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Lecture Notes in Physics
Osvaldo Civitarese
Manuel Gadella
Methods in
Statistical
Mechanics
A Modern View
Volume 974
Founding Editors
Wolf Beiglböck, Heidelberg, Germany
Jürgen Ehlers, Potsdam, Germany
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Osvaldo Civitarese • Manuel Gadella
Methods in Statistical
Mechanics
A Modern View
123
Osvaldo Civitarese Manuel Gadella
Department of Physics Department of Theoretical Physics
University of La Plata Atomic Physics and Optics
La Plata, Buenos Aires, Argentina University of Valladolid
Valladolid, Spain
ISSN 0075-8450 ISSN 1616-6361 (electronic)

ISBN 978-3-030-53657-2 ISBN 978-3-030-53658-9 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-53658-9
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature
Switzerland AG 2020
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether
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Preface
Among the various branches of theoretical physics, the statistical mechanics is

present in the analysis of practically all physical systems, independently of the scale
of them. Examples on the applications of statistical concepts are, for instance, the
theory of massive astrophysical objects, the models of elementary particle systems
at finite densities and temperatures, diverse types of classical and quantum fluids,
the thermodynamics of real and ideal gases, etc. To these examples, we may add the
extremely rich field of phase transitions, both quantum and classical.
The most widely adopted models of hadrons and their interactions, of nucleon
and nuclear structure, atoms and molecules, and ultimately of extended bodies (say,
e.g., solids, liquids, gases) often rely on concepts like densities, temperature and
various forms of statistical equilibrium.
The conventional presentations of statistical mechanics usually resort to ideal
systems without interactions, or to approximations like mean-field scenarios. To
concepts like the statistical equilibrium and the correspondence between calculated
and observable quantities, it would be desirable to add ingredients like interactions,
finite size effects, dimensional dependence, symmetry breaking and symmetry
restoring effects. Real systems are far to belong to the class of ideal ones, and their
number of components are not always infinity, meaning that the vast domain of few
particle systems constitutes a terra ignota from the point of view of statistical
mechanics.
In this book, we are presenting different techniques meant to tackle some of the
features exceeding the conventional approach. Consequently, we shall introduce
methods based on the use of path integration, thermal Green functions,
time-temperature propagators, Liouville operators, second quantization, and field
correlators at finite density and temperature. We shall also address the question
of the statistical mechanics of unstable quantum systems.
In writing this book, we have benefited from the existing literature. In selecting
the examples about the applications of the various techniques, we have revisited
some of the most influential books and papers in the field, as indicated in the text.
The following is a list of the contents of the book: Chap. 1 contains a revision
of the classical and quantum statistical mechanics formulated for discrete and
continuous spectra, based on the notion of probabilities and thermal equilibrium.
Chapter 2 is devoted to the role of dynamics, with an emphasis on the connections
v
vi Preface
between Liouville dynamics and statistical mechanics. Chapter 3 contains the

notions of operators and their role in statistical mechanics, particularly in the
combined time-temperature representations. Chapter 4 reviews the Feynman
path-integral formulation. Chapter 5 explores the principles of statistical mechanics
in terms of geometry. Chapter 6 is a formal continuation of the previous chapter,
which specializes in the connections with the statistical ensembles. Chapter 7
contains the basic notions which support the use of statistical mechanics for
unstable systems.
This book is meant to be used for a semester course, following graduate lectures
in quantum mechanics, thermodynamics, electromagnetism and mathematical
methods in physics. The material of the book is self-contained from the mathe-
matical point of view, and the subjects are arranged sequentially.
The authors acknowledge the support of the National Research Council of
Argentina (grant PIP-616), and of the Ministry of Economy and Productivity of
Spain (grant MTM 2014-57129-C2-1-P) and of the Junta de Castilla y León (grant
BU229P18). The hospitality of the Department of Physics (National University of
La Plata, Argentina), the Institute of Physics of La Plata (National Research Council
of Argentina), and of the Department of Atomic and Theoretical Physics and Optics
of the University of Valladolid, Spain, where parts of this book have been written,
is gratefully acknowledged by the authors.
La Plata, Argentina Osvaldo Civitarese

June 2020 Manuel Gadella
Contents
1 An Introduction to Statistical Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 Partition Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Systems with Discrete Spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Partition Function for a Gas of Photons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.2.1 The Blackbody Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.3 The Maxwell Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.4 Classical Statistical Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.4.1 On the Equipartition Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.5 Systems with a Variable Number of Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.5.1 On the Classical Limits of Quantum Statistics . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.5.2 The Grand Canonical Partition Function
in the Continuum Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.6 Some Features of Quantum Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
1.6.1 Fermions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
1.6.2 Bosons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
1.7 Bose–Einstein Condensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
1.7.1 Massive Fermions in the Relativistic Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
1.7.2 Massless Relativistic Fermions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
1.8 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2 The Role of Dynamics in Statistical Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.1 Statistic Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.1.1 The Liouville Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.1.2 The Role of First Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.1.3 The Quantum Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.2 Averages and Fluctuations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.3 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.3.1 H-Theorem and Approach to Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.4 Perturbative Method for the Density Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.4.1 The Partition Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
vii
viii Contents
3 Operator Representations of the Statistical Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . 63

3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.2 The Concept of Thermal Propagator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.2.1 Wick Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.3 Some Thermal Averages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.4 Interpretation in Terms of Green’s Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.4.1 The Truncated Fourier Transform of Green’s Function . . . . 71
3.4.2 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
3.5 Grand Partition Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.5.1 Representation in Terms of Bound States . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
3.5.2 Double Green’s Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
3.5.3 Independent Particle Green’s Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
3.6 Ferromagnetism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
4 Path Integrals and Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.1 Basic Ideas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.1.1 Interpretation of Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
4.2 Path Integrals with Vector Potentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
4.3 A Working Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
4.4 Applications to Statistical Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
4.4.1 Particle Interaction with a Central Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
4.4.2 Representation of the Partition Function Using Coherent
States: The Harmonic Oscillator in the Number
Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
5 The Liouville Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
5.1 Introduction: Two Points of View . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
5.2 Classical Time Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
5.2.1 Distribution Probabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
5.2.2 Liouville Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
5.2.3 A Consequence of the Liouville Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
5.2.4 The Liouvillian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
5.3 Liouville Equations in Quantum Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
5.3.1 General Properties of the Statistical Averages . . . . . . . . . . 124
5.3.2 Time Evolution of the Statistical Averages . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
5.3.3 The Unitary Operator Ut;t0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
5.3.4 Some Comments on D0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
5.4 Symmetry Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
5.5 Mathematical Properties of the Density Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
6 Canonical Distributions and Thermodynamic Functions . . . . . . . . . . 133
6.1 Integrals of Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
6.2 Gibbs Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
6.3 Thermodynamic Construction in Quasi-static Processes . . . . . . . . . 135
Contents ix
6.3.1 Homogeneous Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

