Electricity

Current
• Electric current is defined as the rate of flow charge
o In other words, the size of an electric current is the amount of charge passing
through a component per second
• Current flows from the positive terminal to the negative terminal of a cell

Charge flows from the positive terminal to the negative terminal

Charge

• The wires in an electric circuit are made of metal, because metal is a

good conductor of electric current
• In the wires, the current is a flow of negatively charged electrons
In metal wires, the current is a flow of negatively charged electrons. This image shows the
electrons flowing through a lattice of metal ions

Calculating Electric Charge

• The charge, current and time are related by the equation:

• Where:
o Q = charge measured in Coulombs (C)
o I = current measure in amps (A)
o t = time measured in seconds (s)

• This equation can be rearranged with the help of the following formula triangle:
 Worked Example

When will 8 mA of current pass through an electrical circuit?

A When 1 J of energy is used by 1 C of charge

B When a charge of 4 C passes in 500 s
C When a charge of 8 C passes in 100 s
D When a charge of 1 C passes in 8 s

ANSWER: B

Step 1: Write out the equation relating current, charge and time

Q = It

•
o This can be rearranged to make current I the subject of the equation:

Step 2: Rule out any obviously incorrect options

•
o Option A does not mention time, so can be ruled out

Step 3: Try the rest of the options by applying the equation to determine the correct
answer

•
o Consider option B:

I = 4 / 500 = 8 × 10 –3 = 8 mA

•
o Consider option C:

I = 8 / 100 = 80 × 10 –3 = 80 mA

•
o Consider option D:

I = 1 / 8 = 125 × 10 –3 = 125 mA

•
o Therefore, the correct answer is B

Exam Tip
Electric currents in everyday circuits tend to be quite small, so it’s really common for
examiners to throw in a unit prefix like ‘m’ next to quantities of current, e.g. 10 mA (10
milliamperes).

Make sure that you are on the lookout for these prefixes and that you can convert them into
standard units, so 10 mA = 10 × 10 -3 A

Voltage

• The terminals of a cell make one end of the circuit positive and the other negative
• This sets up a potential difference across the circuit
o This is sometimes known as the voltage
• Potential difference is defined as:

The amount of energy transferred per unit of charge passing through the terminals

• This means that one volt (the unit of potential difference) is equivalent to
one joule (the unit of energy) per coulomb (the unit of charge):

1V=1J /C

Calculating Voltage

• The equation linking the energy transferred, voltage and charge is given below:

• Where:
o V = potential difference, measured in volts (V)
o E = energy transferred, measured in joules (J)
o Q = charge moved, measured in coulombs (C)

• This can be rearranged using the formula triangle below:

 Worked Example

The normal operating voltage for a lamp is 6 V.

Calculate how much energy is transferred in the lamp when 4200 C of charge flows through
it.

Step 1: List the known quantities

•
o Voltage, V = 6 V
o Charge, Q = 4200 C

Step 2: State the equation linking potential difference, energy and charge

•
o The equation linking potential difference, energy and charge is:

E=V×Q

Step 3: Substitute the known values and calculate the energy transferred

E = 6 × 4200

E = 25 200 J

•
o Therefore, 25 200 J of energy is transferred in the lamp

Exam Tip
Don’t be confused by the symbol for potential difference (the symbol V) being the same as its
unit (the volt, V). Learn the equation and remember especially that one volt is equivalent to
‘a joule per coulomb’.

Resistance

Calculating Current, Resistance & Potential Difference

• Resistance is defined as the opposition to current:

o The higher the resistance of a circuit, the lower the current
o This means that good conductors have a low resistance and insulators have
a high resistance

• The symbol for resistance is R

• It is measured in Ohms (Ω)
o Ω is the Greek capital letter ‘Omega’
o An Ohm is defined as one volt per ampere (1 V / A)

• The resistance of a circuit can be increased by adding resistors (or variable

resistors) to it
• Every electrical component has a resistance, even wires
o In exam questions, the resistance of the wires and batteries are assumed to
be negligible

High resistance means there is a lower current and vice versa

• The current I through a component depends on both the resistance R of the

component and the potential difference V across the component
 o The greater the resistance R of the component, the lower the current I for a
given potential difference V across the component
o The lower the resistance R of the component, the greater the current I for a
given potential difference V across the component

• The current, resistance and potential difference of a component in a circuit are

calculated using the equation:

• This equation can be rearranged with the help of the following formula triangle:

Voltage, current, resistance formula triangle

Worked Example

Calculate the voltage across a resistor of resistance 10 Ω if there is a current of 0.3 A

through it.
Step 1: List the known quantities

•
o Resistance, R = 10 Ω
o Current, I = 0.3 A

Step 2: Write the equation relating resistance, potential difference and current

V = IR

Step 3: Substitute in the values

V = 0.3 × 10 = 3 V

Current in Series Circuits

• In a circuit that is a closed-loop, such as a series circuit, the current is the same value
at any point
•
o This is because the number of electrons per second that passes through one
part of the circuit is the same number that passes through any other part
• This means that all components in a closed-loop have the same current

The current is the same at each point in a closed-loop

• The amount of current flowing around a series circuit depends on two things:
o The voltage of the power source
o The number (and type) of components in the circuit

• Increasing the voltage of the power source drives more current around the circuit
o So, decreasing the voltage of the power source reduces the current
• Increasing the number of components in the circuit increases the total resistance
o Hence less current flows through the circuit
 Current will increase if the voltage of the power supply increases, and decreases if the
number of components increases (because there will be more resistance)

Current in Parallel Circuits

• At a junction in a parallel circuit (where two or more wires meet) the current
is conserved
o This means the amount of current flowing into the junction is equal to the
amount of current flowing out of it
• This is because charge is conserved

• Note that the current does not always split equally – often there will be more current
in some branches than in others
o The current in each branch will only be identical if the resistance of the
components along each branch are identical
• Current behaves in this way because it is the flow of electrons:
o Electrons are physical matter – they cannot be created or destroyed
o This means the total number of electrons (and hence current) going around a
circuit must remain the same
o When the electrons reach a junction, however, some of them will go one way
and the rest will go the other
 Current is split at a junction into individual branches

Worked Example

In the circuit below, ammeter A 0 shows a reading of 10 A, and ammeter A 1 shows a reading
of 6 A.

What is the reading on ammeter A 2?

Step 1: Recall that at a junction, the current is conserved

•
o This means that the total amount of current flowing into a junction is equal to
the total amount flowing out

Step 2: Consider the first junction in the circuit where current splits

•
 o The diagram below shows the first junction in the circuit

Step 3: Calculate the missing amount of current

•
o Since 10 A flows in to the junction (the total current from the battery), 10 A
must flow out of the junction
o The question says that 6 A flows through ammeter A 1 so the remaining current
flowing through ammeter A 2 must be:

10 A − 6 A = 4 A

•
o Therefore, 4 A flows through ammeter A2

Exam Tip

The direction of current flow is super important when considering junctions in a circuit.

You should remember that current flows from the positive terminal to the negative terminal
of a cell / battery. This will help determine the direction current is flowing ‘in’ to a junction
and which way the current then flows ‘out’.

