liquid to gas latent heat is added; when the process is
reversed the latent heat is released.

MELTING, EVAPORATION, CONDENSATION AND FREEZING…AND BOILING

Before venturing any further there are a few terms that need to be clarified. Melting occurs
when solid changes phase and becomes a liquid; freezing occurs when a liquid becomes
solid. Evaporation occurs when a liquid becomes a gas and condensation occurs when a gas
becomes liquid. Some substances undergo sublimation; they move from solid to gas without a
liquid phase. One such substance is naphthalene.

Boiling occurs at specific temperatures; for example water boils at 100°C (under certain
conditions)

Physics Made Simple 48 © Charran Curriculum Specialty 2014

HEATING AND COOLING CURVES
Chapter 3

Section 2
The points at which phase change occurs can be identified using a heating or cooling curve.
Firstly, a heating or cooling curve shows the variation of the temperature of an object with time.
Changes in phase will be marked by a period over which there is no increase or decrease in
temperature – the heat gained or lost was the heat responsible for phase change.

A heating curve
Temperature /K

Temperature is constant for

these intervals of time. In these
regions the heat energy supplied
was used by the substance to
change state/phase.

time /s
Fig. 5.2

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 Chapter 4
Methods of Heat Transfer
Section 2

The once mystical, magical phenomenon called heat has similarly unique ways of moving from
one place to another.

CONDUCTION

Conduction is most effective in solids. This is because this means of heat transfer depends on
the proximity of the atoms to each other and atoms are closest in solids. In this process the
atoms when heated vibrate and due to how close they are collide quite easily with other atoms;
heat energy is transferred from one atom to the next by each collision.

The best conductors of heat are metals are also the best conductors of electricity. One reason
for this similarity is the proximity of the atoms, the other is that metals have electrons which can
be easily freed and in turn, transfer heat. Conduction is the reason the handle of a metal spoon
used to stir a pot would eventually become hot (kitchen mitts!)

A simple experiment demonstrating convection

heat flows down the metal rod eventually the
wax melts and the popsicle stick falls off

popsicle stick/pointer

wax
metal rod

heat source
Fig. 5.3

CONVECTION

This is limited to fluids (liquids and gases). In convection the heated part of the medium moves
(that’s why it won’t work in solids) taking the heat with it. The heated fluid expands (volume
increases), becomes less dense (density decreases with an increase in volume) and rises creating
rapidly rising columns of fluid called convection currents.

Physics Made Simple 50 © Charran Curriculum Specialty 2014

 Chapter 4

Section 2
Convection in a liquid
warmer, less
dense fluid
rises

cooler,denser
fluid sinks
to replace
warmer fluid
and be heated

HEAT
Fig. 5.4

RADIATION

Both previously discussed methods of heat transfer required some medium; radiation does not
need a medium. The Sun’s energy warms the Earth from millions of miles away but outer space
is essentially a vacuum; the heat we receive from the Sun is in the form of electromagnetic
radiation.

Radiation in a vacuum

The Sun emits electromagnetic

waves (a form of radiation)
which provide light and heat to
the Earth

SUN

EARTH
Fig. 5.5

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Section 3
• Wave Motion
• Sound

• Electromagnetic Spectrum

• Light

• Energy

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 Chapter 1
Wave Motion
Section 3

WAVES

A wave is a means of moving energy between would mean that all the waves we examine
top points (without moving matter). There are here are by definition progressive).
a few key terms that we need to cover before
moving on: Waves are of two types either, transverse or
longitudinal. In a transverse wave the particles
Pulse: a pulse is a wave of short duration in the medium vibrate perpendicular (at right
angles) to the direction of wave motion. In
Progressive wave: a wave that moves though longitudinal waves the particles vibrate parallel
a medium, transferring energy as it goes (it to the direction of wave motion.

Transverse and Longitudinal Waves

direction of wave travel the slinky contracts
slinky spring and expands - creating
oscillated back and a longitudinal wave
forth
the slinky takes
slinky spring the shape of the
oscillated up and transverse wave
down
direction of wave travel
Fig. 5.6

WAVE PARAMETERS

All waves are governed by a simple equation: All transverse waves, for example, travel at
the same speed, the speed of light; however,
their wavelengths are different and hence
their frequencies will be different also. The
V = f × λ frequency of a wave is related to its period by
the equation by the formula:

wave velocity /ms-1 wavelength /m

frequency /Hz the period of
1
f = T the waveis the
time taken for
the frequency one complete
of the wave in wavelength in
Hertz (Hz) seconds

Physics Made Simple 54 © Charran Curriculum Specialty 2014

Sound
Chapter 2

Section 3
PRODUCTION AND PROPAGATION

Sound is a longitudinal wave which is produced by means of vibrations; a plucked string,

clanging symbols, your earphones playing your favourite song are all sources of vibration and
hence sound. Sound is also transmitted (propagated) by collisions between the particles in a
medium; it is for this reason that sound travels faster in solids than gases (the atoms in a solid
are closer together than in a liquid). Since particles must collide for sound to travel sound
cannot be transmitted through a vacuum (no particles or atoms or molecules there!).

Sound: A Longitudinal Wave

Direction of wave propagation

compression: rarefraction: several

several layers of layers of air forced
air forced together together
Fig. 5.7

LOUDNESS AND PITCH

The loudness of sound indicates the amplitude of the sound wave, the greater the loudness the
greater the amplitude of the sound wave. The pitch of sound refers to the frequency of sound;
high pitched sound has a high frequency and so on.

SWEET SWIFT SOUNDS

The human ear can hear frequencies from 20 to 20,000Hz, but this range does vary slightly from
person to person. Sound travels at approximately 340ms-1 in air [though that is fast it is not that
fast when compared to the stunning speed of light – a wicked 300, 000, 000 ms-1!!!

The difference in the two speeds is evident in each lightning strike; we see the flash a few
seconds before we hear the explosion it produced.

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 Chapter 2
REFLECTION, REFRACTION AND DIFFRACTION…AND INTERFERENCE
Section 3

Sound reflects as is evident in echoes (echo! echo! echo! – it’s more fun when you say it in
a place that echoes). Echoes are the reason most recording studios have thick drapes and
padded walls; these soft surfaces reduce the amount of sound reflected by absorbing most of
the sound energy.

Refraction of sound is not quite easily demonstrated and observed (we can’t SEE sound) but it
does occur. The speed of sound is determined by the temperature of the air it passes through
and is given by the formula

Speed of sound in air = 331.3 + .606T

where T is the temperature of the air in degrees Celsius.

There are differences in the temperature of different layers of air. During the day, as the ground
heats up, the air directly above the ground is hotter than the air above it; in this case sound
would move faster in the air directly above ground, and slower in the layers of air above it. The
sound wave would refract upwards. At night the layer above the ground is cooler than the layers
above it, so the sound would move slower in the layer of air directly above ground and faster in
the air above it. The sound would refract downwards.

Refraction of Sound
cool air
During the day
hot air
sound tends to
refract upwards

hot air
During the day
cool air
sound tends to
refract downwards

Fig. 5.8

Sound can be heard around corners, even when there is no wall to assist sound in ‘bending’.
This is an example of sound diffracting; another example is the cardboard horn movie directors
used to yell “cut!” through. The sound enters the small end of the cardboard horn and as it
leaves the larger end it spreads out, reaching a wide area.

Physics Made Simple 56 © Charran Curriculum Specialty 2014

 Chapter 2

Section 3
Diffraction of Sound

sound waves leave

the cardboard
horn and spread
over a wide area

cardboard horn
sound waves
covering a small
area enter the
cardboard horn

Fig. 5.9

INTERFERENCE OF SOUND

All waves interfere. It is a simple but true statement; interference occurs when two similar waves
‘combine’. Constructive interference occurs when a larger wave is produced; destructive
interference occurs when a smaller wave is produced.

ULTRASOUND

The most primitive form of ultrasound is employed by bats; they use the echoes produced by
the high frequency sound they emit to ‘map’ out the terrain as they fly over it. The same basic
idea is employed in ultrasound; a high frequency wave (30MHz – 300MHz) is emitted and the
echoes it produces are used to make an image of the object or surface to be mapped. The
frequencies used are above those the human ear can hear; this is necessary since the ‘image’
can only be properly obtained if the sound waves are reflected with little distortion; this is best
done by use of the high frequency sound waves, since they are less easily distorted.

One primary application of ultrasound is in pre-natal care. In this field ultrasound is used to
create an image of the unborn child which is used to monitor the development of the child.
Originally ultrasound images were fuzzy black-and-white images which doctors had to take
great care in interpreting. Advancements in this technology have led to the development of
a three-dimensional ultrasound which (as the name suggests) produces a three-dimensional
image instead of the two-dimensional image from traditional ultrasound. This 3-D images gives
excellent detail and clarity, allowing for much easier monitoring of the baby’s health and if
necessary, diagnosis.

Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) is a form of ultrasound which is used to detect any
abnormalities below the Earth’s surface. It uses high frequency sound waves, which are directed
downwards, through the ground, and the reflections are analysed for abnormalities.

www.charranbooks.com 57 Physics Made Simple

 Chapter 3
The Electromagnetic Spectrum
Section 3

The Electromagnetic Spectrum (EM spectrum for short) is an arrangement of all electromagnetic
waves (an electromagnetic wave has as the name suggests electrical and magnetic components).
This means that:

• all the waves are transverse

• they travel at the same speed
• they can pass through a vacuum (the light and heat we receive from the Sun has to pass
through outer space to get here)

The Electromagnetic Spectrum (simplified)

gamma rays x-rays ultraviolet visible light infrared microwaves radio waves

waves arranged in order of increasing wavelength

The waves in the EM spectrum have different wavelengths and are sometimes arranged in order
of increasing wavelength (which is the same as decreasing frequency – remember v = f λ ).

Gamma rays have the highest frequency and incredible range and are emitted from some
radioactive substances; radio waves have the lowest frequency and longest wavelength and are
used for communication over long distances.

Ultraviolet (or UV) is of a higher frequency than visible light and also comes from the sun (and
is the reason one should always use sunscreen!).

Infrared is given off by most objects which are at certain temperatures, for example, the human
body (this is the radiation which makes heat or thermal or heat vision possible – all of you Call
of Duty fans would know this).

X–rays are also a form of radiation and are used to locate and determine the severity of broken
bones.

Then comes visible light or what is called white light; this is what helps us to see since no other
wavelengths in the spectrum are visible to the human eye.

White light is made up of several colours which are easily identified when light undergoes
dispersion; dispersion is the process by which white light is separated into its constituent colours
by means of diffraction.

The most common example of dispersion is seen in the rainbow. A rainbow is formed when light
passes through water droplets in the air; the different colours travel at different speeds through
the water droplets and as such they bend at different rates. Red has the longest wavelength and
bends less than violet which has a shortest wavelength.
Physics Made Simple 58 © Charran Curriculum Specialty 2014
 Chapter 3

Section 3
Dispersion of White Light

screen
ray of white light
red
orange the colours
yellow
green of the visible
blue
indigo spectrum
violet

glass prism
The dispersion of white light is possible because the various colours
which make up visible light have different refractive indices and
will bend at different rates as they pass through the glass prism
Fig. 5.9

www.charranbooks.com 59 Physics Made Simple

 Chapter 4
Light
Section 3

The nature of light (what it was thought to be) was at the centre of an intellectual debate
between some of the greatest scientific minds of that time. Some said light was a wave, others
a particle and each side had assembled evidence to support their claims.

One of the first theories came from Sir Isaac Newton, who proposed that light behaved like a
particle. He believed that light could not reflect or refract if it was a wave. Years Later Christian
Huygens proposed that light was a wave and provided his explanation for it. Thomas Young
performed his now famous double slit experiment, which provided further proof that light was
a wave. Finally, Albert Einstein proposed that light, a wave, was made up of tiny packets of
energy called photons.

This brought to an end a great battle over the nature of light; the conclusion being it was a wave
made up of particles.

YOUNG’S DOUBLE SLIT EXPERIMENT

The experiment performed by Thomas Young is of great importance since it proved something
that was very difficult to do; it proved that light interfered.

Young’s Double Slit Experiment

Apparatus viewed
from above

1st 2nd
lamp screen screen display screen

Apparatus viewed The pattern on the display screen had one

from the side central, broad, bright band of light far brighter
than the light source used in the experiment.
The other bands were of decreasing intensity,
clearly indicating that the light waves interfered
both constructively and destructively
Fig. 6.0

Physics Made Simple 60 © Charran Curriculum Specialty 2014

 Chapter 4
This experiment had to be done with one light source which had one frequency (a light source

Section 3
which produces one frequency is called a monochromatic source); to do this a sodium vapour
lamp was used. The next issue faced was the width of the slits used. Diffraction occurs only
when the width of the opening or gap is less than the wavelength of the wave passing through
it; so to obtain an opening or gap which was less than the wavelength of light was not easy.

The pattern obtained on the display screen proved light interfered; the central band, which was
brighter than the others, was a product of the ewo light sources interfering constructively. The
other bands (which were on either side of the central band) were less bright than the central
band and kept diminishing in intensity the as distance from the central band increases.

RAYS OF LIGHT

Light travels in beams; beams are made up of rays. . A beam of light (from a torch light, per
say) can be considered to be made up of several rays. For simplicity sake, let us take a ray to be
a very thin, yet visible beam of light (probably, the thinnest beam one could obtain) which can
be used to explain the behavior of optical instruments and how light behaves as it undergoes
reflection, refraction and diffraction.

REFLECTION OF LIGHT

Light is reflected when it is incident on a surface. The nature of the surface determines how
much light is reflected; smooth, shiny surfaces are the best reflectors of light while rough, dull
surfaces are poor reflectors. The reason for this difference is that every point on a surface acts
as a reflector (or mirror), therefore for smooth surfaces all points on the surface reflect light at
the same angle. On the other hand, for rough surfaces each point on the surface is at a different
height ir inclination, so light is not reflected at the same angle.

Reflection of Light

Mirror

angle of incidence (î) angle of reflection (r̂)

Incident Ray Reflected Ray

Normal
Fig. 6.1

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 Chapter 4
The angle of incidence is always equal to the angle of reflection; this is the first law of reflection.
Section 3

The normal is an imaginary line drawn perpendicular to the point of contact of the ray of light.
The second law states the normal, incident and reflected rays all lie in the same plane (a plane
is a flat two-dimensional surface).

REFRACTION

Light refracts as it passes from one medium to another; the reason for this is there is a change in
the velocity of the wave (velocity changes because of a change in wavelength). Some common
examples of light refracting are looking at a pencil in a glass of water from the side – the pencil
tends to look as if it is broken. Looking at an aquarium from the junction of two sides, some of
the fish can be seen in both sides.

Refraction of Light Through a Glass Block

angle of
incidence (i)

glass block
angle of
refraction (r)

lateral displacement of a
ray of light as it is refracted
Fig. 6.2

When light travels from a less dense medium to a denser medium it bends towards the normal;
if it moves from a dense medium to a less dense medium it bends away from the normal. This
means, if a ray of light travels from glass to air it will bend towards the glass; and, on the other
hand if it travels from glass to air it bends towards the normal.

Physics Made Simple 62 © Charran Curriculum Specialty 2014

REFRACTIVE INDEX AND SNELL’S LAW
Chapter 4

Section 3
The refractive index (n) of a material is the ratio of the Sine of the angle of incidence (Sin i) to
the Sine of the angle of refraction (Sin r). This quantity has no units; it is dimensionless.

Refractive Index Sin i Sine of the angle of incidence

(it has no units) n =
Sin r Sine of the angle of refraction

If the ray of light travels from medium 1 to medium 2 (say from air to glass) the refractive index
is written as 1n2 or airnglass.

Sin i V1 λ1
1
n 2
= = =
Sin r V2 λ2

Here is an outline of an experiment which can be done to test Snell’s Law.

Experiment 4TESTING SNELL’S LAW SBA IDEA

Apparatus/equipment needed: Optical board and pins; glass block; ruler; protractor; paper
tape; plain paper or cardboard and pencils

optical board
cardboard
angle of incidence
angle of refraction
glass block

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 Chapter 4
Section 3

Method:

1. Fasten cardboard or paper to optical board

2. Place glass block on cardboard or paper [centre it]
3. Trace outline of block
4. Construct a normal [perpendicular] to one face of the block; then construct [mark off]
several angles to the constructed normal [15, 20, 25, 30, 35 for example].
5. Place two pins along line used to mark off first [smallest] angle.
6. On the opposite side of the glass block, place another two pins so that the images of the
four pins fall appear as one.
7. Remove the pins and mark off the angle formed.
8. Draw a straight line THROUGH the glass block FROM the points where the angles marked
off touch the outside of the glass block.
9. Measure and record the angles of refraction [r] and incidence [i]
10. Repeat steps 5 to 9 for remaining angles. Record ALL results.

Calculations:

Snell’s Law states that the ratio of Sin [i] to Sin [r] is a constant called the refractive index. Plot
a graph of Sin [r] vs. Sin [i] and find its gradient; the reciprocal of the value of the gradient is
equal to the refractive index of that glass block.

TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION

When light travels from one medium to another so that it bends away from the normal [from
glass to air, for example], if the angle of incidence is increased a point is reached where the
refracted ray of light travels along the boundary between the two media. The angle of incidence
at which this begins is known as the critical angle; after this angle is exceeded Total Internal
Reflection occurs.

Total Internal Reflection

angle of
angle of
refraction angle of
refraction
increased refraction

air air air

glass glass glass
This value of
the angle is
angle of known as the
angle of The refracted ray no longer
incidence Critical Angle
incidence travels along the boundary
angle of between the two media - it is
incidence now reflected into the glass
increased block
Fig. 6.3

Physics Made Simple 64 © Charran Curriculum Specialty 2014

 Chapter 4
Fibre optic cables make use of total internal reflection in order to transmit digital signals. The

Section 3
signals are converted to light which is ‘bounced’ down the cable by means of total internal
reflection. Total internal reflection is made possible by the differences in the refractive index of
the layers of the cable (the two layers are the cladding and the core).

LENSES

Lenses make use of the fact that light bends as it passes from one medium to another (in this
case light passes from air through the lens, then out of the lens) to cause rays of light to behave
in a predetermined manner. Lenses are either converging or diverging; converging lenses focus
light rays while diverging lenses scatter light rays. Converging lenses are thicker in the middle
than the ends (your typical magnifying glass) and diverging lenses are thicker at the ends than
the middle.

Lenses

Single Double

Converging These lenses

(conVEX) focus light

Diverging These lenses

(conCAVE) scatter light

Fig. 6.4

To better understand lenses, we should consider the effect they have on a beam of light. A
beam of light (from a torch light, per say) can be considered to be made up of several rays.
For simplicity sake, let us take a ray to be a very thin, yet visible beam of light (probably, the
thinnest beam one could obtain). If we observe how each ray behaves as it is incident on the
lens, we can then determine how a beam of light would behave.

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 Chapter 4
Section 3

A Converging Lens

principal focus
or focal point

principal axis

focal length
Fig. 6.5

A Diverging Lens

principal focus/
focal point

principal
axis

focal point
Fig. 6.6

The principal focus or focal point is the point at which the rays of light converge. For converging
lenses this point is real, while for diverging lenses it is imaginary [it is the point from which the
rays of light appear to spread]. The principal axis is the horizontal line [hence the word axis]
which passes through the centres of curvature of the faces of the lens. The distance between
the principal focus and the centre of the lens; the focal plane is the plane in which a sharp image
is formed by the lens.

Lenses form images; images can be either real or imaginary. An imaginary image is one which
cannot be project onto a screen like the image formed in a magnifying glass, for example. Real
images can be projected onto screens, as in the projector.

Physics Made Simple 66 © Charran Curriculum Specialty 2014

MAGNIFICATION
Chapter 4

Section 3
Any image which appears either larger [or smaller] when viewed through a lens has been
magnified.

height of image
Magnification =
height of object

image distance (v) both distances

= are measured
object distance (u) from the lens

The focal length of a lens can be found using the formula:

1 1 1
= +
focal length f V u image distance

object distance

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Section 4
• Electrostatics
• Current Electricity

• Electrical Energy

• Circuits and Components

• Magnetism

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 Chapter 1
Electricity and Magnetism
Section 4

ELECTROSTATICS

Electricity (and all the types or kinds of electricity too) depends on electric charge. Electrostatics
is the study of the behaviour of electric charge at rest...well, that is a bit obvious – electro
(something like electricity) and static (something at rest or just not moving).

So, what is electric charge?

Electric charge is of two types, positive and negative. Within the atom (as you will see more
clearly in the following chapter) there are two charged particles – the proton and the electron.
The proton is positively charged and the electron is negative but the magnitude of the charge
is the same, 1.602 × 10-19 C. The unit of electric charge is the Coulomb (symbol C), named after
Charles - Augustin de Coulomb.

Negative and positive are only used to indicate the two charges are opposite in nature to each
other and have the ability to ‘cancel’ or neutralise each other.

A positively charged object has an excess of protons (from gaining protons or losing electrons)
while a negatively charged object has an excess of electrons (from gaining electrons or losing
protons). An object with zero net charge (neither positive nor negative) has an equal amount of
positive and negative charge.

CHARGING BY FRICTION

The most common way for objects to become charged is through friction. Amber when rubbed
with fur becomes negatively charged; glass rubbed with silk becomes positively charged.

FOR YOU TO DO AT HOME

Here’s a simple experiment to demonstrate charging by friction and by induction

You will need – balloon; a paper towel and piece of wool (about as big as a handkerchief)

INSTRUCTIONS

Before attemting this ensure your ahds are dry – moisture is not the friend of static
electricity!
º Inflate balloon
º Tear paper towel into small pieces
º Rub balloon with wool

Place balloon near pieces of paper towel. What do you observe?

Physics Made Simple 70 © Charran Curriculum Specialty 2014

CHARGING BY INDUCTION
Chapter 1

Section 4
Charging by Induction
Step 1: Charging by friction

+ + Glass rod
Glass + +

+ =
is now
rod + +
positively
+ +
charged
+ +
+ +
When a glass rod is rubbed with a silk
cloth it becomes positively charged
Fig. 6.7

Charging by Induction
Step 2: Place charged object close to neutral object
+ +
Neutral object + Positively
- + +
has equal + charged
- +
amounts of + - + + glass rod
- +
negative and + -
- + + +
positive charge -
+
- + +
Fig. 6.8

Charging by Induction
Step 3: Like charges repel each other
+ +
The positive charges - Positively
on both objects repel + + charged
-
each other. Neutrally - + + object
-
charged object - keeps its
- + +
becomes negatively - charge
- + +
charged
Fig. 6.9

www.charranbooks.com 71 Physics Made Simple

 Chapter 1
ELECTRIC FIELDS
Section 4

Electric charges exert and experience forces of attraction and repulsion when near each other
or other charged objects. The region in which the attraction or repulsion [force] is felt is called
an electric field.

Electric Fields

electric field around a electric field around a

positive point charge negative point charge
Fig. 7.0

The direction of the electric field lines gives the direction in which the force on a positive charge
would act. For a positive charge it would act outward and for a negative charge it would act
inward. This means that a positive charge would repel another positive charge while a negative
charge would attract a positive charge.

The field between two charged parallel plates is shown below. The field between the plates is
almost uniform but it becomes less uniform near the edges of the plates.

Electric Field between two charged particles

The electric
filed tends to + + + + + + + + + + + + positive plate
become less
uniform cloase
to the edges
of the plates
(represented by - - - - - - - - - - - - negative plate
curved lines)
Fig. 7.1

Uniform means the strength of the field is roughly the same at more than one point.

Physics Made Simple 72 © Charran Curriculum Specialty 2014

ELECTROSTATIC DISCHARGE
Chapter 1

Section 4
When electric charge builds up a process called discharge soon follows. The discharge of static
electricity neutralises the individual charges involved.

The most common form of electrostatic discharge is lightning. Now there is quite a lot of
activity (unseen to us all!!!) that happens before we see lightning. Charge builds up in the clouds
and on the ground; the air separating cloud and ground ‘breaks down’ allowing electricity to
flow, then...KABOOM!!! Lightning!!! When electrostatic discharge occurs, static electricity
becomes current electricity.

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 Chapter 2
Current Electricity
Section 4

When electric charge moves it is called an electric current. Current may flow for a short time (like
lightning or a spark) or for a much longer period (like the current in our homes should) but it is
current as long as electric charge flows. Electric current is defined as the rate of flow of electric
charge. From this definition:

the amount of charge flowing

current flowing
Q past a point in Coulombs
in Amperes I =
t the time in which the charge
flows in seconds

FOR YOU TO DO AT HOME

Question: A
 lightning strike from a cloud to the ground from lasts for 200milliseconds
while a current of 20kA flows. How many Coulombs of charge move between
the cloud and the ground?

There are two types of electric current, these are:

• Direct and
• Alternating
The differences between alternating current (a.c.) and direct current (d.c.) are best seen in current
– time graphs. In these graphs time is plotted on the x axis and current is plotted on the y axis.

DIRECT CURRENT

current /A

The value of the current

remains constant over time

time /s
Fig. 7.2

This type of current comes from batteries and cells. Its value does not change or vary or alternate
over time; it is constant.