6.3.2 Fluctuations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
6.3.3 Representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
6.4 The Grand Canonical Ensemble . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
6.4.1 On the Uniqueness of the Values for lj . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
6.4.2 Thermodynamic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
6.4.3 Some Remarks on the Thermodynamic Definitions . . . . . . 145
7 The Statistical Mechanics of Unstable Quantum States . . . . . . . . . . . 147
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
7.1.1 Definition of Quantum Resonances in Non-relativistic
Quantum Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
7.1.2 More on Gamow Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
7.2 The Friedrichs Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
7.2.1 The Friedrichs Model in the Second Quantization
Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
7.3 The Entropy for the Harmonic Oscillator from the Path
Integral Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
7.4 A Discussion on the Definition of the Entropy for Quantum
Non-relativistic Decaying Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
7.4.1 A Tentative for a More Accurate Approximation . . . . . . . . 165
7.5 Interaction Between a Gamow State and a Fermion . . . . . . . . . . . 168
7.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
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About the Authors
Dr. Osvaldo Civitarese is an Emeritus Professor of

Theoretical Physics at the University of La Plata,
Argentina. He is an expert in nuclear structure and
neutrino physics. During his tenure, he gave lectures in
statistical mechanics, electromagnetism, quantum
mechanics and nuclear structure. He has published
more than 300 research papers, 50 conference articles
and 1 book on modern physics for undergraduate
students. He got national and international awards like
the J. S. Guggenheim Foundation prize. He is a
member of the Mexican Academy of Science and a
former Alexander von Humboldt fellow.
Dr. Manuel Gadella is a Professor of Physics at the

University of Valladolid, Spain. He is an expert in
mathematical physics. He is author of about 150
research papers and 2 books for undergraduate students.
In collaboration with Prof. Arno Bohm (University of
Texas at Austin), he wrote the book entitled “Dirac
kets, Gamow vectors and Gelfand triplets” published in
the Springer Lecture Notes in Physics.
xi
An Introduction to Statistical
Mechanics 1
In this chapter, we are going to present the essentials of the probabilistic formulation
of the statistical mechanics. We shall follow the Gibbs approach [1–3] based on
the notion of equilibrium. This formulation applies to both classical and quantum
systems. To illustrate the concept of probability, we shall start with a system with
discrete energy levels. Then, by applying a limiting process to this discrete spectrum,
we arrive at a classical statistical description. For historical reasons, we shall first
introduce the concept of partition function, and then proceed to the definition of
statistical averages and discuss the connections with thermodynamical potentials and
their associated observables. Next, we shall work with quantum representations and
compare the classical distribution with the high temperature limit of their quantum
counterparts. The material included in the present chapter is mathematically self-
contained.
1.1 Partition Functions
The conventional presentation of statistical mechanics relies upon the notion of prob-
abilities, which are defined in terms of the constraints imposed on the system, like
fixed energy, number of particles, etc. As explained in practically all books dealing
with statistical mechanics, with few exceptions, one should speak in terms of sta-
tistical ensembles. In each of them (Micro-canonical, Canonical, Grand Canonical),
the starting point is just the definition of the energy states which are accessible to the
components of the system. After it, one should also rely upon the notion of statistical
equilibrium depending upon the values of extensive and intensive variables. To this
one should add fluctuations and eventually associate them with the rates of heat or
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license 1
to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020
O. Civitarese and M. Gadella, Methods in Statistical Mechanics, Lecture Notes
in Physics 974, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-53658-9_1
2 1 An Introduction to Statistical Mechanics
energy transfer from the system to the environment. In this chapter, we shall revisit
these notions starting from the distinction between discrete and continuum spectra,
either classical or quantum.
1.1.1 Systems with Discrete Spectrum
Let us consider a system for which the dynamics is governed by a Hamiltonian H ,

with a purely non-degenerate discrete spectrum. This will be the case of N particles
confined in a box of fixed volume. The set of real values, {E 1 , E 2 , . . . , Er , . . . },
is the spectrum of H . The probability, pr that the system be in the state Er , in
thermal equilibrium with the bath at temperature T , is pr = Z −1 e−β Er , where Z
is a normalization constant, β = (k B T )−1 and k B is the Boltzmann constant (k B =
1.3806488 × 10−23 J K −1 ). The hypothesis of equilibrium relies upon the a priori
separation between the system under study and the environment (i.e., everything save
for the system). This separation is based on the notion that changes in the system,
induced by the interaction with the environment, are much larger than the changes
experimented by the environment. In general, the number of states per unit energy,
in most known systems, increases exponentially with energy. Then, the level density
may be represented by the form
ρ(E) ≈ ρ0 eβ E . (1.1)
At first order the variation δρ is written as
1 δρ
β= , (1.2)
ρ δE
which constitutes a definition of the temperature.

The sum of these probabilities must be equal to one, r pr = 1; then,
e−β Er
pr = −β E . (1.3)
re
r
The partition function Z is defined as the sum in the denominator in (1.3):

Z= e−β Er . (1.4)
r
If some of the energy levels Er is degenerate, we shall take into account this
degeneracy in order to construct the partition function, so that in general, we have

Z= g(Er ) e−β Er , (1.5)
r
1.1 Partition Functions 3
where g(Er ) is the degeneracy corresponding to the eigenvalue Er . The mean value
of the energy is given by
∂
H ≡ E = pr Er = − ln Z . (1.6)
r
∂β
In general, for any arbitrary function of the energy f (E), its statistical average is
given by

f (E) = pr f (Er ) . (1.7)
r
The entropy of this system is given by

S = −k B pr ln pr = −k B ln ρ , (1.8)
r
where ρ is the statistical density operator associated to the state under consideration.
This is to be defined in Chap. 3. We shall see later that this logarithmic function of
ρ is well defined from a rigorous mathematical setting.
After (1.8) and using (1.3), the entropy can be written as
e−β Er
S = −k B (−β Er − ln Z )
r
Z

e−β Er e−β Er
= kBβ Er + k B ln Z = k B β E + k B ln Z , (1.9)
r
Z r
Z
so that

S 1 1 1
=E+ ln Z ⇐⇒ − ln Z = E − S. (1.10)
kBβ β β kBβ
Taken the derivative of the entropy S with respect to the energy E, we obtain

∂S 1 1
= kBβ = =⇒ k B T = . (1.11)
∂E T β
After (1.10), we have

E − T S = −(k B T ) ln Z . (1.12)
This expression is the well-known Helmholtz free energy :
F := E − T S = −(k B T ) ln Z . (1.13)
The above expression has been obtained by assuming a definite structure for the
entropy and the mean energy, adopting Boltzmann concept of probability. If, instead,
we would like to determine the explicit expression for the probabilities, we should
start from the following definition:

F= (E i pi + k B T pi ln pi ) , (1.14)
i
and make the variation

δF 1

1 δ pj
= E j + ln p j + = 0, (1.15)
δ pk β β δ pk
j
leading to
C0 + β E j + ln p j = 0 , ∀j, (1.16)
where C0 is a constant. Equivalently,
1 −β E j
C0 × p j = e−β E j ⇐⇒ p j = e . (1.17)
C0
Since,

p j = 1 ⇐⇒ C0 = e−β E j , (1.18)
j j
and
e−β E j
p j = −β E , (1.19)
ke
k
which is the form already adopted for the probability at equilibrium.