Voltage in Series & Parallel

• In a series circuit:
 o The current is the same at all points ie. through each component
o The total potential difference of the power supply is shared between the
components

Lamps connected in a series circuit

• In the above circuit:

o The current from the power supply is the same as the current in both
lamps I = I1 = I2
o If the battery is marked 12 V, then the potential difference would be 12 ÷ 2 = 6
V across each lamp

• In a parallel circuit:
o The total current through the whole circuit is the sum of the currents through
the separate components
o The potential difference across each component is the same

Lamps connected in a parallel circuit

 • In the above circuit:
o Because the current splits up, the sum of currents in each branch will equal the
current from the power supply I = I1 + I2
o If the battery is marked 12 V, then the potential difference would be 12
V across each lamp

Advantages & Disadvantages

Series Circuits

• A series circuit consists of a string of two or more components connected in a loop

• The advantages of a series circuit are:
o All of the components can be controlled by a single switch
o Fewer wires are required
• The disadvantages of a series circuit are:
o The components cannot be controlled separately
o If one component breaks, they will all stop working as well

In the series circuit above, only one switch is needed to control all of the lamps. This can
be seen as an advantage or as a disadvantage

Parallel Circuits

• A parallel circuit consists of two or more components attached

across different branches of the circuit
• The advantages of a parallel circuit are:
o The components can be individually controlled, using their own switches
o If one component breaks, then the others will continue to function
 • The disadvantages of a parallel circuit are:
o Many more wires involved so much more complicated to set up
o All components have the same voltage as the supply, so harder to control if
components need to have different voltages

In the parallel circuit above, the lamps are connected in parallel and can be switched on
and off by their own switch

Exam Tip

You may have noticed that for a parallel circuit, all of the components can be controlled by a
single switch – like a series circuit. Nevertheless, the exam board still considers this an
advantage of series circuits

Note that the current does not always split equally in a parallel circuit – often there will be
more current in some branches than in others. The current in each branch will only be
identical if the resistance of the components along each branch are identical. However, the
voltage across two components connected in parallel is always the same

Resistors in Series
• When two or more resistors are connected in series,
the total (or combined) resistance is equal to the sum of their individual
resistances
 • For example, for three resistors of resistance R1, R2 and R3, the total resistance can be
calculated using:

• Where R is the total resistance, in Ohms (Ω)

• Increasing the number of resistors increases the overall resistance, as the charge
now has more resistors to pass through
• The total voltage is also the sum of the voltages across each of
the individual resistors
o In a series circuit, the voltage of the power supply is shared between all
components

Three resistors connected in series. The total voltage is the sum of the individual
voltages, and the total resistance is the sum of the three individual resistances

Worked Example

The combined resistance R in the following series circuit is 60 Ω.

What is the resistance value of R2?

A 100 Ω B 30 Ω C 20 Ω D 40 Ω

ANSWER: C

Step 1: Write down the equation for the combined resistance in series

R = R1 + R2 + R3

Step 2: Substitute the values for total resistance R and the other resistors

60 Ω = 30 Ω + R2 + 10 Ω

Step 3: Rearrange for R2

R2 = 60 Ω – 30 Ω – 10 Ω = 20 Ω

Worked Example

Dennis sets up a series circuit as shown below.

The cell supplies a current of 2 A to the circuit, and the fixed resistor ha s a resistance of 4 Ω.

(a) How much current flows through the fixed resistor?

(b) What is the reading on the voltmeter?

Part (a)

Step 1: Recall that current is conserved in a series circuit

 •
o Since current is conserved in a series circuit, it is the same size if measured
anywhere in the series loop
o This means that since the cell supplies 2 A to the circuit, the current is 2 A
everywhere
o Therefore, 2 A flows through the fixed resistor

Part (b)

Step 1: List the known quantities

•
o Current I = 2 A
o Resistance R = 4 Ω

Step 2: State the equation linking potential difference, resistance and current

•
o The equation linking potential difference, resistance and current is:

V = IR

Step 3: Substitute the known values into the equation and calculate the potential
difference

V=2×4 =8V

•
o Therefore, the voltmeter reads 8 V across the fixed resistor

IV Graphs

• As the potential difference across a component is increased, the current also increases
o This is because potential difference and current are proportional
• The precise relationship between voltage and current is different for different
components and can be shown on an IV graph, including in:
o Fixed resistors & wires
o Filament lamps
o Diodes

Fixed Resistors & Wires

• The current through a fixed resistor or a wire increases as the potential difference
(or voltage) across it increases
• In other words, current is directly proportional to the potential difference for a fixed
resistor (or a wire)
o This relationship is true because the resistance of the fixed resistor (or wire)
stays constant
 • An IV graph shows that the line is straight and goes through the origin, as shown in
the image below:

IV graph for a fixed resistor. The current is directly proportional to the potential difference
(voltage) as the graph is a straight line through the origin

Filament Lamps

• For a filament lamp, current and voltage are not directly proportional
o This is because the resistance of the filament lamp increases as
the temperature of the filament increases
• The IV graph for a filament lamp shows the current increasing at a proportionally
slower rate than the potential difference
 IV graph for a filament lamp

• This is because:
o As the current increases, the temperature of the filament in the lamp
increases
o The higher temperature causes the atoms in the metal lattice of the filament
to vibrate more
o This causes an increase in resistance as it becomes more difficult
for free electrons (the current) to pass through
o Resistance opposes the current, causing the current to increase at a slower rate

• Where the graph is a straight line, the resistance is constant

o The resistance increases as the graph curves
• Reversing the potential difference reverses the current and makes no difference to the
shape of the curve

Diodes

• A diode allows current to flow in one direction only

o This is called forward bias
• In the reverse direction, the diode has very high resistance, and therefore no current
flows
o This is called reverse bias

• The IV graph for a diode is slightly different:

o When the current is in the direction of the arrowhead symbol, this is forward
bias
▪ This is shown by the sharp increase in potential difference and cu rrent
on the right side of the graph
o When the diode is switched around, this is reverse bias
▪ This is shown by a zero reading of current or potential difference on
the left side of the graph
 IV graph for a semiconductor diode

Investigating IV Graphs Experimentally

• In order to investigate the relationship between current and voltage different

components, the following equipment is required:
o An ammeter – to measure the current through the component
o A voltmeter – to measure the voltage across the component
o A variable resistor – to vary the current through the circuit
o Power source – to provide a source of potential difference (voltage)
o Wires – to connect the components together in a circuit
• The image below shows the circuits set up to obtain IV graphs for a filament lamp and
a diode

These circuits enable the investigation of current and voltage for a filament lamp or diode
to be investigated

• The current is the independent variable

o The variable resistor is used to change the current flowing through the
filament lamp / diode
• The voltage is the dependent variable
o The voltmeter is used to measure the voltage across the filament lamp / diode
• Recording measurements of current and voltage as the current increases enables
an IV graph to be plotted for each component

Resistance

• Resistance is the opposition to the flow of current

o The higher the resistance of a circuit the lower the current
• Resistors come in two types:
o Fixed resistors
o Variable resistors

• Fixed resistors have a resistance that remains constant

 • Variable resistors can change the resistance by changing the length of wire that
makes up the circuit
o A longer length of wire has more resistance than a shorter length of wire

Fixed and variable resistor circuit symbols

Thermistors & LDRs

Thermistors

• A thermistor is a temperature-dependent resistor

• It is represented by the following circuit symbol:

Thermistor circuit symbol

• The resistance of a thermistor changes depending on its temperature

o As the temperature increases the resistance of a thermistor decreases and vice
versa
 The resistance through a thermistor is dependent on temperature

LDRs

• A light-dependent resistor (LDR) represented by the following circuit symbol:

LDR circuit symbol

• The resistance of an LDR changes depending on the light intensity on it

o As the light intensity increases the resistance of an LDR decreases and vice
versa
 The resistance of an LDR is dependent on the amount of light intensity on it

Lamps & LEDs

• Lamps illuminate (light up) when a current flows in a circuit

• LEDs are types of diodes
o This means they only allow current to pass in one direction through them and
will only light if the current passes in that direction
• LEDs also illuminate when a current flows in a circuit (provided the LED is placed in
the correct direction)
• Since both electrical components have a visual response to current, they can be used
to indicate the presence of a current in a circuit

LEDs can be used to indicate the presence of a current, because they illuminate when
current flows through them. The same is true for lamps

Exam Tip

Make sure you learn the various symbols mentioned on this page. Many of them are very
similar with small differences denoting what they do:

• Two arrows pointing towards a symbol mean that it is light-dependent

• Two arrows pointing away mean that it is light-emitting
Symbols are sometimes drawn with circles around them (e.g. the LDR). These circles are
often optional (although not in the case of meters and bulbs).