Physics Made Simple 74 © Charran Curriculum Specialty 2014

ALTERNATING CURRENT
Chapter 2

Section 4
current / A
The value of current
alternates (changes) over
time

time /s
Fig. 7.3

This type of current comes from generators and its value changes or alternates over time.
The alternating current waveform is transverse in nature (see section on waves) and as such
the wavelength, frequency and period of an ac wave form are defined in the same way. The
frequency of an alternating current waveform is the number of complete cycles or wavelengths
each second.

the period of the

the frequency of the 1 wave is the time taken
wave in Hertz (Hz) f = for one complete
T wavelength in seconds

CONVENTIONAL CURRENT

Current just does not randomly flow around. It Som

etim
has a definite direction to its movement. Electric wave es t
lengt he
h is word
current is thought of as the movement of electric by o replac
scilla
when tion ed
charge, electrons, from an area where there are defin
or c
ycle
term ing
many electrons to an area where there are a few perio the
wave d
electrons. In other words, electric current flows . of
a
from an area with an overall negative charge to
an area of overall positive charge. Simply put
from negative to positive. However, if we recall
(from the last chapter) that an area where there is
a lot of charge is considered positive and where
there is less charge is considered negative. So,
the concept of conventional current was created. Look
Conventional current flows from positive to
negative; from an area where there are many Here!
electrons to an area where there are a few.

www.charranbooks.com 75 Physics Made Simple

 Chapter 3
Electrical Quantities
Section 4

WORK, POWER AND ENERGY

Electrical energy (like all other forms of energy) can be converted into some other form of
energy. Electrical energy is used to produce
• motion - in electric cars or fans
• light - in energy saving bulbs or LED’s
• heat - in water heaters and toasters
• gravitational potential energy - in elevators
… and the list goes on.

FOR YOU TO DO AT HOME

Can you give two additional devices which convert electrical energy? State the form
of energy produced.

WORK AND ENERGY

We have said in chapter 5 that

• work is done when energy is used up; and,
• the amount of work done is assumed to be equal to the amount of energy used up

In electricity, voltage (or potential difference) is defined in terms of the work done in moving
charge and the amount of charge.

Voltage
conductor

A B
A voltage of 1 volt exists between A and B
if 1 Joule of work is done while moving 1
Coulomb of charge between A and B
Fig. 7.4

Physics Made Simple 76 © Charran Curriculum Specialty 2014

 Chapter 3
It means that we have a voltage of 1 volt when 1 joule of work is done in moving 1 C of charge.

Section 4
In a formula:

Work done in moving charge

Voltage or potential E between two points in J
difference between V = Amount of charge moved
two points in V Q between two points in C

This formula can also be rewritten as E = QV or W = QV. Where E is energy and W is work.

QUESTION

15 KJ of energy is used to move 3.2 × 10-3 C of charge between

the ends of a conductor. What potential difference exists between
the ends of the conductor?
working
V = E/Q
V = 15 × 103J/ 3.2 × 10-3C
V = 4.69 × 109 V

POWER

In an electrical circuit power is the rate at which electrical energy is used up (or converted to
some other form). The formula for power is:

P = V I

Power of device current flowing through the

voltage across device in A
in W
device in V

The unit of power is the Watt (symbol W) or Joules per second (J/s or Js-1).

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 Chapter 3
Section 4

Derivation of P = VI
...but W = QV. So
W substituting QV for
P = W, we have...
T

QV ...again Q = It.
P = Substituting for It for
t Q, we have...

I Vt
P = simplifying we obtain...
t

P = I V or V I

QUESTION

1.5 A passes through a bulb connected to a 15V d.c. supply. At

what rate does the bulb convert electrical energy?

working

Note: ‘At what rate does the bulb convert electrical energy?’ This
is another way of asking for the power of the bulb!!! Language can
be tricky! Be careful!

P = VI
P = 15V × 1.5A
P = 22.5W

For domestic and commercial power use the unit used to measure the amount of electrical
energy is the kilowatt hour. The kilowatt hour is the energy used up when 1000Watts are used
up in 1hour.

Physics Made Simple 78 © Charran Curriculum Specialty 2014

 Chapter 3

Section 4
The kilowatt hour

1 kilowatt = 1000 W
1 hour = 3600s
Therefore, 1 kilowatt hour = 1000 W × 3600s
1 k Wh = 3,600,000 J
OR
3.6 megajoules

The kWh is the unit of electrical energy on most electricity meters and utility bills. Utility bills are
calculated based on the amount of kWh used and the cost per kWh.

ENERGY EFFICIENCY

Electrical energy is derived primarily from natural sources, fossil fuels in particular. This is
because the earliest forms of electrical energy production were steam driven generators. Steam
was produced by heating water past its boiling point (just imagine how much steam would be
needed to generate electricity for your neighbourhood!) and then used to turn the generator.

The heat needed to produce steam came from burning wood or coal. These two sources of
fuel have been used for centuries and are not inexhaustible – they will eventually run out. Even
though oil and natural gas are also being used these will also run out and, just like wood and
coal they are responsible for the increase in greenhouse gases and global warming. So we have
rapidly diminishing resources, and serious environmental concerns. What should we do? What
could we do?

This leads us to one very practical course of action we all could take. We could conserve.
Conservation of electrical energy in simple, practical terms means reducing the amount of
energy wasted. Yes, we all are guilty of wasting electrical energy at some point!

It means we have to practice:

• turning off and even unplugging certain appliances when not in use
• replacing filament bulbs with energy saving bulbs
• Using fans to circulate cool air from an air-conditioning unit instead of adding another
air-conditioning unit
• Using natural light to illuminate our buildings
• Use alternative sources of energy, for example, wind and solar

www.charranbooks.com 79 Physics Made Simple

 Chapter 4
Circuits and Components
Section 4

CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS

An electric circuit is a complete path through which electric current flows. Just look at a few
circuits we might be familiar with – the athletics track at your school or local club; a circuit for
car or horse racing. these all have one thing in common they are complete, which means you
can walk, run or drive on them and you would just keep going around and around. Same thing
goes for electric circuits – the charge goes around and around.

An electrical circuit is a complete path through which charge flows. Think of a race track and
you get the idea; it is ‘closed’ – you can go around it and end up exactly where you started. If a
circuit is ‘open’ it is incomplete and no charge flows.

Closed and Open Circuits

a closed circuit -
a complete path

an open circuit -
an incomplete or
broken path

Fig. 7.5

Circuits normally have the following components

• A source of current – either alternating or direct

• A load – a device which uses the current e.g. a fan, toaster, iron
• A transmission medium – this connects circuit components – copper wire works fine

A control device – a switch or dimmer or any other component that can be used to change the
flow of current. Switches are used to open and close circuits as a means of controlling the flow
of current in the circuit.

Physics Made Simple 80 © Charran Curriculum Specialty 2014

 Chapter 4
At times circuits need to be represented diagrammatically, symbols are used to do this.

Section 4
A list of electrical components and their symbols

electric
single cell d.c. supply
motor
wires crossing
battery of cells (no connection) a.c. supply loudspeaker

switch wire junction

voltmeter galvanometer
fixed resistor
fuse voltmeter or
ammeter
electrolytic
semiconductor cell
variable resisitor bulb or diode generator
filament lamp
generator
earth

CELLS

A cell is a source of direct current which is produced by means of a chemical reaction. There are
two types of chemical reaction and hence two types of cells, namely dry and wet cells. Now to
avoid confusion, a battery can be made of one or more cells. To repeat, batteries are made of
cells.

A dry cell is one in which the chemical reaction is not reversible. It is one-and-done. Once the
chemical reaction has run its’ course the cell can no longer produce a current. These cannot be
recharged.

A wet cell produces an electric current by means of a reversible chemical reaction. When the
chemical reaction is slows down it can be reversed by passing an electric current through the
cell in the opposite direction to the normal flow of current.

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 Chapter 4
CURRENT - VOLTAGE [I – V] RELATIONSHIPS…AND RESISTANCE
Section 4

There is a relationship between current and voltage. If the voltage across the ends of a conductor
is varied and the current through it measured, we should find that as long as temperature is kept
constant the voltage is proportional to the current through the conductor.

As an expression:

I ∝V
This expression tells us if we increase the voltage current would increase also. The above
expression can be converted into an equation quite easily. All that is needed is a third quantity
which is constant and an equal sign. So, what is that constant quantity? A law called Ohm’s
Law gives us this quantity. Ohm’s Law says the current flowing through a circuit is directly
proportional to the voltage across it and inversely proportional to resistance if temperature is
constant. Resistance is the third quantity.

Both of the relationships between current and voltage, and current and resistance can be found
in the following equation:

V
I =
R
This equation can be rewritten in a more familiar form:

V = I R

Resistance is measured in Ohms (symbol Ω). Current- voltage relationships are usually determined
experimentally for various electric components and are plotted on graphs of current (y axis)
against voltage (x axis). There are devices which obey Ohm’s Law, such devices are said to be
Ohmic in nature and have an easily recognisable I-V graph; the I-V graph is usually a straight line.