On the Mean Values and Standard Deviations
From the mean value of the energy, E, and for a given value of the energy, E, its
deviation is written as E := E − E. Then,
(E)2 = (E − E)2 = E 2 + (E)2 − 2E E = (E 2 ) − (E)2 (1.20)
is the standard deviation of the energy.

Taking into account the definition of Z in (1.4), and performing a second derivative
with respect to β, one gets
2
∂ 2 ln Z 1 1 2 −β Er
−β Er
=− 2 Er e + E e
∂β 2 Z r
Z r r
= −(E)2 + (E 2 ) = (E)2 , (1.21)
so that

∂ 2 ln Z ∂E ∂ E dT
(E) =
2
=− =− = k B T 2CV , (1.22)
∂β 2 ∂β ∂T dβ
where we have defined the specific heat at constant volume as

∂E
C V := . (1.23)
∂T
V
With this definition for the specific heat, the standard deviation becomes

E (k B T 2 C V )1/2
= . (1.24)
E E
The variables C V and E vary with the total number of particles, N , in the system.
We shall denote this dependence as
C V = O(N ) and E = O(N ) , (1.25)
where O represents “order of magnitude”, following the notation of Landau. Then,

E (k B T 2 C V )1/2 √
= ≈ O(N 1/2 /N ) = O(1/ N ) , (1.26)
E E
so that the standard deviation of the energy decreases with the inverse of the square
root of the number of particles.
An Example
Let us consider a system of N dipoles immersed in a constant magnetic field B.
The dipoles are either parallel or antiparallel with respect to the direction of the
field. Thus, the number of states accessible to each dipole is two: either parallel or
antiparallel. The total number of microstates is equal to 2 N . The number (n) of
microstates with n parallel dipoles is the combinatory number

N N!
(n) = = . (1.27)
n n! (N − n)!
The energy of the configuration of n dipoles parallel to the magnetic field is

E(n) = μBn, and the energy of N − n dipoles antiparallel is E(N − n) = μB(N −
n). The energy of the system is the sum of both terms: E(n) + E(N − n), and this
is written as
E(n, N ) = n(−μB) + (N − n)(μB) = (N − 2n)μB , (1.28)
where μ is the magnetic dipole moment of each particle. Next, from (1.27), we
calculate the entropy of the same configuration
S(n, N ) = k B ln (n) = k B ln N ! − k B ln n! − k B ln(N − n)! . (1.29)

If we apply in (1.29) the Stirling formula for the logarithm, ln q! ≈ q ln q − q,

then
S(n, N ) ∼
= k B {N ln N − N − n ln n + n − (N − n) ln(N − n) + (N − n)}
∼
= k B {N ln N − n ln n − (N − n) ln(N − n)} , (1.30)
where the equal sign applies for large values of N . In real systems this approximation
is valid, since N is of the order of the Avogadro number. To calculate the temperature
) )
of the system, we shall express (1.11) in terms of d S(n,N
dn and d E(n,N
dn . The derivative
of the entropy with respect to n at fixed N reads

dS N −n
= k B {− ln n − 1 + 1 + ln(N − n)} = k B ln , (1.31)
dn N n
and the derivative of the energy (1.28) is
d E(n, N )
= −2ε , (1.32)
dn
where ε = μ B. In consequence,

dS dS 1 kB N −n
= dE
=− ln
d E (n,N ) dn 2ε n
dn (n,N )

kB n 1
= ln = . (1.33)
2ε N −n T
Equation (1.33) implies

kB T n
ln =1 . (1.34)
2ε N −n
After some straightforward manipulations, (1.34) can be cast in a more illustrative

way, namely,
n n+N−N N N
= e2ε/k B T = = − 1 =⇒ = 1 + e2ε/kT
N −n N −n N −n N −n
N −n n 1 n 1 e2ε/k B T
=⇒ =1− = =⇒ =1− =
N N 1+e 2ε/k B T N 1+e 2ε/k B T 1 + e2ε/k B T
eε/k B T 1
= ε/k T = (1 + tanh x)x=ε/k B T . (1.35)
e B + e−ε/k B T 2
Clearly, for large values of x = ε/k B T the ratio n/N is close to one. For each
dipole, the partition function reads
Z 1 = eε/k B T + e−ε/k B T = e x + e−x = 2 cosh x . (1.36)

For N = 2n distinguishable particles with no interaction among them, the parti-

tion function becomes
Z (N ) = 2 N cosh N x = (Z 1 ) N , (1.37)
so that
ln Z (N ) = N ln 2 + N ln cosh x . (1.38)
In order to obtain the mean value of the energy E(N ), we proceed as before and
write
∂ N sinh x
E(N ) = − ln Z (N ) = −ε = −(N ε) tanh(ε/k B T ) . (1.39)
∂β cosh x x=εβ
In the limit x = ε/kT >> 1, we have
E(N ) ≈ −N ε ≈ E(n = N ) , (1.40)
which is the energy of the microstate with n = N dipoles parallel oriented with
respect to the magnetic field.
The variation of the mean energy with respect to the temperature T can now be
easily calculated. The result is

∂E 1 ε
CV ≡ = (−N ε) cosh2 (ε/k B T ) − sinh2 (ε/k B T ) −
∂T cosh2 (ε/k B T ) kB T 2
2
ε 1
= N kB . (1.41)
kB T cosh2 (ε/k B T )
We are now in the position to calculate the free energy:
F = −N k B T ln(2 cosh(ε/k B T )) (1.42)
and the entropy:
1 1
S= [E − F] = [−N ε tanh(ε/k B T ) + N k B T ln(2 cosh(ε/k B T ))]
T T
= N k B [ln 2 + ln cosh(ε/k B T )) − (ε/k B T ) tanh(ε/k B T )] . (1.43)
The model, so far introduced, describes in a simple way the physics of paramag-
netic systems. The statistical description of a paramagnetic solid follows from the
set of equations:
Mean Energy Per Particle:

E ε
= −ε tanh . (1.44)
N kB T
Specific heat at constant volume per particle:

2
CV ε ε
= sech 2
. (1.45)
N kB kB T kB T
Entropy per particle:

S ε ε ε
= ln 2 + ln cosh − tanh . (1.46)
N kB kB T kB T kB T
Free energy for particle:

F ε
= −k B T ln 2 cosh . (1.47)
N kB T
The average dipole moment per particle is

1 ∂ ln Z
μ= , (1.48)
β ∂B
and the mean value for the system of N particles is
2N k B T μ
M := N μ = sinh(ε/k B T ) = N μ tanh(ε/k B T ) , (1.49)
2 cosh(ε/k B T ) kB T
so that

M ε
= μ tanh . (1.50)
N kB T
Starting with the definitions of entropy and energy and using (1.27), we can
determine the regime of thermodynamic temperatures of the system:
1 ∂S ∂ ln
= = kB . (1.51)
T ∂E ∂E
In terms of the density of states we write

1 1 n
= ln , (1.52)
kB T 2μB N −n
where, as before, n is the number of dipoles parallel to the magnetic field.

According to (1.52) and considering that μ > 0 and B > 0, one sees that for
n ≥ N /2, the temperature T is positive, and for n < N /2, the temperature T becomes
negative. Therefore, the notion of negative temperature associated to the population
of states antiparallel to the magnetic field becomes meaningful. This result is more
general since the regime of negative temperatures is present in systems which have
an upper bound in the energy [4].
A Second Example
The second application of the basic statistical concepts is a system of non-interacting
atoms oscillating around positions of equilibrium. For simplicity, we shall assume
that these atoms are placed along a line so that the model is unidimensional. For each
atom, the energy levels are those of the harmonic oscillator

1
En = ω n + , n = 0, 1, . . . , (1.53)
2
where ω is the frequency and n is the quantum number. The corresponding partition
function is written as
∞
∞
1
Z= e−βEn = e−ω/2k B T e−nω/k B T = e−ω/2k B T
1 − e−ω/k B T
n=0 n=0
e−x/2 1 1 x
= −x/2 x/2 = = cosech , (1.54)
e (e − e−x/2 ) 2 sinh(x/2) 2 2
where x = ω/k B T . For a single oscillator, the free energy is written as

ω
F = k B T ln 2 + k B T ln sinh . (1.55)
2k B T
Analogously, the average energy per oscillator is (recall that β = 1/k B T )

∂ ln Z ∂ ln Z ∂x ω 1 ωβ
E =− = = 2 cosh
∂β ∂x ∂β 2 2 sinh ωβ 2
2
ω ω ω ω
= coth = + βω . (1.56)
2 2k B T 2 e −1
The specific heat at constant volume for the three-dimensional case is given by

∂E ∂E ∂β 3N k B
CV = = 3N = (ω)2 [eβω − 1]−2 eβω
∂T ∂β ∂T k 2B T 2

ω 2 eω/k B T
= 3N k . (1.57)
kB T (eω/k B T − 1)2
Note that the frequency ω depends on the

oscillation parameter, b0 , which fixes

the length scale of the oscillations (b0 = mω ). Let us explore the limits of the
specific heat C V , for high and low temperatures. In the first case (ω << k B T ), we
use the approximation
eω/k B T ≈ 1 + ω/k B T (1.58)
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in (1.57), to show that
C V ≈ 3N k B (1 + ω/k B T ) ≈ 3N k B . (1.59)
For low temperatures, ω >> k B T and the specific heat at constant volume is
2
ω
C V ≈ 3N k B e−ω/k B T , (1.60)
kB T
which goes to zero as x = ω/k B T goes to infinity. Then, it is seen that the Dulong-
Petit law is obeyed [5]
In summary,

• The partition function a la Boltzmann is given by Z = e−βEr , where the index
r
r denotes sum over all possible microstates, Er .
• The probability a la Boltzmann associated to each possible configuration of
microstates is pr = Z −1 e−βEr .
• The mean value X of an extensive variable X with respect to the associated
Lagrange multiplier α is given by the derivative
∂ ln Z
X =− . (1.61)
∂α
• The Boltzmann entropy is S = k ln , where is the statistical weight.

• In the equilibrium, the thermodynamic magnitudes are given in terms of the
partition function as
F = −k B T ln Z
∂
E =− ln Z (1.62)
∂β

∂
S = kB 1 − β ln Z .
∂β
• The quadratic deviation of the magnitude X with respect to the variable α is given
by
∂ 2 ln Z
. (1.63)
∂α2
In the examples considered earlier, i.e., dipoles in a magnetic field (a typical case
of a two-level system) and the non-interacting one-dimensional harmonic oscillators,
finite size effects manifest in the boundedness of the quadratic deviations. For these
cases, the specific heat at constant volume is finite and reaches a maximum (Schottky
effect). The appearance of the Schottky effect is a common feature in systems with a
finite number of degrees of freedom [6]. This effect manifests itself as a peak in the
specific heat, which should not be taken as a signal for a phase transition. Another
example of this sort is the statistical treatment of the nuclear spectrum, for which the
excitation energy as a function of the temperature displays an S shape, the derivative
of which, C V , reaches a maximum.
The Classical Gas
This is a system of particles for which we make the following restrictions:
• The interaction energy between particles is very small compared with the kinetic
energy. Particles interact so weakly that could be considered as free particles.
• The state of the gas is determined by means of labeling particles occupying acces-
sible energy levels. The energy of a given configuration, E = E(n 1 , n 2 , . . . ),
depends on the number nr of particles in the state
r.
• The total number of particles remains constant: nr = N .
r
• Particles are indistinguishable.
In this case, the partition function is

N
1 −βEr
Z (N ) = e , (1.64)
N! r
where the factorial N ! in the denominator is introduced in order to include the

indistinguishability of the particles. For each level r , the energy Er can be divided
into the sum of two terms, one reflects the translation energy Etrans (r ) and the other
is the energy associated to the internal degrees of freedom Eint (r ). Thus,
E = Etrans (r ) + Eint (r ) . (1.65)
For a single particle, the partition function is then