Electrical Power

• Power is defined as

The rate of energy transfer or the amount of energy transferred per second

• The power of a device depends on:

o The voltage (potential difference) of the device
o The current of the device
• The power of an electrical component (or appliance) is given by the equation:

• The unit of power is the Watt (W), which is the same as a joule per second (J/s)

• This equation can be rearranged with the help of a formula triangle:

 Power, current, voltage formula triangle

Worked Example

Calculate the potential difference through a 48 W electric motor with a current of 4 A.

Step 1: List the known quantities

•
o Power, P = 48 W
o Current, I = 4 A

Step 2: Write down the relevant equation

P = IV

Step 3: Rearrange for potential difference, V

Step 4: Substitute in the values

Exam Tip

Remember: Power is just energy per second. Think of it this way will help you to remember
the relationship between power and energy

You can remember the unit by the phrase: “Watt is the unit of power?”

Selecting Fuses

• A fuse is a safety device designed to cut off the flow of electricity to an appliance if
the current becomes too large (due to a fault or a surge)

The circuit symbol for a fuse – take care not to confuse this with a resistor

• Fuses usually consist of a glass cylinder which contains a thin metal wire
• If the current in the wire becomes too large:
o The wire heats up and melts
o This causes the wire to break, breaking the circuit and stopping the current
• This makes sure that more current doesn’t keep flowing through the circuit and
causing more damage to the equipment, or, causing a fire

• Fuses come in a variety of sizes, typically 3 A, 5 A and 13 A

o In order to select the right fuse for the job, the current through an appliance
needs to be known

• If the power of the appliance is known (along with mains voltage), the current can be
calculated using the equation:

• Where:
o I = current in amps (A)
o P = power in watts (W)
o V = voltage in volts (V)
• The fuse should always have a current rating that is higher than the current needed by
the appliance, without being too high
 o Because of this, the rule of thumb is to always choose the next size up
• If the fuse current rating is low, it will break the circuit even when an acceptable
current is flowing through
• If the fuse current rating is too high, it will not be breaking the circuit in enough time
before damage occurs

Worked Example

Calculating Energy Transfers

• Work is done when charge flows through a circuit
o Work done is equal to the energy transferred
• The amount of energy transferred by electrical work in a component (or appliance)
depends upon:
o The current, I
o The potential difference, V
o The amount of time the component is used for, t

• When charge flows through a resistor, for example, the energy transferred is what
makes the resistor hot
• The energy transferred can be calculated using the equation:

E= P ×t

• Where:
o E = energy transferred in joules (J)
o P = power in watts (W)
o t = time in seconds (s)

• Since P = IV, this equation can also be written as:

 E= I× V× t

• Where:
o I = current in amperes (A)
o V = potential difference in volts (V)

• When charge flows around a circuit for a given time, the energy supplied by the
battery is equal to the energy transferred to all the components in the circuit

Worked Example

Calculate the energy transferred in 1 minute when a current of 0.7 A passes throu gh a
potential difference of 4 V.

Step 1: Write down the known quantities

•
o Time, t = 1 minute = 60 s
o Current, I = 0.7 A
o Potential difference, V = 4 V

Step 2: Write down the relevant equation

E=I×V×t

Step 3: Substitute in the values

E = 0.7 × 4 × 60 = 168 J

Exam Tip

‘Energy transferred’ and ‘work done’ are often used interchangeably in equations, don’t
panic, they mean the same thing!

Always remember that the time t in the above equations must always be converted
into seconds

Electrical Safety

• Mains electricity is potentially lethal

o Potential differences as small as 50 V can pose a serious hazard to individuals
 Signs, like the above, warn of the risk of electrocution

• Common hazards include:

o Damaged Insulation – if someone touches an exposed piece of wire, they
could be subjected to a lethal shock
o Overheating of cables – passing too much current through too small a wire
(or leaving a long length of wire tightly coiled) can lead to the wire
overheating. This could cause a fire or melt the insulations, exposing live
wires
o Damp conditions – if moisture comes into contact with live wires, the
moisture could conduct electricity either causing a short circuit within a
device (which could cause a fire) or posing an electrocution risk

• In order to protect the user or the device, there are several safety features built into
domestic appliances, including:
o Double insulation
o Earthing
o Fuses
o Circuit breakers

Insulation & Double Insulation

• The conducting part of a wire is usually made of copper or some other metal
o If this comes into contact with a person, this poses a risk of electrocution
• For this reason, wires are covered with an insulating material, such as rubber
 The conducting part of a wire is covered in an insulating material for safety

• Some appliances do not have metal cases and so there is no risk of them becoming
electrified
• Such appliances are said to be double insulated, as they have two layers of
insulation:
o Insulation around the wires themselves
o A non-metallic case that acts as a second layer of insulation

• Double insulated appliances do not require an earth wire or have been designed so
that the earth wire cannot touch the metal casing

Earthing

• Many electrical appliances have metal cases

• This poses a potential safety hazard:
o If a live wire (inside the appliance) came into contact with the case, the case
would become electrified and anyone who touched it would risk being
electrocuted
• The earth wire is an additional safety wire that can reduce this risk
 A diagram showing the three wires going to a mains powered appliance: live, neutral
and earth

• If this happens:
o The earth wire provides a low resistance path to the earth
o It causes a surge of current in the earth wire and hence also in the live
wire
o The high current through the fuse causes it to melt and break
o This cuts off the supply of electricity to the appliance, making it safe

Fuses & Circuit Breakers

• Fuses and circuit breakers are safety devices designed to cut off the flow of
electricity to an appliance if the current becomes too large (due to a fault or a
surge)

The circuit symbol for a fuse (not to be confused with a resistor)

• Fuses usually consist of a glass cylinder containing a thin metal wire

• If the current in the wire becomes too large:
o The wire heats up and melts
o This causes the wire to break, breaking the circuit and stopping the current

• A circuit breaker consists of an automatic electromagnet switch that breaks the

circuit if the current exceeds a certain value
The main circuit breaker can quickly shut off electricity to the whole house. The branch
circuit breakers can shut off electricity to specific areas of the house

• This has a major advantage over a fuse because:

o It doesn’t melt and break, hence it can be reset and used again
o It works much faster

• For these reasons, circuit breakers are used in mains electricity in homes
o Sometimes they are misleadingly named “Fuse boxes”

Electricity & Heat

• When electricity passes through a component, such as a resistor, some of the
electrical energy is turned into heat therefore increasing its temperature
• This is because energy is transferred as a result of collisions between:
o Electrons flowing in the conductor, and
o The lattice of atoms within the metal conductor
• Electricity, in metals, is caused by a flow of electrons
o This is called the current
• Metals are made up of a lattice of ions
• As the electrons pass through the metal lattice they collide with ions
o The ions resist the flow of the electrons
As electrons flow through the metal, they collide with ions, making them vibrate more

• When the electrons collide, they lose some energy by giving it to the ions, which
start to vibrate more
o As a result of this, the metal heats up

• This heating effect is utilised in many appliances, including:

o Electric heaters
o Electric ovens
o Electric hob
o Toasters
o Kettles

The heating effect of current can be used for many applications such as electric hobs

AC & DC
Direct Current

• A direct current (d.c.) is defined as

A current that is steady, constantly flowing in the same direction in a circuit, from
positive to negative

• The potential difference across a cell in a d.c. circuit travels in one direction only
o This means the current is only positive or only negative
• A d.c. power supply has a fixed positive terminal and a fixed negative terminal
• Electric cells, or batteries, produce direct current (d.c.)