I-V graph for an Ohmic Device

current /A I-V is a straight line
for Ohmic devices

volatage /V
Fig. 7.6

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 Chapter 4
The I-V graph for non-Ohmic devices will not be a straight line since at some point I will not be

Section 4
proportional to V.

CIRCUIT TYPES

Circuits are normally grouped according to the arrangement of the load components. There are
two arrangements; the first is Series – the components are arranged like ducks in a row.

Resistors in Series
Three resistors in series

I I I I

The same current flows through each resistor. Think of it as a series of connected pipes
carrying water from one point to another - the same water flows through each pipe.
Fig. 7.7

In a series circuit, the same CURRENT [I] flows THROUGH each component. The total
Resistance is the sum of the individual resistances.

Resistance in a Series Circuit

R1, R2, and R3 are the values
of the resistors in the circuit

R1 R2 R3

Total Resistance = Sum of individual resistances

RT = R1 + R2 + R3
Fig. 7.8

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 Chapter 4
The total voltage is the sum of the voltage across each component. Each component in a series
Section 4

circuit appears to have a portion of the total voltage across it; this portion is called a VOLTAGE
DROP.

So the TOTAL VOLTAGE = the SUM of VOLTAGE DROPS.

Voltage in a Series Circuit

individual voltage drops

V1 V2 V3

R1 R2 R3

VT = V1 + V2 + V3

Total Voltage = sum of voltage drops

Fig. 7.9

The second is circuit type is the parallel circuit – the components are connected across each
other.

Resistors in Parallel

+ +

Current splits at this junction; it The branch currents recombine

then flows through the branches at this junction
Fig. 8.0

Physics Made Simple 84 © Charran Curriculum Specialty 2014

 Chapter 4
In parallel circuit the voltage across each component is the same. Think of it this way, if any

Section 4
two resistors were removed from the circuit the resistor left would still be connected across the
terminals of the battery.

Voltage in a Parallel Circuit

resistor Follow the conductor
from each resistor
(the path from the top
resistor to the battery
is shown); the wires
lead to the terminals of
the battery. This means
that each resistor is
connected across the
terminals of the battery
and therefore has the
battery voltage across
it.

battery
Fig. 8.1

The current in a parallel circuit splits one junction and recombines at another. Therefore the
total current in a parallel circuit is the sum of the branch currents.

Current in a Parallel Circuit

branch
currents I1

I2
+ + total
IT IT
I3 current

Total Current = Sum of Branch Currents

IT = I1 + I2 + I3
Fig. 8.2

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 Chapter 4
Resistance is a bit tricky; the total resistance in a parallel circuit is given by:
Section 4

1 1 1 1
= + +
RT R1 R2 R3

Yes, it’s a reciprocal which is equal to the sum of several reciprocals.

QUESTION

There are 20 bulbs arranged in series in a string of Christmas lights, each with a resistance of
2.5 Ω. If the voltage across the entire string is 110V, find:
a. the total resistance of the string of lights
b. the current through 1 bulb.

Answer

a. RT = 20 × 2.5Ω = 50Ω
b. The bulbs are arranged in series, therefore the current through one bulb will be the
same as in the entire circuit.
I = V/R
I = 110V/ 50Ω = 2.2A

MIX AND MATCH…

Some circuits have both series and parallel parts. These are called series-parallel circuits. In
analysing them we use the rules that apply to parallel circuits on the components connected in
parallel; however these parallel components are considered to be in series with the remaining
components.

A series-parallel circuit
the red resistor is connected in series the two
with the other part of the circuit green
resistors are
connected
in parallel
with each
other but
connected
in series
with the
red resistor

Fig. 8.3

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 Chapter 4

Section 4
MEASURING CURRENT & VOLTAGE

Current is measured with an ammeter and voltage with a voltmeter. When measuring current
the ammeter must be placed in series with the component; this is because in a series circuit
the current flowing through each component is constant. The ideal ammeter should have no
resistance since adding resistance in series would affect the amount of current flowing through
the circuit. The resistance of the ammeter would alter the total resistance of the circuit and
hence the current flowing through the circuit (have a peek at the section on series circuits).

Measuring Current The ammeter’s resistance

should be negligible - so
bulb ammeter small that there is no
significant voltage drop
A
across it. According to
Ohm’s Law; V = IR: so
if there is a resistance
there will be a voltage
drop across its ends.

Fig. 8.4

The voltmeter is to be connected in parallel since it must measure the potential difference
across the ends of a component. The ideal voltmeter should have a high resistance. In parallel
circuits the current splits or divides at some junctions and recombines at others. At a junction
where the current splits’ most of it flows down the path of least resistance; if the resistance of
the voltmeter is high the voltmeter discourages current flow through it and sends the current
through the circuit. If the resistance is too low the current will ‘see’ the voltmeter as just another
circuit branch and flow through it, causing an incorrect reading. Again, Ohm’s Law says V = IR,
if the current through the component changes so does the voltage across its ends.

Measuring Resistance

current V current
splits at this recombines
junction at this
junction

The voltmeter’s resistance should be high, reducing the amount of current flowing through
it. According to Ohm’s Law; V = IR ; if the current through the component decreases, so
does the voltage across its ends.
Fig. 8.5

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 Chapter 4
ELECTRICITY IN THE HOME
Section 4

In home or domestic installations parallel configurations are preferred over series configurations;
this is because a branch in a parallel circuit can malfunction and the rest of the circuit would still
function normally. This is because in a series circuit when a component malfunctions the circuit is
opened and no current flows. In a parallel circuit there can be a malfunctioning component and
the circuit would remain closed, allowing current flow. Only the branch in which the component
has malfunctioned will there be no current flow. If a switch is placed in each branch of a parallel
circuit the current flow in that branch could be controlled using the switch.

CIRCUIT PROTECTION

Electric current is quite useful, but also quite dangerous if not properly controlled. In order to
control current it is necessary, at times, to open the circuit to protect the components and the
building in which it is installed. One such device used to do this is the fuse; a fuse is basically
a temperature sensitive element which melts when a particular current is exceeded. If a higher
than normal current flows in a circuit the temperature of the conductors and components will
rise; the fuse is designed to melt when the current (and hence temperature) is exceeded,
opening the circuit and stopping current flow. A simple fuse design is shown below.

A Fuse
metal cap

fuse wire/element

glass enclosure

metal cap
Fig. 8.6

Fuses are rated according to the maximum current they will allow to pass; when placing a fuse
in a circuit the maximum current in the circuit should be known and a fuse with a rating equal to
(or slightly higher) than that of the maximum current should be placed in the circuit.

Circuit breakers perform the same function as fuses but they can be reused after opening the
circuit (fuses cannot since they are burnt and must be replaced). Circuit breakers are either
manual or automatic and can open a circuit in response to both high and low voltages.

When used together, fuses and circuit breakers provide quite reliable protection against any
dangerous fluctuations in electrical current.

Physics Made Simple 88 © Charran Curriculum Specialty 2014

EARTH, GOOD OL’ EARTH
Chapter 4

Section 4
Lightning is extremely powerful. A single strike could damage the electrical wiring and appliances
in any house and even start fires. Lightning however, is not the only source of a massive increase
in current; a malfunctioning transformer or some other fault can produce currents far in excess
of normal values. These large currents are not easily prevented from entering the wiring of any
building – the solution, an earth or ground connection.

Earth or Ground symbol

APPLIANCE RATINGS

Every electrical appliance should have a rating – this is the recommended voltage and current
for the safe operation of the appliance. These ratings should not be ignored. If these values
are ignored the appliance can malfunction and possibly start an electric fire. If the appliance
is connected to a supply with fluctuating voltage (no, not an a.c. supply; a faulty supply where
fluctuations are caused by some problem) the appliance may malfunction and could also start
a fire.

FOR YOU TO DO AT HOME

Look at the electrical appliances in your home. Try to find the rating of each appliance
you inspect (phone and laptop chargers are a good place to start).

Electronics
SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE

A conductor is a material which allows electric current to pass through it easily; an insulator is a
material which does not allow an electric current to pass through it easily.

A semiconductor is a material which has the properties of both a conductor and an insulator – it
is a partial conductor. The semiconductor diode is a device that uses the properties of both the
conductor and insulator to its advantage; it allows current to flow in one direction but limits it in
the opposite direction – it is a unidirectional device.