ξ= e−βEr = e−β(Etrans (r )+Etrans (r )) = e−βEtrans (r ) e−βEint (r ) = ξtrans · ξint ,
r r r (trans) r (int)
(1.66)
We note that the system is confined in a region of finite volume V , so that the
translational factor ξtrans has the form
∞
1 1
dp e−βp
2 /2m
dp p 2 e−β p
2 /2m
ξtrans = dq = 4πV . (1.67)
h 30 h 30 0
Here, h 0 is a normalization constant and p := |p| denotes the modulus of the

particle momentum p. The factor 4π comes from the integration over angles. This
integral is extended to the positive semi-axis [0, ∞), since the momentum is arbitrary.
Then, (1.67) is equal to
∞
4πV ∂
dp e−(β/2m) p
2
ξtrans = (−2m)
h 30 ∂β 0
3/2
4πV ∂ 1 π 2m 2πmk B T
= (−2m) =V . (1.68)
h 30 ∂β 2 β h 20
Consequently, the partition function for the classical gas with N particles is given
by
3N /2
1 N 2πmk B T
Z (N ) = V [ξint ] N . (1.69)
N! h 20
The intrinsic contribution of the internal degrees of freedom becomes relevant par-
ticularly in the case of composite systems like atoms, molecules, the atomic nucleus,
etc., where degrees of freedom other than the translational one, e.g., rotational, vibra-
tions, spin degree of freedom, etc., contributed. If, in a first approximation, we neglect
internal effects, we obtain the following values for the thermodynamic functions:
((a) Free energy:

3 2πmk B T 2/3
F = −k B T ln Z (N ) = −k B T N ln V − ln N !
2 h 20

3 2πmk B T 2/3
= k B T ln N ! − k B T N ln V . (1.70)
2 h 20
(b) Pressure:
The thermodynamic equation of state gives the pressure in terms of the variation
of the free energy with respect to the volume at constant temperature, i.e.,

∂F N kB T
p=− = =⇒ pV = N k B T . (1.71)
∂V V
(c) Energy:
The mean value of the energy is
∂ 3N
E =− ln Z (N ) = kB T . (1.72)
∂β 2
(d) Specific heat:
The specific heat at constant volume is

∂E 3N
CV = = kB . (1.73)
∂T 2
(e) Entropy:
The expression of the entropy is written as

1 β ∂Z 3N
S = (E − F) = k B ln Z − = k B ln Z + . (1.74)
T Z ∂β 2
Observe that S −→ ∞ when T −→ 0, in contradiction with Nernst’s law that

establishes that S should go to zero asT −→ 0. The origin of this problem lies in

the passage to the continuum −→ dp, which is not a good approximation for
r
low temperatures because the contribution of zero momentum is not zero due to the
internal degrees of freedom.
In summary,
• The method based on the statistical averages gives correctly the classical limit.
However, some inconsistencies appear in the low-temperature regime, which are
understood in the context of the quantum statistical mechanics, as we shall see
next.
• In most cases, a passage to the continuum is required. Among the procedures to
be used to perform such a passage are the box quantization and the δ(E)-type
discretization.
1.2 Partition Function for a Gas of Photons
Let us assume electromagnetic radiation confined in a cavity at constant temperature

T . The radiation is in equilibrium with the cavity walls. The number of carriers of
radiation (photons) inside the cavity does not remain constant. At some moment, there
are {n 1 , n 2 , . . . , n k , . . . } photons with energies {E1 , E2 , . . . , Ek , . . . }, respectively.
The total energy is then
E(n 1 , n 2 , . . . , n k , . . . ) = n 1 E1 + n 2 E2 + · · · + n k Ek , . . . . (1.75)
The partition function for such a system is given by

∞
∞ ∞

Z (T , V ) = ... . . . e−β(n 1 E1 +n 2 E2 +···+n k Ek +... )
n 1 =0 n 2 =0 n k =0
⎧ ⎫
∞ ⎨
∞ ⎬ ∞

1
= e−βn k Ek = , (1.76)
⎩ ⎭ 1 − e−βEk
k=1 n k =0 k=1
so that
∞

ln Z (T , V ) = − ln(1 − e−βEk ) . (1.77)
k=1
After (1.77), the average number of photons, n k , in the energy level Ek , is

1 ∂ 1
nk = − (ln Z (T , V )) = . (1.78)
β ∂Ek eβEk − 1
The value n k is often called the occupation number of the kth level.
1.2.1 The Blackbody Radiation
The most common application of all of the above is probably the celebrated blackbody
radiation. As is well known, it was the study of the energy spectrum of this particular
phenomenon which initiated the consideration of quantum mechanics (Planck 1900).
In this case, the energy levels are labeled by a continuous label ω so that Eω = ω,
being the Planck constant divided by 2π. Since the variable ω is continuous, we
have to replace the sums in (1.76) by integration with respect to ω, so that

−→ f (ω) dω . (1.79)
k
For each frequency ω, the value of the function f (ω) in (1.79) is
V
f (ω) dω = ω 2 dω . (1.80)
π 2 c3
In deriving the expression for f (ω), one has to account for the polarization degree
of freedom, the volume in coordinates and momentum space, and the relationship
between the momentum and the frequency. Collecting all these elements, one gets
2 2
dω ω
2 · · 4πV
d 3q d 3p c c2
f (ω) dω = 2 = , (1.81)
(2π)3 (2π)3
since p = k = ω/c, which readily yields (1.80).

The number of photons with frequencies in the interval ω + dω is, after (1.78)
and (1.81), given by

1 V
d Nω = n ω f (ω) dω = ω 2 dω . (1.82)
eβω − 1 π 2 c3
If we assume that the energy distribution is uniform over the volume V , it results
that the energy emitted due to the radiation in the interval of frequencies between ω
and ω + dω is equal to

V ω 3 dω
d E ω = ω d Nω = = u(ω, T ) dω , (1.83)
π 2 c3 eβω − 1
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THE FIRSTFRUITS OF THE HARVEST, ALSO
PLANTING CEREMONIAL
It is interesting to compare all this with the Mosaic ritual laid down
in Exodus xxiii. 19 ↗️: “The first of the firstfruits of thy land thou
shalt bring into the house of the Lord thy God.” This is the Levitical
minha or tribute.
Robertson Smith’s “Religion of the Semites,” p. 241, states: “Among

the Hebrews, as among other agricultural peoples, the offering of
firstfruits was connected with the idea that it is not lawful or safe to
eat of the new fruit until the god has received his due. The offering
makes the whole crop lawful food, but it does not render it holy
food; nothing is consecrated except the small portion offered at the
altar, and of the remaining store clean persons and unclean can eat
alike during the year. This, therefore, is quite a different thing from
the consecration of animal sacrifices, for in the latter case the whole
flesh is holy, and only those who are clean can eat of it” (Cf. Lev.
xxiii. 10–21 ↗️).
Professor Robertson Smith also points out that in Hosea’s time the
firstfruits of corn were offered at the shrines of the Baalim, who had
become recognised as the giver of rain and the author of all fertility.
This principle, it will be seen, agrees as closely as possible with the
ideas of the tribes under review.
In Kikuyu, the people do not appear to take the firstfruits to the