Circuits powered by cells or batteries use a d.c. supply

Alternating Current

• An alternating current (a.c.) is defined as

A current that continuously changes its direction, going back and forth around a
circuit

• An a.c. power supply has two identical terminals that switches between positive and
negative
o The current is therefore defined as positive or negative, depending on which
direction it is flowing at that time
• The frequency of an alternating current is the number of times the current changes
direction back and forth each second
• In the UK, mains electricity is an alternating current with a frequency of 50 Hz and
a potential difference of around 230 V
• On an oscilloscope, direct current and alternating current are represented in the
following way:
 Two graphs showing the variation of current with time for alternating current and
direct current

Comparing AC & DC

• The following table summarises the differences between d.c. and a.c.

Direct Current vs. Alternating Current Table

Exam Tip

If you are asked to explain the difference between alternating and direct current, sketching
and labelling the graphs shown above can earn you full marks.

All the circuits you have studied so far are d.c. circuits. Don’t be put off by an exam question
if you are asked to calculate the current, potential difference or resistance in a d.c. series
circuits, you don’t have to do anything different from what you have already learned!

Single Science Only

Conductors & Insulators
Conductors

• A conductor is a material that allows charge (usually electrons) to flow through it

easily
• Examples of conductors are:
o Silver
o Copper
o Aluminium
o Steel

• Conductors tend to be metals

Different materials have different properties of conductivity

• On the atomic scale, conductors are made up of positively charged metal ions with
their outermost electrons delocalised
o This means the electrons are free to move

• Metals conduct electricity very well because:

o Current is the rate of flow of electrons
o So, the more easily electrons are able to flow, the better the conductor
 The lattice structure of a conductor with positive metal ions and delocalised electrons

Insulators

• An insulator is a material that has no free charges, hence does not allow the flow
of charge through them very easily
• Examples of insulators are:
o Rubber
o Plastic
o Glass
o Wood

• Some non-metals, such as wood, allow some charge to pass through them
• Although they are not very good at conducting, they do conduct a little in the for m
of static electricity
o For example, two insulators can build up charge on their surfaces and if they
touch this would allow that charge to be conducted away

• Overall, metals are very good conductors whilst non-metals tend to be

good insulators
 Conductors and Insulators Summary Table

Investigating Charging by Friction

Aim of the Experiment

• The aim of this experiment is to investigate how insulating materials can be charged
by friction

Variables:

• Independent variable = Rods of different material

• Dependent variable = Charge on the rod
• Control variables:
o Time spent rubbing the rod
o Using the same type of cloth
o Using the same length of rod

Equipment List
Method

Apparatus for investigating charging by friction

1. Take a polythene rod, hold it at its centre and rub both ends with a cloth
 2. Suspend the rod, without touching the ends, from a stand using a cradle and nylon
thread
3. Take a Perspex rod and rub it with another cloth
4. Without touching the ends of the Perspex rod bring each end of the Perspex rod up
to, but without touching, each end of the polythene rod
5. Record any observations
6. Repeat for different materials

Analysis of Results

• When two insulating materials are rubbed together, electrons will pass from one
insulator onto the other insulator
• A polythene rod is given a negative charge by rubbing it with the cloth
o This is because electrons move from the cloth to the rod
o Electrons are negatively charged hence the polythene rod becomes
negatively charged

Electrons are transferred to the polythene rod whilst they move from the acetate rod

• If the material is repelled (rotates away) from the polythene rod then the materials
have the same charge
• If the material is attracted to (moves towards) the polythene rod then they
have opposite charges

Evaluating the Experiment

• This experiment can be carried out in several different ways

• To improve the outcome of the experiment, consider investigating a variable with a
numerical result
 o For example, the independent variable could stay the same (using rods of
different material)
o The dependent variable could change to be the number of paper circles
picked up by each rod
• With numerical data:
o More analysis can be carried out e.g. creating a graph or a chart
o Better conclusions can be drawn e.g. the rod made of ___ picked up more
circles of paper than the other rods, therefore it became the most charged

Production of Static

• When certain insulating materials are rubbed against each other they
become electrically charged
o This is called charging by friction
• The charges remain on the insulators and cannot immediately flow away
o One becomes positive and the other negative
• An example of this is a plastic or polythene rod being charged by rubbing it with a
cloth
o Both the rod and cloth are insulating materials

A polythene rod may be given a charge by rubbing it with a cloth

• This occurs because negatively charged electrons are transferred from one material
to the other
 o The material, in this case, the rod, loses electrons
• Since electrons are negatively charged, the rod becomes positively charged
o As a result, the cloth has gained electrons and therefore is left with an
equal negative charge

Exam Tip

At this level, if asked to explain how things gain or lose charge, you must
discuss electrons and explain whether something has gained or lost them

Remember when charging by friction, it is only the electrons that can move, not any
‘positive’ charge, therefore if an object gains a negative charge, something else must have
gained a positive charge

Single Science Only

Electric Forces Between Charges

• The charge of a particle can be:

o Positive
o Negative
o Neutral (no charge)

• Electrons are negatively charged particles, whilst protons are positive and neutrons
are neutral
• This is why in a neutral atom, the number of electrons is equal to the number of
protons
o This is so the equal (but opposite) charges cancel out to make the overall
charge of the atom zero
The number of negative electrons in an atom balances the number of positive protons

• Therefore, an object becomes negatively charged when it gains electrons and

positively charged when it loses electrons
• When two charged particles or objects are close together, they also exert a force on
each other
• This force could be:
o Attractive (the objects get closer together)
o Repulsive (the objects move further apart)
• Whether two objects attract or repel depends on their charge
o If the charges are the opposite, they will attract
o If the charges are the same, they will repel

Opposite charges attract, like charges repel

 Attraction or Repulsion Summary Table

• Attraction and repulsion between two charged objects are examples of a non-contact
force
o This is a force that acts on an object without being physically in contact with it

Exam Tip

Remember the saying: “Opposites attract”

Materials only become positively charged because of the loss of electrons, rather than the
‘gain’ of any positive charge, which is a common misconception.

Single Science Only

Movement of Electrons

• All objects are initially electrically neutral, meaning the negative (electrons) and
positive charges are evenly distributed
• However, when the electrons are transferred through friction, one object
becomes negatively charged and the other positively charged
o The object to which the electrons are transferred to becomes negatively
charged
o The object from which the electrons leave from becomes positively charged

• This difference in charges leads to a force of attraction between itself and other
objects which are also electrically neutral
o This is done by attracting the opposite charge to the surface of the objects they
are attracted to
• In the example below, when the cloth and rod are rubbed together, the electrons
are transferred to the cloth and leave from the rod
 Electrons are rubbed onto the cloth leaving the cloth negatively charged and the rod

Uses of Static Electricity

• Electrostatic charges are used in everyday situations such as photocopiers and inkjet
printers

Photocopiers

• Photocopiers use static electricity to copy paper documents, most commonly in black
and white
• An image of the document is projected onto a positively charged copying plate
• The plate loses its charge in the light areas and keeps the positive charge in the dark
areas (i.e the text)
• A negatively charged black toner powder is applied to the plate and sticks to the part
where there is a positive charge
• The toner is then transferred onto a new black sheet of white paper
• The paper is heated to make sure the powder sticks (hence why photocopied paper
feels warm)
o The photocopy of the document is now made
• Inkjet printers work in a similar way, but instead of the black toner powder, a small jet
of coloured ink is negatively charged and attracted to the correct place on the page
Insecticide Sprayers

• Insecticides are chemicals used to kill pests in order to protect crops

• In order to spray crops effectively whilst using a minimal amount of chemicals, the
sprayer has to deliver the chemicals as a fine mist and cover a large area
• To achieve this, the insecticide is given an electrostatic charge (e.g. positive) as it
leaves the sprayer
• The droplets of insecticide then repel each other since they are the same charge
o This ensures that the spray remains fine and covers a large area
• They are also attracted to the negative charges on Earth, so they will fall quickly and
are less likely to be blown away
• A similar technique is used in the spray painting of cars
Single Science Only
Dangers of Static Electricity