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 Chapter 4
Section 4

The Semiconductor Diode

current easily The symbol for
flows tin this the semiconductor
direction diode: the arrow
points in the
direction in which
current flow is
allowed. The bar
at the tip of the
arrow indicated
that current
current flow in flow from that
this direction is direction is not
not allowed allowed.
Fig. 8.7

RECTIFICATION

The semiconductor diode is used in rectification. Rectification is the process by which an

alternating current is converted to a direct current. Alternating current changes the direction
in which it flows after every half wavelength or half cycle. Since the current changes direction,
and the semiconductor diode will only allow half of the alternating current waveform to flow. So
instead of a complete wavelength only have half of it flows through the diode; the other half is
lost.

the green half cycle this part of the a.c. this is the output
goes through the diode waveform passes — of the diode
in the forward direction through the diode

the red half cycle goes this part of the waveform

through the diode in is lost - it cannot pass
the reverse direction through the diode
Fig. 8.8

Physics Made Simple 90 © Charran Curriculum Specialty 2014

 Chapter 4
The process show above is called half wave rectification and is the simplest form of rectification,

Section 4
which can be performed by a circuit which is shown below.

A simple circuit for demonstrating half wave rectification

switch the a.c. source
sends a current
which changes
direction every
a.c. source bulb half wavelength
or cycle, if the
frequency of the
current is low
semiconductor enough the bulb
diode should flicker
Fig. 8.9

LOGIC GATES

A logic circuit is a circuit which has specific, predetermined conditions of operation; they are
digital in operation – they have fixed input and output levels (these circuits are like direct current
– have a fixed value which does not change). Logic circuits find many used and applications
in computers and most (if not all) modern electronics. In a logic circuit we use a very simple
concept to analyse their operation – we assume there is a current present or that there is no
current; a 1 is used to indicate the presence of current (or is called high) and a 0 indicates
there is no current (or is called low). The relationship between the input and output of these
gates can be shown in a truth table; in a truth table the inputs of the gate are paired with the
corresponding out puts.

THE NOT GATE OR INVERTER

For this gate the output is NOT the input – they are opposite. Therefore if the input is 0, the
output is 1; and if the input is 1, the output is 0. It is for this reason the gate is called an inverter,
since the output is the inverted input.

NOT Gate symbol and truth table

NOT gate symbol NOT Gate truth table
input output
A B A B
0 1
input output 1 0
Fig. 9.0
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 Chapter 4
THE AND GATE
Section 4

This gate has two inputs and one output, so the truth table will look a little different. The number
of input combinations this gate can have (and therefore the number of possible outputs) is
given by 2n, where n represents the number of gate inputs. The AND Gate has two inputs and
will have 22 = 4 input combinations.

AND Gate symbol and truth table

AND Gate truth table
inputs output
AND Gate symbol A B C

A 0 0 0
inputs C output 0 1 0
B
0 1 0
0 1 0

Fig. 9.1

With this gate, there has to be current at both inputs for there to be current at the output; in other
words, the inputs at both A AND B have to be 1 (or high) for there to be a 1 at C (the output).

THE OR GATE

This is a two-input gate like the AND Gate and will therefore have 4 input combinations.

OR Gate symbol and truth table

OR Gate truth table
inputs output
OR Gate symbol A B C

A 0 0 0
inputs C output 0 1 1
B
1 0 1
1 1 1

Fig. 9.2

For there to be an output from this gate there must be an input at A OR B. Take a look at the
truth table above, in every instance one of the inputs is high (or 1), the output is high (or 1) also.

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THE NAND GATE
Chapter 4

Section 4
It is an Inverted AND gate. Simply put, this gate is like an AND gate with its outputs inverted.

NAND Gate symbol and truth table

NAND Gate truth table
inputs output
AND Gate symbol A B C

A 0 0 1
inputs C output 0 1 1
B
1 0 0
1 1 0

Fig. 9.3

This gate can be thought of as the combination of the AND and NOT gates; the output of the
AND gate is the input of the NOT gate.

How a NAND gate works

The NAND gate can be treated as a
combination of the AND & NOT gates.

A
inputs C output
B

the input the output of the output of the

combinations are the AND gate is combined gates is
the same as the the input of the the inverted output
AND & OR gates NOT gate of the AND gate
Fig. 9.4

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 Chapter 4
THE NOR GATE
Section 4

You should be able to figure this one out; this is the inverted OR gate or NOR gate.

NOR Gate symbol and truth table

NOR Gate truth table
inputs output
NOR Gate symbol A B C

A 0 0 1
inputs C output 0 1 0
B
1 0 0
1 1 0

Fig. 9.5

It is an OR gate with its inputs inverted and can be thought of as the combination of the OR
and NOT gates.

How a NOR gate works

The NOR gate can be treated as a
combination of the OR & NOT gates.

A
inputs C output
B

the input the output of the output of the

combinations are the the OR gate is combined gates is
same as the OR, AND, the input of the the inverted output
& NAND gates NOT gate of the OR gate
Fig. 9.4

Physics Made Simple 94 © Charran Curriculum Specialty 2014

 Chapter 5
Magnetism

Section 4
A magnet is any object which can attract or repel other magnets and attract certain metals, such
as iron.

There are two types of magnets: permanent and temporary magnets. Permanent magnets retain
their magnetic properties for quite some time (years, decades, centuries and such); temporary
magnets lose most of their magnetism after a much shorter time (minutes, hours, days, weeks
and such).

Some materials may not have permanent magnetic qualities but, can are attracted to magnets
and can be temporarily magnetised; such materials are called magnetic materials. Materials
which are not attracted or repelled by magnets and cannot be magnetised, these are called
non-magnetic materials.

MAGNETIC FIELDS

The attractive or repulsive effects of a magnet are only experienced within a certain distance
from the magnet; this area around the magnet in which these effects are felt is called a magnetic
field. A magnetic field can be represented by what are known as lines of flux or force. These
lines indicate the strength and direction of the magnetic field at any point; the direction they
indicate is that direction in which a free, single north pole would move.

A pole is the area around a magnet where the number of lines of force per unit area is greatest
in other words in this area the magnetic field strength is greatest. There are two magnetic poles,
the North pole and the south pole. Lines of flux or force leave the North pole and enter the
South pole.

A Single Bar Magnet

the lines of the lines of

force leave force enter
the north the south
pole of the pole of the
magnet magnet

North Pole South Pole

Fig. 9.5

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 Chapter 5
Interesting things happen when two bar magnets are placed near each other. If they are placed
Section 4

near each other with like poles (in this case two north poles) facing each other the lines of flux
or force act in such a way that the magnets are forced apart.

Bar Magnets with like poles facing each other

North Poles
The lines of force leave both north poles and push against each
other forcing the two magnets apart (this is why like poles repel)
Fig. 9.6

If we do the reverse and place two unlike poles, the lines of force tend to act in such a way that
the magnets attract each other.

Bar Magnets with unlike poles facing each other

South Pole North Pole

The lines of force move from the north pole of one bar magnet to the south pole of the other
bar magnet causing the two magnets to attract each other (this is why unlike poles attract)
Fig. 9.7

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 Chapter 5
Electromagnetism

Section 4
A relationship exists between electric current and magnetism; this was discovered by Hans
Christian Orested (by accident) and Andre-Marie Ampere (he demonstrated the effects and
interactions of magnetic fields created by current carrying conductors).

Every current carrying conductor has a magnetic field around it. The direction of the magnetic
field is given by the Right Hand Grip Rule.

The Right Hand Grip Rule

Fingers curled around the conductor

Direction of
current flow

Thumb points
in direction of
current flow
Fig. 9.8

A written description of the rule goes like this, if the conductor is held with the right hand so
that the thumb points in the direction of current flow and the fingers curl around it, the direction
in which the fingers curl gives the direction of the magnetic field around the conductor. Now for
some Robin Hood references! Let’s go merry men! There is a convention for representing the
movement of a current into and out of a conductor. If, we look into the conductor (like looking
into a pipe) and the current is flowing towards us we see a dot. This dot represents the tip of an
arrow travelling towards you (please do not try to find out what an arrow travelling towards you
looks like by shooting one at yourself or a ‘friend’!) If the current is travelling away from us we
see an ‘x’; representing the crossed feathers of the tail of the arrow.