sacred tree formally before reaping the crop, but on the occasion of
each harvest the women will take offerings of the various cereal
foods—maize, [74]millet, and so forth (also beans, sugar cane, etc.)—
to the sacred place. They are not allowed to go right up to the tree,
but pour their gifts on the ground near by. All such food must be
uncooked. This being done, they return, and the elders kill either a
young ewe which has not yet borne a lamb, or a ram, at a little
distance from the tree, and a rukwaru, or strip of skin, is placed on
the left wrist of each of the women. The elders then eat the meat;
none is actually taken to the tree or left there. It is a kind of harvest
thanksgiving ceremony.
Firstfruits in Ukamba.—It is customary to eat a certain quantity of

the maize cobs or the bean crop before they ripen. But before this
can be done a little of each kind is reaped and laid at the ithembo by
an elder and an old woman, and a goat is sacrificed. The tatha, or
stomach contents of the goat, are mixed with the green food in a
cooking pot and boiled. A portion of this is then distributed to each
village, after which the green crops can be safely eaten.
Next comes the proper harvest, but before reaping can commence
the owners again consult the medicine man whose advice was
previously sought at sowing time. They take him a present of every
kind of grain, and so forth, reaped at the previous harvest, and he
gives his advice as to a propitious day for the ceremony. The elders
then gather the firstfruits of the harvest and assemble at the village
meeting-place (thomi) of one of the senior elders and sacrifice a
goat. Then, as above, they cook samples of the various products in a
big pot together with the tatha of the goat. When the food is ready,
the women from the villages round come and receive some of it,
which is placed on leaves.
It is said that were this ceremony to be omitted, the people would

be afflicted with diarrhœa, and would presumably become the
victims of thabu. But when it is concluded, they may reap and eat of
the crop without fear or hindrance. [75]
Curiously enough, this ceremony is not considered necessary for the
mbaazi crop (Cajanus indicus or pigeon pea). The people give no
explanation of this, but it may be that the pigeon pea was
introduced from Kikuyu or elsewhere, after the belief had developed,
and was therefore excluded.
A housewife having gathered into her granary (ikumba) all her

crops, must not cohabit with her husband the night on which she
has completed her harvest.
A present of a little of the new grain has to be made to the medicine

man who advised the people where to plant.
If a woman has had assistance from her neighbours in the harvest-

field she makes a feast of all kinds of food; no men are present, as
they have nothing to do with it. There is no dancing on such an
occasion.
The next thing is the threshing of the grain, and before the mawele
grain, and according to some the mbaazi pea, can be threshed,
permission must be sought from a medicine man who specialises in
agricultural magic. In Kibwezi district no one has any leave to thresh
mawele until the elders have sacrificed at the ithembo. It is said that
if anyone breaks this prohibition the particular area will miss the
mvua ya ua, or the second portion, of the next big rains. These are
the showers which bring the grain into head and fill out the seed,
and thus they will miss their crops. The first half of the rains grow
the stem and leaves, and the second half bring the plant to fruition.
Again, if a woman has the assistance of her neighbours she will

make a feast for them at the completion of the threshing.
Planting of Crops and Harvest.—In Ukamba, before the sowing of

the grain is commenced a medicine man is usually consulted with
regard to the proper season and the prospect of good rains.
When these preliminaries are settled, the elders of ithembo and the
old women are summoned to the [76]ithembo. The men bring a goat
and the women bring milk and offerings of grain contributed by the
villages of the neighbourhood.
The goat is sacrificed at the sacred tree; some of the blood and the
beer are poured out as libations, an offering of the cereals is made,
prayers for good crops are offered, and the meat and food is then
eaten and the beer is drunk by the worshippers.
They then go away and commence to plant with a light heart. After
planting, however, a woman must not cohabit with her husband until
the grain has sprouted and appeared above ground. Should,
however, ceremonial cohabitation become necessary in connection
with some other religious observance, the woman must first go and
dig up a seed of each species of food product which has been
planted and bring it back to the village.
If any man plants before the proper sacrifice has taken place, the
elders will fine him a goat, which has to be sacrificed at the ithembo
as an atonement. Further, the grain which has been sown has, as far
as it is possible, to be dug up, collected and returned to the village.
If it is left in the ground, it is supposed not to mature, and also
Engai might be angry with the community at large.
The people of Ulu (Ukamba) again, often perform another fertility

ceremony to ensure good crops. They take the dung of the hyrax,
which is called kinyoi ngilla in Kikamba, and mix it with the
powdered root of the mulinditi tree and a weed called waithu. This
medicine is then mixed with some of the seed which they propose to
plant and burnt together with some of the dry weeds collected from
the field. The fire is made in such a position that the smoke drifts
across the field. The ashes of this fire are then mixed with the seed
about to be sown. In Kitui, however, it is said that a live hyrax is
carried round the field by a procession of villagers, the animal being
then killed and its blood and entrails scattered over the field. [77]
[Contents]
CHAPTER V
CIRCUMCISION CEREMONIAL
One of the most important factors in the life history of all natives is the
formal initiation to the tribe, of which the outward sign is usually the
ceremony of circumcision. In Kikuyu these rites have attained some
elaboration, and it is important to describe them in detail.
It will later be seen in Chapter VII how deeply the division of the Kikuyu
tribe into the two guilds, Kikuyu and Masai, 1 affects their customs, and in the
following description the rites of the two guilds are described separately.
Before a child reaches the age of circumcision, however, a ceremony called