• Static electricity can cause sparking

• There are various situations where static electricity can pose a hazard, for example:
o The risk of electrocution (e.g from lightning)
o The risk of a fire or explosion due to a spark close to a flammable gas or liquid
• There are dangers of sparking in everyday situations such as fuelling vehicles such as
cars and planes
• Earthing is used to prevent the dangerous build-up of charge
o This is done by connecting the vehicles to the Earth with a conductor

Fuelling Vehicles

• A build-up of static charge is a potential danger when refuelling aeroplanes

• Fuel runs through pipes at a fast rate
o This fuel is very flammable
• The friction between the fuel (a liquid insulator) and the pipe causes the fuel to gain
charge
• If this charge were to cause a spark, the fuel could ignite and cause an explosion
 • This is prevented by the fuel tank being connected to the Earth with a copper wire
called the bonding line during the refuelling
• The conductor earths the plane by carrying the charge through to the Earth which
removes the risk of any sparks

Exam Tip

• You could be asked to explain other dangers and uses in your exams
• They may ask you to explain the movement of charge in terms of electrons
• If asked to explain a danger:
o State what the danger is (electrocution? fire?)
o Explain how the charge can be removed to get rid of the risk i.e earthing
(think about which way the electrons have to move)
• If asked to explain a use, think carefully about the forces exerted due to static
electricity and what they will do

Magnetism

The Law of Magnetism

Poles of a Magnet

• The ends of a magnet are called poles

• Magnets have two poles: a north and a south

Poles of a Magnet
The Law of Magnetism

• When two magnets are held close together, there will be an attractive or repulsive
force between the magnets depending on how they are arranged:

Opposite poles attract; like poles repel

• The Law of Magnetism states that:

o Two like poles (S and S or N and N) repel each other
o Two unlike poles (S and N) attract each other
• The attraction or repulsion between two magnetic poles is an example of a non-
contact force

Magnetic Materials

• Magnetic materials can be soft or hard

• Magnetically soft materials (e.g. iron):
o Are easy to magnetise
o Easily lose their magnetism (temporarily magnetised)
• Magnetically hard materials (e.g. steel):
o Are difficult to magnetise
o Do not easily lose their magnetism (permanently magnetised)
• Permanent magnets are made out of magnetically hard materials
• Electromagnets are made out of magnetically soft materials
o This means that electromagnets can be made magnetic or non-magnetic as
an when required
 A steel pin will be attracted when an electromagnet switches on but not when it
switches off. It is always attracted to a permanent magnet

Magnetic Field Lines

• All magnets are surrounded by a magnetic field

• A magnetic field is defined as:

The region around a magnet where a force acts on another magnet or on a magnetic
material (such as iron, steel, cobalt and nickel)

Magnetic Field Lines

• Magnetic field lines are used to represent the strength and direction of a magnetic
field
• The direction of the magnetic field is shown using arrows
• The strength of the magnetic field is shown by the spacing of the magnetic field lines
o If the magnetic field lines are close together then the magnetic field will
be strong
o If the magnetic field lines are far apart then the magnetic field will be weak
• There are some rules which must be followed when drawing magnetic field lines.
Magnetic field lines:
o Always go from north to south (indicated by an arrow midway along the
line)
o Must never touch or cross other field lines

Magnetic Field Around a Bar Magnet

• The magnetic field is strongest at the poles

 o This is where the magnetic field lines are closest together
• The magnetic field becomes weaker as the distance from the magnet increases
• This is because the magnetic field lines are getting further apart

The magnetic field around a bar magnet

• Two bar magnets can repel or attract, the field lines will look slightly different for
each:
 Magnetic field lines for attracting and repelling bar magnets

• Therefore, the magnetic field lines around different configurations of two bar magnets
would look like:

Magnetic field lines between two bar magnets

Exam Tip

If you are asked to draw the magnetic field around a bar magnet remember to indicate both
the direction of the magnetic field and the strength of the magnetic field.

You can do this by:

• Adding arrows pointing away from the north pole and towards the south pole
• Making sure the magnetic field lines are further apart as the distance from the magnet
increases

Representing Magnetic Fields

• Two bar magnets can be used to produce a uniform magnetic field

• Point opposite poles (north and south) of the two magnets a few centimetres apart
 • A uniform magnetic field will be produced in the gaps between opposite poles
o Note: Outside that gap, the field will not be uniform

A uniform field is created when two opposite poles are held close together. Magnetic fields
are always directed from North to South

• A uniform magnetic field is one that has the same strength and direction at all
points
o To show that the magnetic field has the same strength at all points there must
be equal spacing between all magnetic field lines
o To show that the magnetic field is acting in the same direction at all points
there must be an arrow on each magnetic field line going from the north pole
to the south pole

• The magnetic field lines are the same distance apart between the gaps of the poles to
indicate that the field strength is the same at every point between the poles
• This field can be determined by using plotting compasses that will point
from north to south or by using iron filings

Exam Tip

Remember that the direction of the field line at a point is the same as the direction of the
force a north pole would experience at that point

Permanent & Induced Magnets

 Magnetic materials are attracted to a magnet; non-magnetic materials are not

• Very few metals in the Periodic Table are magnetic. These include:
o Iron
o Cobalt
o Nickel
• Steel is an alloy which contains iron, so it is also magnetic
• Magnetic materials (which are not magnets) will always be attracted to the magnet,
regardless of which pole is held close to it

Magnetic materials attracted to magnets

• To test whether a material is a magnet it should be brought close to a known magnet

o If it can be repelled by the known magnet then the material itself is a magnet
o If it can only be attracted and not repelled then it is a magnetic material

• There are two types of magnets

•
o Permanent magnets
o Induced magnets

Permanent Magnets

• Permanent magnets are made out of permanent magnetic materials, for example steel
• A permanent magnet will produce its own magnetic field
o It will not lose its magnetism

Induced Magnets
 • When a magnetic material is placed in a magnetic field, the material can temporarily
be turned into a magnet.
o This is called induced magnetism
• When magnetism is induced on a material:
o One end of the material will become a north pole
o The other end will become a south pole
• Magnetic materials will always be attracted to a permanent magnet
o This means that the end of the material closest to the magnet will have
the opposite pole to magnets pole closest to the material

Inducing magnetism in a magnetic material

• When the magnetic material is removed from the magnetic field it will lose most/all
of its magnetism quickly

Worked Example

The diagram below shows a magnet held close to a piece of metal that is suspended by a light
cotton thread. The piece of metal is attracted towards the magnet.
Which of the following rows in the table gives the correct type of pole at X and the correct
material of the suspended piece of metal?

ANSWER: A

•
o X must be a north pole
▪ The piece of metal is being attracted towards the magnet
▪ The law of magnetism states that opposite poles attract
o The material of the suspended piece of metal is nickel
▪ Nickel is a magnetic material (It will experience a force when it is
placed in a magnetic field, in this case it is attracted towards the
magnet)

•
o B is incorrect because X cannot also be a south pole (and hence is a north
pole)
▪ If the pole at X was a south pole then the piece of metal would be
repelled from the magnet because the law of magnetism states that like
poles repel

•
 o C and D are incorrect because aluminium is not a magnetic material
▪ A non-magnetic material would be unaffected by the magnetic field
produced by the magnet.