Dot and Cross Convention

A dot means A cross or ‘X’

current is flowing means current
towards you (out is flowing away
of the page) from you (into
the page)
Fig. 9.9

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 Chapter 5
Section 4

FOR YOU TO DO AT HOME

Making a simple electromagnet

You will need

º A long nail (not a fingernail!)
º Wire – 4 pieces; 1 short, 2 medium, 1 very long
º A small bulb
º A 9V battery
º Wire stripper
º A compass
º 10 small paper clips (preferably without plastic or rubber covering)

Instructions
short wire
wire coil bulb

medium medium
length length
wire wire

battery

º Strip the insulation off both ends of each piece of wire

º Wrap the long wire around the nail; then pull the nail out leaving the coiled wire
(more turns, the better)
º Connect the remaining components as shown (twist the exposed ends of the
wires together)
º With the circuit completed (you should know the circuit is complete by the lit
bulb) place the compass near the coiled wire. Does the compass needle change
direction?
º Attempt to pick up all the paperclips with the electromagnet. How many can it
pick up?
º Place the nail in the coils, then move the compass away from the electromagnet
and back near to it. Does the compass needle change direction now?
º Attempt to pick up all the paperclips again. How many does the electromagnet
pick up now?
º Does the addition of the metal change the strength of the electromagnet

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 Chapter 5
An electromagnet is a magnet that is created by the magnetic field around a current carrying

Section 4
conductor. The conductor is coiled or wrapped to make the magnetic field around the coils
stronger.

The strength of an electromagnet depends on the number of coils, the amount of current
flowing through them and the metal the coils are wrapped around. The metal the coils are
wrapped around is called the solenoid; this metal strengthens the field in the coils.

The Magnetic Field around an electromagnet

If the fingers of the right hand are curled so that they point in the direction of current flow, the
direction in which the thumb points is the direction of the North Pole of the electromagnet.
Fig. 10.0

If two magnetic fields occupy the same area they can oppose each other; this opposition can
be strong enough to make an object move or even rotate.

Force on a current carrying a conductor

+ =
A magnetic field A current carrying The two fields act so that they strengthen
conductor. The current is each other in one area (many close lines of
flowing up (out of the page) force) and weaken each other in another area
and the direction of the (a few spaced lines of force). Then conductor
magnetic field around it as is deflected (pushed) from the strong side
given by the Right Hand Grip of the magnetic field to the weak side of the
Rule. magnetic field.
Fig. 10.1

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 Chapter 5
D.C. MOTOR
Section 4

The d.c. motor takes advantage of this fact. It uses two opposing magnetic fields to cause
deflection, which produces rotation.

A simple D.C motor

coils

N S
copper brushes commutator

d.c. source
Fig. 10.2

A direct current is passed through the coils which are mounted on an arm that can rotate freely.
As the current flows through the coils a magnetic field is created around them that opposes the
field created by the permanent magnet; at some point the two fields will oppose each other
causing deflection this forces the coils to rotate. If current keeps flowing in one direction, the
coils will continue to rotate in that direction. The rotation of the coils is aided by the use of a
commutator. The commutator is used in both the d.c. motor and a.c. generator; in the d.c.
motor it is used to ensure the current flows through the coils in one direction. It is made up
of two semi-circular bands of metal (most are made from copper), called slip rings, which are
permanently connected to terminals of the battery.

Physics Made Simple 100 © Charran Curriculum Specialty 2014

FLEMING’S LEFT HAND OR MOTOR RULE
Chapter 5

Section 4
The direction of rotation of the coils is given by Fleming’s Left Hand Rule or motor rule. It is
said that a picture is worth a thousand words, so with that statement as my guide, here is an
illustrated explanation of Fleming’s Left Hand Rule.

Fleming’s Left Hand or Motor Rule

Thumb = Force - this is the
direction in which the force
exerted on the coils acts
Index/First Finger = Field

motion
- this is the direction of the
PERMANENT magnetic field
Direction ld
of Force fie

Magnetic
Field cur
ren
t
Direction
of current Second/Middle Finger = Current
- this is the direction of current
flow in the coils
Fig. 10.3

It must be said that the orientation of the fingers relative to each other does not change,
however the directions in which they point can and will change depending on the situation.

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 Chapter 5
Section 4
Application of Fleming’s Left Hand Rule
Normally, we tend If we look into the coils So for this part of the coil,
to view the coils we will be looking down the force acts upwards (the
from above. two pipes. Current flows thumb! the thumb!)
into one and out of the
other. If the magnetic
field flows across the index finger
page, from left to right,

thumb
For this it should look like the
analysis, we diagram below.
have to look
into the coils. The middle finger should
now be pointing into the
page, away from you!
So for this part of the coil the
force acts downwards (the
thumb! the thumb!)
REMEMBER! Fleming’s Left Hand Rule
gives the direction in
Thumb = Force which the coils will rotate.
To use this rule, you have
Index = Magnetic Field to use you thumb, index
finger and middle finger.
Middle = Current Use the index finger like
the barrel of a gun and
the thumb as the gun
sight (the thing that you So, finally (whew!) the coils
use to aim): now stick would rotate, as shown above
your middle finger out – clockwise.
perpendicular to your
‘gun’.
thumb

index finger

the middle finger should

be pointing at you!

Physics Made Simple 102 © Charran Curriculum Specialty 2014

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
Chapter 5

Section 4
As was previously stated, there is a relationship between current and electricity; just as a current
carrying conductor has a magnetic field around it a magnetic field can be used to create
electricity. Electromagnetic Induction is the process by which a current is induced (made to
appear) in a conductor with no current flowing through in. If the conductor is moved through
a magnetic field so that it cuts several lines of flux or force, a current will be induced in it. The
magnitude of the current induced depends on the strength of the magnetic field, the rate at
which the lines of flux or force are cut and the amount of conductor in the magnetic field.

A.C. GENERATOR

The simple a.c. generator resembles the simple d.c. motor; the main difference being that in
the motor current is sent into the coils causing them to rotate, while in the generator the coils
rotate and create a current (motor = current producing motion; generator = motion producing
current).

A simple D.C motor

coils mounted on arm/axle rotate in this direction

coils

N S
copper brushes commutator

bulb
Fig. 10.3

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 Chapter 5
The coils are rotated in the magnetic field and as they pass through (or cut) the lines of flux or
Section 4

force, a current is induced in them. The direction in which the current flows is given by Fleming’s
Right Hand or Generator Rule.

Fleming’s Right Hand or Generator Rule

Thumb = direction of rotation of
coils - the direction in which the
coils rotate in the magnetic field

First finger - direction of

magnetic field produced by
the permanent magnet

Middle/Second finger =
current - the direction of
flow of the induced current
Fig. 10.4

The magnitude (amount) of current generated varies as the coils are rotated in the magnetic
field. When the coils are at right angles to the field the amount of current generated is at its
lowest value and when they are parallel the amount of current generated is at its highest value.

TRANSFORMERS

A transformer is a device that can be used to increase or decrease the amount of alternating
current by making use of electromagnetic induction. An alternating current is sent into the input
(primary) coils and as it varies it creates a magnetic which varies at the same rate. This varying
field, as it expands and collapses, cuts the coils of the output (secondary); a varying current is
then induced in the output (secondary) coils.

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 Chapter 5

Section 4
A Transformer
Primary/Input coils Secondary/Input coils

a.c. IN a.c. OUT

Coils wound around a metal core

Fig. 10.5

The above transformer is a step-up transformer; it makes a small input larger. It does this
by having more turns on the secondary or output than the primary or input (remember, in
electromagnetic induction, more turns = more current). A step-down transformer has less turns
on the secondary or output than the primary or input (less turns = less current).

Even though they do not have moving parts, transformers are not 100% efficient. Energy is
lost due to the constantly expanding and contracting magnetic fields. The ideal transformer is
defined by a simple equation:

Pout = Pin
Since, Power = Voltage × Current:

Pout = Is × Vs and Pin = Ip × Vp

Therefore after doing some rearranging, we have:

Vs Ns Ip
= =
Vp Np Is
This equation gives the relationship between the input and output voltages, current and number
Ns
of turns. The ratio N is called the turns ratio and can indicate if the transformer is either a step-
p

up or step-down transformer. If NS is larger the transformer is a step-up transformer (more

output than input), and if NP is larger the transformer is a step-down transformer.

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Section 5
• Models of an Atom
• Particles in the Atom

• Radioactivity

• Circuits and Components

• Magnetism

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 Chapter 1
The Physics of the Atom
Section 5

ATOMIC MODELS

An atom is the smallest part of a substance which can take part in a chemical reaction. Truth is
how we see the atom today is not how it was seen a few centuries ago. The current view of the
atom came out of an interesting journey and many necessary discoveries’ what follows is this
incredible journey in my own words.

IN THE BEGINNING THERE WAS PLUM PUDDING

The idea that all matter was made up of tiny particles is a fairly old idea, there was little evidence
to support the existence of these tiny particles until J. J. Thomson during his work with cathode
rays discovered the electron. He later proposed that the atom was like a plum pudding; a solid,
positive mass with a scattering of electrons.