Ku-chiaruo ringi has to be gone through, which means “to be born again.” It
must be undergone by young children before they are eligible for the next
stage of initiation, viz., circumcision.
The occurrence of these two ceremonies, connected as they are, cannot fail
to strike one as being, in a lower stage of civilisation, the genesis of the idea
of the sacraments of baptism and confirmation. It is said in fact [78]that
some of the missionaries do not hesitate to explain the two Christian
doctrines mentioned by reference to the two pagan ones, and state that with
the help of this key the natives at once grasp the idea of their doctrines.
But to return to the ceremony itself—the form varies with the guild of the
parents. According to the fashion of the Masai guild, about eight days after
the birth of the child, be it male or female, the father of the infant kills a
male sheep and takes the meat to the house of the mother, who eats it with
her neighbours if they belong to the Masai guild. At the conclusion of the
feast, the mother is adorned with the skin from the left foreleg and shoulder
of the sheep, the piece of skin being fastened from her left wrist to left
shoulder; this she wears for four days, when it is taken off and thrown on to
her bed, where it remains till it disappears. The mother and child have their
heads shaved on the day this ceremony takes place; it has no connection
with the naming of the child, which is done on the day of its birth.
The ceremony of Ku-chiaruo ringi, according to the fashion of the Kikuyu
guild, is as follows in S. Kikuyu. The day after the birth a male sheep is killed
and some of its fat is cooked in a pot and given to the mother and infant to
drink. It was not specifically stated whether this had a direct connection with
the rite referred to, but the description commenced with a mention of this.
When the child reaches the age of from three to six years the father kills a
male sheep, and three days later the novice is adorned with part of the skin
and the skin of the big stomach. These skins are fastened on the right
shoulder of a boy or on the left shoulder of a girl. The skin used for a boy
has, however, the left shoulder and leg cut out of it, and that for a girl has
the right shoulder and leg cut away. The child wears these for three days,
and on the fourth day the father cohabits with the mother of the child. [79]
There is, however, one important point, and that is that before the child is
decorated with the sheep skin it must go and lie alongside its mother on her
bed and cry out like a newly born infant. Only after this ceremony has been
performed is the child eligible for circumcision.
A few days after circumcision the child returns to sleep on a bed in its
mother’s hut, but the father has to kill a sheep before he can return, and the
child must drink some of the blood, the father also having to cohabit with
the mother upon the occasion.
Owing to similarity of name it is possible that the ceremony of Ku-chiaruo

ringi might be confused with Ku-chiaruo kungi, which is of widely different
significance. This latter is an adoption ceremony, and is said to be similar to
a Swahili rite called ndugu Kuchanjiana. If a person has no brothers or
parents he will probably try to obtain the protection of some wealthy man
and his family. If such a man agrees to adopt him he takes a male sheep and
slaughters it, and the suppliant takes another one. The elders are assembled
and slaughter these sheep, strips of the skin (rukwaru) being taken from the
right foot and from the chest of each sheep and tied round each person’s
hand, while each is decorated with strips of skin from the sheep of the other
party. The poor man is then considered as the son of the wealthy one, and
when the occasion arises the latter pays out live stock to buy a wife for his
adopted son.
The Kamba people, at any rate the Kitui section, have nothing corresponding
to the Ku-chiaruo ringi rite of the Kikuyu, but when the child is about six
months old it is moved from its mother’s bed and thenceforward sleeps on a
little bed by itself. If the husband cohabits with his wife during this period
the child has to be placed on the mother’s back.
Circumcision.—As previously mentioned, the A-Kikuyu are circumcised

according to two systems, some according to one and some according to the
other. [80]
Ku-ruithia
(1) ukabi, i.e., Masai fashion.
Ku-ruithia
(2) u Kikuyu or Gikuyu, i.e., Kikuyu fashion.
The actual surgical operation is the same, but according to the Masai system
the boys stay and sleep in the hut for four days after the operation, and then
go out, shoot birds, and wear the skins of the birds on the head and neck.
When the new moon appears their heads are shaved, and each one then
goes to his home. The head of the village cannot sleep in the hut where the
circumcised youths are staying until they are well.
According to the Kikuyu system the youths remain in the hut for eight days;
on the day of the operation a sheep is killed, and on the ninth day the father
of the children takes them away to their homes. The head of the village
sleeps in the hut where the youths stay after the operation has taken place.
KIKUYU CIRCUMCISION FEAST.
SUGAR CANES OVER VILLAGE GATE.

EATING CEREMONIAL FOOD.
Those circumcised according to Kikuyu fashion hold the feast called

Mambura the day before the operation; the writer recently witnessed one of
these gatherings, and so is able to describe it with some accuracy. It was
held at a village between the Mathari and Thigiri streams, and was on the
twelfth day of the moon, so there does not appear to be any particular
significance as to date. Several thousand people of both sexes had collected
to dance and take part in the festivities; the warriors were dressed in their
war paint and had their bodies smeared with red or grey paint, and in some
cases were picked out with star-like patterns. The women were all in their
best, and freely smeared with red ochre and oil; a large collection of elders
was there, and the chief was present, as he explained, in order to keep order
and prevent the young warriors from quarrelling. Over the gate of the village
two long pieces of sugar cane were fastened, and all who entered the village
were supposed to pass underneath. The entrance of the village was also
guarded by a bag of medicines belonging to a mundu mugo; these were
supposed to prevent [81]anyone coming into the village to bewitch the
candidates. In the morning the elders of kiama slaughtered a big male goat,
nthengi, by strangulation, and each male candidate for circumcision had a
strip of the skin fastened round his right wrist, the same strip being also
carried over the back of his hand and his second finger passed through a slit
in it. The male candidates were nude with the exception of a string of beads
or so, and a necklace made of a creeper called ngurwa; the girls were nude
as far as clothes went, but were enveloped in strings of beads from their
necks to below their waists. Much dancing took place till a little after two
p.m., when there was a ceremonial meal. The candidates came into the
village in Indian file, the girls leading the way. They were received in front of
the hut, where they were to reside temporarily after the operation, by a few
elders who had for some time been preparing a number of strips of a
vegetable creeper, and smearing them with a black oily mixture. Each girl
first came up and had a piece of the creeper fastened round her left ankle.
The creeper is called ruruera, and each piece is smeared with medicine
made from the umu and wang͠ nondu plants mixed with castor oil. One of the
elders then took a handful of porridge made of wimbi and mtama meal
(eleusine grain and sorghum), and placed some on a bundle of twigs of the
mararia bush and offered it to each candidate; the candidate bit a little piece
and then spat it out on the ground, the balance was then placed in her hand
and she ate it. The porridge was placed on a flat stone used for grinding
corn. The boys then came along one by one, and the ceremony was
repeated in the same manner, but the strip of creeper was fastened on the
right ankle of each boy. It was stated that the object of this portion of the
ceremony was to lessen the pain suffered by the candidates during the
actual operation.
In another part of the village a man was completing five stools of white
wood, roughly hewn out of the solid, which were intended as special seats
for the [82]elders and old women who had to perform the ceremony.
Immediately after the ceremonial meal was finished a great rush occurred,
and the candidates, followed by the crowd, galloped off to a mugumu, fig
tree, about three hundred yards away; as they approached it, the boys threw
clubs and sticks up into the tree, and then commenced to climb into the
branches, hacking savagely the whole time at the leaves and twigs; each
youth had a light club with the head sharpened to a blunt cutting edge, and
by dint of vigorous hacking gradually broke off small branches which fell
down among the crowd below, and were immediately seized by the people,
some of whom at once began to strip off the bark.
The bark was supposed to be used to bind round the heads of the
candidates. The people then danced round the tree, and this ended the
proceedings. The leaves of the fig tree are collected and strewn in the hut
where the candidates sleep after the operation. They are said to be for the
purpose of catching the blood, and possibly to prevent the hut being defiled
by the blood soaking into the earthen floor. They would never throw sticks
into, or gather leaves from, a sacred mugumu tree.
The actual operation was not seen, as it took place at dawn the following
morning; it is performed in the open near the village. The bulk of the
prepuce is not cut off at all, but forms an excrescence below the glans, a
small piece of skin only being cut off; it is thrown away, and not buried.
At the similar operation in Ukamba the prepuce is left on the leaves on which
the youth is seated during the operation and thrown away with them.
The neophyte is placed on a bed of leaves for the operation, as it is very bad
for the blood to fall on the earth. If anyone touches the blood it is
considered unlucky and he must cohabit with his wife, and the mother of the
child with her husband, and no harm will ensue. [83]
Mambura Festivities Preceding Circumcision According to Masai Fashion.—