Investigating Magnetic Fields

Aim of the Experiment

• To investigate the magnetic field pattern for a permanent bar magnet and between
two bar magnets

Equipment List

Method

Step 1:

•
o Place the magnet on top of a piece of paper
o Draw a dot at one end of the magnet (near its corner)
Step 2:

•
o Place a plotting compass next to the dot, so that one end of the needle of the
compass points away from the dot
o Use a pencil to draw a new dot at the other side of the compass needle

Step 3:

•
o Move the compass so that it points away from the new dot, and repeat the
process above
Step 4:

•
o Keep repeating the previous process until there is a chain of dots going from
one end of the magnet to the other
o Then remove the compass, and link the dots using a smooth curve – this will
be the magnetic field line

Step 5:

•
o Repeat the whole process several times to create several other magnetic field
lines
Step 6:

•
o Repeat the whole process for two bar magnets placed 5 cm apart first facing
the same pole then facing opposite poles

Analysis of Results

• The magnetic field pattern for the single bar magnetic should look like this:
 • The magnetic field pattern for two bar magnets should look like this:

Evaluating the Experiment

• Make sure the pencil you use is sharp to provide a clear and accurate drawing of the
field lines
• Read the marker on the compass from above and not at an angle
• Allow the compasses to settle for a couple of seconds before taking the reading

Electromagnetism

• When a current flows through a conducting wire a magnetic field is produced

around the wire
• The shape and direction of the magnetic field can be investigated using plotting
compasses
 Diagram showing the magnetic field around a current-carrying wire

• The magnetic field is made up of concentric circles

o A circular field pattern indicates that the magnetic field around a current-
carrying wire has no poles
• As the distance from the wire increases the circles get further apart
o This shows that the magnetic field is strongest closest to the wire and gets
weaker as the distance from the wire increases
• The right-hand thumb rule can be used to work out the direction of the magnetic
field
The right-hand thumb rule shows the direction of current flow through a wire and the
direction of the magnetic field around the wire

• Reversing the direction in which the current flows through the wire will reverse the
direction of the magnetic field
 Side and top view of the current flowing through a wire and the magnetic field produced

• If there is no current flowing through the conductor there will be no magnetic field
• Increasing the amount of current flowing through the wire will increase the strength
of the magnetic field
o This means the field lines will become closer together

Factors Affecting Field Strength

• The strength of the magnetic fields field depends on:

o The size of the current
o The distance from the long straight conductor (such as a wire)
• A larger current will produce a larger magnetic field and vice versa
• The greater the distance from the conductor, the weaker the magnetic field and vice
versa
 The greater the current, the stronger the magnetic field. This is shown by more
concentrated field lines

Magnetic Force on a Current-Carrying Wire

• The motor effect occurs:

When a wire with current flowing through it is placed in a magnetic field and
experiences a force

• This effect is a result of two interacting magnetic fields

o One is produced around the wire due to the current flowing through it
o The second is the magnetic field into which the wire is placed, for example,
between two magnets
• As a result of the interactions of the two magnetic fields, the wire will experience
a force
 The motor effect is a result of two magnetic fields interacting to produce a force on the
wire

Simple Motors

• The motor effect can be used to create a simple d.c electric motor
• The simple d.c. motor consists of a coil of wire (which is free to rotate) positioned in
a uniform magnetic field:
A simple d.c. motor consisting of two magnets, a coil and a split ring commutator to control
the direction of the current

• When the current is flowing in the coil at 90 o to the direction of the magnetic field:
o The current creates a magnetic field around the coil
o The magnetic field produced around the coil interacts with the field produced
by the magnets
o This results in a force being exerted on the coil
o The direction of the force can be determined using Fleming's left-hand rule
o As current will flow in opposite directions on each side of the coil, the force
produced from the magnetic field will push one side of the coil up and the
other side of the coil down

• This will cause the coil to rotate, and it will continue to rotate until it is in the vertical
position
o When the coil is in the vertical position there will be a force acting upwards
and a force acting downwards

Forces acting on the coil in the vertical position

• The split ring commutator swaps the contacts of the coil

o This reverses the direction in which the current is flowing
• Reversing the direction of the current will also reverse the direction in which the
forces are acting
o As a result, the coil will continue to rotate
 Forces on coil after commutator has reversed the direction of the current

• The commutator reverses the direction of the current in the coil every half turn
o This will keep the coil rotating continuously as long as the current is flowing

Factors Affecting the D.C Motor

• The speed at which the coil rotates can be increased by:

o Increasing the current
o Increasing the strength of the magnetic field
• The direction of rotation of coil in the d.c motor can be changed by:
o Reversing the direction of the current
o Reversing the direction of the magnetic field by reversing the poles of the
magnet
• The force supplied by the motor can be increased by:
o Increasing the current in the coil
o Increasing the strength of the magnetic field
o Adding more turns to the coil

Loudspeakers

• Loudspeakers and headphones convert electrical signals into sound

o They work due to the motor effect
• They work in the opposite way to microphones
• A loudspeaker consists of a coil of wire which is wrapped around one pole of
a permanent magnet
 Diagram showing a cross-section of a loudspeaker

• An alternating current passes through the coil of the loudspeaker

o This creates a changing magnetic field around the coil
• As the current is constantly changing direction, the direction of the magnetic field will
be constantly changing
• The magnetic field produced around the coil interacts with the field from the
permanent magnet
• The interacting magnetic fields will exert a force on the coil
o The direction of the force at any instant can be determined using Fleming’s
left-hand rule

• As the magnetic field is constantly changing direction, the force exerted on the coil
will constantly change direction
o This makes the coil oscillate
• The oscillating coil causes the speaker cone to oscillate
o This makes the air oscillate, creating sound waves

Worked Example

A d.c motor is set up as shown below.

Determine whether the coil will be rotating clockwise or anticlockwise.

Step 1: Draw arrows to show the direction of the magnetic field lines

•
o These will go from the north pole of the magnet to the south pole of the
magnet

Step 2: Draw arrows to show the direction the current is flowing in the coils

•
o Current will flow from the positive terminal of the battery to the negative
terminal
Step 3: Use Fleming’s left hand rule to determine the direction of the force on each side
of the coil

•
o Start by pointing your First Finger in the direction of the (magnetic) Field
o Now rotate your hand around the first finger so that the seCond finger points
in the direction of the Current
o The THumb will now be pointing in the direction of the THrust (the force)

Step 4: Use the force arrows to determine the direction of rotation

•
o The coil will be turning clockwise
Exam Tip

The explanation of the loudspeaker is very similar to the explanation of a motor,

however direct current is used in a d.c motor and alternating current is used in a
loudspeaker. You need to learn how both work.

When explaining how a loudspeaker works remember to refer to the alternating current and
the changing magnetic field that it creates.

Factors Affecting Magnetic Force

• Magnetic forces are due to interactions between magnetic fields

o Stronger magnetic fields produce stronger forces and vice versa
• For a current carrying conductor, the size of the force exerted by the magnetic fields
can be increased by:
o Increasing the amount of current flowing through the wire
▪ This will increase the magnetic field around the wire
o Using stronger magnets
▪ This will increase the magnetic field between the poles of the magnet
o Placing the wire at 90 o to the direction of the magnetic field lines between the
poles of the magnet
▪ This will result in the maximum interaction between the two magnetic
fields

• Note: If the two magnetic fields are parallel there will be no interaction between the
two magnetic fields and therefore no force produced

Fleming's Left-Hand Rule

• The direction of the force (aka the thrust) on a current carrying wire depends on
the direction of the current and the direction of the magnetic field
• All three will be perpendicular to each other
 o This means that sometimes the force could be into and out of the page (in
3D)
• The direction of the force (or thrust) can be worked out by using Fleming’s left-
hand rule:

Fleming’s Left-Hand Rule can be used to determine directions of the force, magnetic
field and current

Worked Example

Use Fleming’s left-hand rule to show that if the current-carrying wire is placed into the
magnetic field between the poles of the magnet, as shown below, there will be a downwards
force acting on the wire.

Step 1: Determine the direction of the magnetic field

 •
o Start by pointing your First Finger in the direction of the (magnetic) Field.