J.J. Thomson’s Plum Pudding Model

randomly
scattered electrons

positive
solid mass
Fig. 10.6

GOLD FOIL VERSUS ALPHA PARTICLES

Sometime later, an experiment was performed to confirm this. Geiger and Marsden, carried out
the now famous alpha scattering experiment. In this experiment alpha particles were ‘fired’ at
a sheet of gold foil. Alpha particles are fairly large and gold is fairly dense; this combination of
physical characteristics would lead to the assumption that IF the atom is completely solid, very
few alpha particles should pass through.

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 Chapter 1

Section 5
Alpha Scattering Experiment
Some ∝ particles are scattered Most ∝ particles
are undefected

Thin gold
Beam of foil
particles

Circular fluorescent screen

Source of ∝ particles
Fig. 10.7

So they carried out the experiment and recorded the results. They found that approximately
99% of the alpha particles went right through the gold foil without being deflected; and only
a fraction of those deflected went completely in the opposite direction after colliding with the
foil. Ernst Rutherford examined their results and came to a simple but profound conclusion;
the atom was not solid as Thomson has proposed. He then put forward his own model which
is called the Planetary Model. This is the first model to have a nucleus’ which was believed to
contain most of the atom’s mass and was positively charged. In this model the electrons form a
‘cloud’ around the nucleus in the same way the Earth’s atmosphere surrounds the planet.

Rutherford’s Planetary Model of the Atom

Cloud of electrons

positively charged nucleus

Fig. 10.8

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 Chapter 1
NEILS BOHR AND SHELLS
Section 5

Another few years had passed and along came Neils Bohr, who through his own work, claimed
that electrons orbited the nucleus in specific orbits called shells.

Bohr’s shells or orbits

electrons

nucleus of protons only

shells or orbits
Fig. 10.9

CHADWICK AND THE NEUTRON

The final contribution to the atomic model came from James Chadwick who discovered the
neutron which was found in the nucleus of the atom. However before this discovery, the positive
particle within the atom, the proton, was discovered by Rutherford.

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 Chapter 2
Particles in the atom

Section 5
The atom is made up of very small particles called subatomic particles. There are three such
particles.

THE ELECTRON

The electron is negatively charged and orbits the nucleus. Now, the mass of the electron and
every other subatomic particle is given in AMUs – Atomic Mass Units. This is done because the
mass of these subatomic particles is really, really small [after all we cannot see them!].

1 AMU = 1.67 × 10-27 kg

The mass of an electron is approximately 1/1840 AMU – about 9 × 10-31 kg.

THE PROTON

This is positively charged and has the mass of 1 AMU – about 1.67 × 10-27 kg. This subatomic
particle is found in the nucleus of the atom.

THE NEUTRON

Last, but certainly not least is the neutron. It has the same mass as the proton, but no charge [it’s
like the Switzerland – neutral]. It is also found in the nucleus of the atom.

Atoms contain all three of these particles. Atoms tend to be neutral, meaning they have no
overall charge. This is a result of the atom having equal amounts of both positive and negative
charge [protons and electrons]; but they can at times have more or less electrons than they
should making them either negative or positive.

A SIMPLE EQUATION…

There is a simple relationship which applies to all atoms and has been used to establish the
order of elements in the periodic table. The elements in the periodic table are arranged in order
of increasing proton number.

A = Z + N

nucleon OR mass number proton OR neutron number

atomic number

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 Chapter 2
Atoms are represented by symbols which have a letter from the name of the element and two
Section 5

numbers; the mass number and the atomic number of the element. For example, Carbon – 12
is written as:

mass number of element

C
12
element symbol
atomic number of element 6

ISOTOPES

Isotopes are different forms of the same element; they have the same number of protons but
different number of neutrons. There are quite a few elements which have isotopes - Carbon
has two Carbon 12 and Carbon 14; Uranium also has two, Uranium 235 and Uranium 238. Most
isotopes are unstable [meaning they tend to give off radiation] as a result of their very large size.
This is because the forces which hold the nucleus together are unable to keep all the particles
in a large nucleus in check. These unstable nuclei are radioactive and emit energy as either rays
or particles.

Isotopes are used for carbon dating, radio therapy and locating clots among other things.

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 Chapter 3
Radioactive Emissions

Section 5
A radioactive atom is one which is unstable and emits energy; the process by which energy is
emitted is called decay. Radioactivity is the RANDOM process by which an atom decays. The
process is random since the order in which the atoms decay cannot be predicted.

A VERY IMPORTANT WOMAN

Marie Curie spent most of her life studying substances which emitted a strange form of energy.
She later called it radiation and her work led to the discovery of uranium and polonium. She
eventually won the Nobel Prize for her work in the field of radioactivity.

RADIOACTIVE EMISSIONS

There are three types of radiation which may be emitted from a decaying atom and are called
emissions.

ALPHA PARTICLES [α]

The first is the alpha particle. This is the slowest and heaviest emission, with the mass of a
helium nucleus 2p + 2n [an atomic mass of 4]; which also means they have an overall positive
charge. These have the shortest range RESEARCH!!!! And can be stopped by a sheet of paper.

BETA PARTICLES [β]

These are high speed electrons giving them an overall negative charge and travel faster and
farther than alpha particles. They can be stopped by a sheet of aluminium foil.

GAMMA RAYS [γ]

Note! This emission is a RAY. Not a PARTICLE, but a RAY! Very important point that! This type of
emission has NO MASS! Yes, I did write that; no typos there. No MASS! It is an electromagnetic
wave which travels at the speed of light and has an unlimited range. It usually takes a few metres
of lead and concrete to stop this bad boy! Even more importantly, gamma rays have no charge.

THE CLOUD CHAMBER

Since no emission is seen by the naked eye some other means has to be used to determine
what type of emission is present. This is done by means of a cloud chamber.

A cloud chamber contains a gas which is ionised when radiation passes through it. Radioactive
emissions can ionise a gas since they are charged.

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 Chapter 3
Section 5

Alpha Particle Tracks

The ionisation tracks left by

alpha particles are long and
straight

Fig. 11.0

The tracks left by alpha particles [α] are long and straight because the alpha particles are very
heavy [an atomic mass of 4; remember 2p + 2n] and they have a large charge [+2].

Beta Particle Tracks

The ionisation tracks left by

beta particles are shorter & less
straight than alpha particle tracks

Fig. 11.1

Beta particles [β] leave tracks which are shorter than alpha particle tracks and less straight.

QUESTION

Why are beta particle tracks less straight and less long than alpha particle tracks?

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 Chapter 3
Gamma rays leave the shortest tracks since they have no mass or charge and cannot ionise the

Section 5
gas to the extent of either alpha or beta particles.

Gamma Particle Tracks

Gamma ray tracks are the

shortest and least straight tracks

Fig. 11.2

DIFFERENT FIELDS OF PLAY

Radioactive emissions passing between two charged plates

++ ++ ++ ++
beta particle
gamma
ray
alpha particle

- - - - - - - -
Fig. 11.3

When radioactive emissions are passed through electric and magnetic fields interesting things
happen. In an electric field the alpha particle moves to the negative plate since it has a positive
charge; the beta particle is attracted to the positive plate because of its negative charge.

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 Chapter 3
Section 5

Radioactive emissions passing through a magnetic field

x x x x x x x x
beta particle
x x x x x x x x gamma
ray
x x x x x x x x alpha particle

magnetic field going into page x x x x x x x x

Fig. 11.4

The radioactive particles behave differently when passed through a magnetic field. Their
directions are given by Fleming’s Left Hand Rule with the direction of current taken as the
direction of flow of a conventional current (we take the movement of current as the direction in
which a positive charge moves).

Now gamma rays have been ignored so far for one reason, they are unaffected by both electric
and magnetic fields.

HALF-LIFE

The half-life of a radioactive substance is the time taken for the activity (the amount of emissions)
to fall to half of its original value. The half-life or radioactive substances can vary from a few
minutes to several hundred years.

A decay curve
initial
activity,
A

1
2 A
1
4 A

this is the first half-life of the substance T1/2 this is the second half-life of the substance
& has the same duration as the first half-life
Fig. 11.5

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E = MC2
Chapter 3

Section 5
E = m × c2

Energy in J mass in kg speed of light ms-2

One of the most famous equations (if not the most famous) is Einstein’s E = mc2 which tells us
that mass can be converted into energy. This is done by means of a nuclear reaction. There are
two reactions – fission and fusion. Fission occurs when the atoms in a radioactive substance split
releasing energy. Fusion occurs when substances are combined to form another substance (as
happens in the Sun). In each reaction mass is converted to energy (and lot’s of it too!) and the
total mass of the end products is less than the total mass before the start of the reaction.

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