Step 2: Determine the direction of the current

•
o Now rotate your hand around the first finger so that the seCond finger points
in the direction of the Current

Step 3: Determine the direction of the force

•
o The THumb will now be pointing in the direction of the THrust (the force)
o Therefore, this will be the direction in which the wire will move

Exam Tip

Remember that the magnetic field is always in the direction from North to South and
current is always in the direction of a positive terminal to a negative terminal.

Feel free to use Fleming’s left hand rule in your exam, just don’t make it too obvious or
distracting for other students!

Electromagnets
• When an electric current flows in a wire it creates a magnetic field around the wire
 • By winding the wire into a coil we can strengthen the magnetic field by
concentrating the field lines
• If this wire is wound around a soft magnet, such as an iron, then an electromagnet is
made
o The electromagnet is magnetic only when current flows through the wire

Electromagnets are made up of a coil of wire wrapped around an iron core

• The strength of an electromagnet’s magnetic field may be increased by:

o Increasing the current in the coil
o Adding more turns to the coil

• The magnetic field around an electromagnet has the same shape as the one around a
bar magnet
• The field can be reversed by reversing the direction of the current
o However, bar magnets are always magnetic, unlike electromagnets

Magnetic Field Patterns

• Magnetic field line patterns are all slightly different around:

o Straight wires
o Flat circular coils
o Solenoids

Magnetic Field in a Straight Wire

• When a current flows through a conducting wire a magnetic field is produced

around the wire
 • The shape and direction of the magnetic field can be investigated using plotting
compasses

• The magnetic field is made up of concentric circles

o A circular field pattern indicates that the magnetic field around a current-
carrying wire has no poles
• As the distance from the wire increases the circles get further apart
o This shows that the magnetic field is strongest closest to the wire and gets
weaker as the distance from the wire increases
• The right-hand thumb rule can be used to work out the direction of the magnetic
field

The direction of the magnetic field around a wire is given by the right-hand thumb rule

• Reversing the direction in which the current flows through the wire will reverse the
direction of the magnetic field
• If there is no current flowing through the conductor there will be no magnetic
field
• Increasing the amount of current flowing through the wire will increase the
strength of the magnetic field
o This means the field lines will become closer together

Magnetic Field in a Flat Circular Coil

• When a wire is looped into a coil, the magnetic field lines circle around each part of
the coil, passing through the centre of it
 The magnetic field around a flat circular coil

• To increase the strength of the magnetic field around the wire it should be coiled to
form a solenoid
• The magnetic field around the solenoid is similar to that of a bar magnet
 Magnetic field around and through a solenoid

Magnetic Field in a Solenoid

• The magnetic field inside the solenoid is strong and uniform

• Inside a solenoid (an example of an electromagnet) the fields from individual coils
o Add together to form a very strong almost uniform field along the centre of
the solenoid
o Cancel to give a weaker field outside the solenoid

• One end of the solenoid behaves like the north pole of a magnet; the other side
behaves like the south pole
o To work out the polarity of each end of the solenoid it needs to be viewed
from the end
o If the current is travelling around in a clockwise direction then it is
the south pole
o If the current is travelling around in an anticlockwise direction then it is the
north pole
• If the current changes direction then the north and south poles will be reversed
• If there is no current flowing through the wire then there will be no magnetic
field produced around or through the solenoid
 Poles of a Solenoid

• The strength of the magnetic field produced around a solenoid can be increased by:
o Increasing the size of the current which is flowing through the wire
o Increasing the number of coils
o Adding an iron core through the centre of the coils

• The iron core will become an induced magnet when current is flowing through the
coils
• The magnetic field produced from the solenoid and the iron core will create a
much stronger magnet overall

Exam Tip

Remember the term ‘uniform field’ means a field which has the same strength and direction
at all points. This is represented by parallel field lines.

When discussing the strength of an electromagnet, avoid saying “add more coils”:
The coil describes the overall object – the individual loops of wire should be referred to
as turns.

The correct phrase to use is “add more turns to the coil”.

Magnetic Force on a Charge

 • When a current-carrying wire is placed in a magnetic field, it will experience a force
if the wire is perpendicular
o This is because the magnetic field exerts a force on each individual electron
flowing through the wire
• Therefore, when a charged particle passes through a magnetic field, the field can
exert a force on the particle, causing it to deflect
o The force is always at 90 degrees to both the direction of travel and the
magnetic field lines
o The direction can be worked out by using Fleming's left-hand rule

The electron experiences a force upwards when it travels through the magnetic field
between the two poles

• If the particle is travelling perpendicula r to the field lines:

o It will experience the maximum force
• If the particle is travelling parallel to the field lines:
o It will experience no force
• If the particle is travelling at an angle to the field lines:
o It will experience a small force

Exam Tip

Remember that the direction of current flow in Fleming’s Left-Hand Rule is

from positive to negative. This means it is in the opposite direction to the direction of
travel of an electron (which is negatively charged)

Electromagnetic Induction
 • Electromagnetic (EM) induction is used to generate electricity
• EM induction is when:

A voltage is induced in a conductor or a coil when it moves through a magnetic field

or when a magnetic field changes through it

• This is done by the conductor or coil cutting through the magnetic field lines of the
magnetic field
• This is often referred to as the generator effect and is the opposite to the motor
effect
o In the motor effect, there is already a current in the conductor which
experiences a force
o In the generator effect, there is no initial current in the conductor but one is
induced (created) when it moves through a magnetic field

• This is done by the conductor or coil cutting through the magnetic field lines of the
magnetic field

Generating Potential Difference

• A potential difference will be induced in the conductor if there is relative

movement between the conductor and the magnetic field
• Moving the electrical conductor in a fixed magnetic field
o When a conductor (such as a wire) is moved through a magnetic field, the
wire cuts through the fields lines
o This induces a potential difference in the wire

Moving an electrical conductor in a magnetic field to induce a potential difference

• Moving the magnetic field relative to a fixed conductor

o As the magnet moved through the coil, the field lines cut through the turns
on the coil
 o This induces a potential difference in the coil

When the magnet enters the coil, the field lines cut through the turns, inducing a
potential difference

• A sensitive voltmeter can be used to measure the size of the induced potential
difference
• If the conductor is part of a complete circuit then a current is induced in the
conductor

Factors Affecting the Induced Potential Difference

• The size of the induced potential difference is determined by:

o The speed at which the wire, coil or magnet is moved
o The number of turns on the coils of wire
o The size of the coils
o The strength of the magnetic field

• The direction of the induced potential difference is determined by:

o The orientation of the poles of the magnet

1. The speed at which the wire, coil or magnet is moved:

•
o Increasing the speed will increase the rate at which the magnetic field lines
are cut
o This will increase the induced potential difference
2. The number of turns on the coils in the wire:

•
o Increasing the number of turns on the coils in the wire will increase the
potential difference induced
o This is because each coil will cut through the magnetic field lines and the
total potential difference induced will be the result of all of the coils cutting
the magnetic field lines

3. The size of the coils:

•
o Increasing the area of the coils will increase the potential
difference induced
o This is because there will be more wire to cut through the magnetic field
lines

4. The strength of the magnetic field:

•
o Increasing the strength of the magnetic field will increase the potential
difference induced

5. The orientation of the poles of the magnet:

•
o Reversing the direction in which the wire, coil or magnet is moved

Exam Tip

When discussing factors affecting the induced potential difference:

• Make sure you state:

o “Add more turns to the coil” instead of “Add more coils”
o This is because these statements do not mean the same thing
• Likewise, when referring to the magnet, use the phrase:
o “A stronger magnet instead of “A bigger magnet”
o This is because larger magnets are not necessarily stronger

Generators & Dynamos

• The generator effect can be used to:

o Generate a.c in an generator
o Generate d.c in a dynamo

Alternator
• A simple alternator is a type of generator that converts mechanical energy to
electrical energy in the form of alternating current

An alternator is a rotating coil in a magnetic field with commutator rings

• A rectangular coil that is forced to spin in a uniform magnetic field

• The coil is connected to a centre-reading meter by metal brushes that press on two
metal slip rings (or commutator rings)
o The slip rings and brushes provide a continuous connection between the coil
and the meter
• When the coil turns in one direction:
o The pointer defects first one way, then the opposite way, and then back again
o This is because the coil cuts through the magnetic field lines and a potential
difference, and therefore current, is induced in the coil

• The pointer deflects in both directions because the current in the circuit
repeatedly changes direction as the coil spins
o This is because the induced potential difference in the coil repeatedly
changes its direction
o This continues on as long as the coil keeps turning in the same direction

• The induced potential difference and the current alternate because they
repeatedly change direction
A.c output from an alternator – the current is both in the positive and negative region
of the graph

Dynamos

• A dynamo is a direct-current generator

• A simple dynamo is the same as an alternator except that the dynamo has a split-
ring commutator instead of two separate slip rings
A dynamo is a rotating coil in a magnetic field connected to a split ring commutator

• As the coil rotates, it cuts through the field lines

o This induces a potential difference between the end of the coil
• The split ring commutator changes the connections between the coil and the
brushes every half turn in order to keep the current leaving the dynamo in the same
direction
o This happens each time the coil is perpendicular to the magnetic field lines

• Therefore, the induced potential difference does not reverse its direction as it does
in the alternator
• Instead, it varies from zero to a maximum value twice each cycle of rotation, and
never changes polarity (positive to negative)
o This means the current is always positive (or always negative)
 D.C output from a dynamo – the current is only in the positive region of the graph

Bicycle Dynamo

• A bicycle dynamo is used to supply electricity to bicycle lights whilst in motion

• It consists of a rotating magnet placed inside (or next to) a coil

• The magnet is rotated by its connection to the bicycle inside the coil
o This is sometimes called the friction wheel and the axle / spindle
• The magnetic field lines cut through the sides of the coil
o This induces a potential difference in the coil
• Since the magnetic field is constantly changing direction as it rotates, so does the
output potential difference
o This means the output current is also changing direction

• Therefore, a bicycle dynamo, unlike a normal dynamo, produces alternating current

(a.c)
A bicycle dynamo consists of a magnet rotating in a coil due to the motion of the wheels

Exam Tip

Motors and generators look very similar (as do microphones and loudspeakers), but they do
very different things.

When tackling a question on either of them, make sure you are writing about the right one!

You might be expected to give the above explanations – make sure that you understand
their subtle differences!

Transformers

• A transformer is an electrical device that can be used to increase or decrease

the potential difference of an alternating current
o This is achieved using the generator effect

Structure of a Transformer

• A basic transformer consists of:

o A primary coil
o A secondary coil
o An iron core
 • Iron is used because it is easily magnetised

Structure of a transformer

How a Transformer Works

• An alternating current is supplied to the primary coil

• The current is continually changing direction
o This means it will produce a changing magnetic field around the primary coil

• The iron core is easily magnetised, so the changing magnetic field passes through it
• As a result, there is now a changing magnetic field inside the secondary coil
o This changing field cuts through the secondary coil and induces a potential
difference

• As the magnetic field is continually changing the potential difference induced will
be alternating
o The alternating potential difference will have the same frequency as the
alternating current supplied to the primary coil
• If the secondary coil is part of a complete circuit it will cause an alternating
current to flow

Single Science Only

Step-up & Step-down Transformers

• A transformer can change the size of an alternating voltage

• They also have a number of other roles, such as:
o To increase the potential difference of electricity before it is transmitted across
the national grid
o To lower the high voltage electricity used in power lines to the lower voltages
used in houses
o Used in adapters to lower mains voltage to the lower voltages used by many
electronic devices
 • A step-up transformer increases the potential difference of a power source.
o A step-up transformer has more turns on the secondary coil than on the
primary coil
• A step-down transformer decreases the potential difference of a power source.
o A step-down transformer has fewer turns on the secondary coil than on the
primary coil

Transformers in Electricity Transmission

• When electricity is transmitted over large distances, the current in the

wires heats them, resulting in energy loss
• The electrical energy is transferred at high voltages from power stations
• It is then transferred at lower voltages in each locality for domestic uses
• The voltage must be stepped up by a step-up transformer
o These are placed after the power station

• For the domestic use of electricity, the voltage must be much lower
• This is done by stepping down by the voltage using a step-down transformer
o These are placed before buildings

Electricity is transmitted at high voltage, reducing the current and hence power loss in the
cables using transformers

The Transformer Equation

• The output potential difference (voltage) of a transformer depends on:

o The number of turns on the primary and secondary coils
o The input potential difference (voltage)

• It can be calculated using the equation:

 • This equation can be written using symbols as follows:

• Where
o Vp = potential difference (voltage) across the primary coil in volts (V)
o Vs = potential difference (voltage) across the secondary coil in volts (V)
o n p = number of turns on primary coil
o n s = number of turns on secondary coil

• The equation above can be flipped upside down to give:

• The equations above show that:

o The ratio of the potential differences across the primary and secondary coils
of a transformer is equal to the ratio of the number of turns on each coil

Step-up Transformer

• A step-up transformer increases the potential difference of a power source

• A step-up transformer has more turns on the secondary coil than on the primary coil
(Ns > Np)

Step-down Transformer

• A step-down transformer decreases the potential difference of a power source

• A step-down transformer has fewer turns on the secondary coil than on the primary
coil (Ns < Np)

Worked Example

A transformer has 20 turns on the primary coil and 800 turns on the secondary coil. The input
potential difference across the primary coil is 500 V.

a) Calculate the output potential difference

b) State what type of transformer it is
Exam Tip

When you are using the transformer equation make sure you have used the same letter (p or
s) in the numerators (top line) of the fraction and the same letter (p or s) in
the denominators (bottom line) of the fraction.

There will be less rearranging to do in a calculation if the variable which you are trying to
find is on the numerator (top line) of the fraction.
The individual loops of wire going around each side of the transformer should be referred to
as turns and not coils.

Single Science Only

The Ideal Transformer Equation

• An ideal transformer would be 100% efficient

o Although transformers can increase the voltage of a power source, due to
the law of conservation of energy, they cannot increase the power output

• If a transformer is 100% efficient:

Input power = Output power

• The equation to calculate electrical power is:

P=V×I

• Where:
o P = power in Watts (W)
o V = potential difference in volts (V)
o I = current in amps (A)

• Therefore, if a transformer is 100% efficient then:

Vp × Ip = Vs × Is

• Where:
o Vp = potential difference across primary coil in volts (V)
o Ip = current through primary coil in Amps (A)
o Vs = potential difference across secondary coil in volts (V)
o Is = current through secondary coil in Amps (A)

• The equation above could also be written as:

Ps = Vp × Ip

• Where:
o Ps = output power (power produced in secondary coil) in Watts (W)

Worked Example

A transformer in a travel adapter steps up a 115 V ac mains electricity supply to the 230 V
needed for a hair dryer. A current of 5 A flows through the hairdryer.

Assuming that the transformer is 100% efficient, calculate the current drawn from the mains
supply.
Step 1: List the known quantities

•
o Voltage in primary coil, Vp = 115 V
o Voltage in secondary coil, Vs = 230 V
o Current in secondary coil, Is = 5 A

Step 2: Write the equation linking the known values to the current drawn from the
supply, Ip

Vp × Ip = Vs × Is

Step 3: Substitute in the known values

115 × Ip = 230 × 5

Step 4: Rearrange the equation to find Ip

Step 5: Calculate a value for Ip and include the correct unit

Ip = 10 A