The festival which precedes circumcision according to the Masai fashion was
also witnessed. It was originally to have been held at full moon, but bad
weather caused its postponement till the twenty-fifth day of the moon, which
seemed to be equally propitious.
In the morning a sheep was killed and eaten by the elders, and at about
noon the candidates had assembled. The people of the village and the
candidates passed their time in dancing until the preparations were
completed. The male candidates were smeared from head to foot with
ashes, and were nude with the exception of a belt of iron chain (munyoro), a
bead necklet (kinyata), an iron dancing bell (kigamba) on the right leg near
the knee; some wore a ring of the ngurwa vine round their necks. The girls
were decorated from neck to waist with a load of beads as in the Kikuyu
form of the ceremony.
The first proceeding was the decoration of each of the male candidates with
a bracelet made of climbing euphorbiaceous plant called mwimba iguru.
The elders of kiama and the wives of the owner of the village, who was one
of the elders, sat round in a circle in the middle of the village with a quantity
of tendrils of the plant on a wicker tray, kitaruru, in the centre; a small gourd
of white diatomaceous earth, ira, was produced, and each person licked a
little and then smeared a small portion of the white earth on his throat and
navel; this was to purify himself for the ceremony. A horn cup of honey-beer
was then produced, each one taking a sip, and then all simultaneously
blowing it out of their mouths in spray on to the plant; it was said that the
object of this was to purify or dedicate the plant to the use to which it was
to be applied. The male candidates then came up one by one and a bracelet
of the creeper was fastened on the right wrist of each.
After a little more dancing the male candidates were seated in a row on ox-
hides spread out on the ground; [84]a woman, the sister of the owner of the
village, came along and poured first a little milk and then a little honey-beer
on the head of the one on the left of the line; she smeared it over the scalp
and shaved a place on the right side of his head and passed on to the next.
The shaving was merely ceremonial, as the candidates had all been shaved
on the head before coming to the ceremony—the native razor, ruenji, being
used. The milk was in a gourd and the beer in a cow horn. The male
candidates then got up, and the same performance was gone through with
the girls.
Shortly after this two great branches from the mutamaiyu tree were brought
to the gate of the village and held upright, one on each side of the entrance;
the elders said that in the ceremonies according to Masai fashion the
mutamaiyu had the same significance as the mugumu tree had in the Kikuyu
ceremonial. The candidates came through the village dancing and singing all
the time up to near the mutamaiyu branches, and stopped a few yards away
from them, still dancing and singing. The song did not appear to have any
great significance, being to the effect that from time immemorial they always
had the mutamaiyu at these festivals, and now it had come they could
proceed to circumcise the candidates according to old custom.
They then all returned to the village, and the candidates were arranged in
the order in which they could be circumcised on the morrow. The owner of
the village divested himself of his blanket and donned an oily kaross made of
goatskin from which all the hair had been scraped; his hands were carefully
wiped and some ira (the white earth previously mentioned) was poured into
the palm of his hand from a small gourd. He then commenced at the left of
the line and anointed each candidate on different parts of the body with
smears of the white earth; he was assisted by his principal wife and two
sisters and another elder.
The boys were first touched on the tongue, and a line was then drawn down
the forehead to the point of [85]the nose; a spot was placed on the throat,
the navel, the palm of each hand, and finally between the big toe and first
toe.
The procedure with the girls was slightly different, the tongue being smeared
first, and a horizontal line then drawn across the forehead. The palms of the
hands and the navel were next smeared, and finally a band was drawn
round each ankle.
After the candidates had thus been anointed, the elders took mouthfuls of
honey-beer out of a horn and blew it in spray over each candidate’s head
and shoulders. This part of the proceedings was a ceremony intended to
purify the candidates from any thahu which might be on them, and to
protect them from any thahu which they might possibly get from an
onlooker. The spectators “ululued” loudly during this operation.
It was then about two p.m., and nothing further of importance took place;
the crowd, which had been gradually growing, however, danced on till
sundown.
At nightfall each candidate was said to receive a dose of the crushed seeds
of a plant called ngaita, which acted as an aperient, and in the morning
before the operation each one had to bathe in water in which an axe head
had been placed to make it cold; it was, however, stated that if there were a
large number, some would not bother about this, but would bathe in the
nearest stream.
The operation took place at dawn on the following morning, and was not
witnessed. No firewood but that from the mutamaiyu tree is allowed to be
used in the hut where the candidates live after the operation.
This custom of circumcision according to the two different systems applies to

both sexes. Both classes dance with the oval wooden shields called ndomi
before circumcision, and travel through the district painted in zig-zag stripes
with white clay.
A man circumcised according to Masai fashion can marry a girl circumcised

according to Kikuyu fashion [86]and vice versâ; but a medicine man and the
elders have to perform a ceremony to change the girl from Kikuyu to Masai
before the marriage can take place. The ceremony is said to be as follows: a
male sheep is killed, and the small intestines are extracted. The medicine
man and the girl take hold of them, and the elders then cut the intestines
with three pieces of wood sharpened to a knife edge and made of
mathakwa, mukeo, and mukenya bushes. A piece of intestine is cut with
each knife. The girl is then anointed with the fat of the sheep by another
woman and smeared over with tatha (the stomach contents) mixed with
water.
In the case of a marriage between a couple belonging to different guilds the

man never changes; it is always the woman who relinquishes the system in
which she was brought up. A man can, however, at his own wish and for
reasons of his own, change his guild; that is to say a man brought up Masai
fashion can change over to the Kikuyu side. It is a much simpler matter for
him than for a woman; a male sheep is killed by the elders, and a medicine
man then comes and puts him through the ordinary purification ceremony.
A man usually belongs to the guild of his father; that is to say, he is
circumcised according to the system of his father and grandfather before
him. The mark of a person circumcised Masai fashion is as follows: a copper
ring is placed in the lower lobe of each ear, and a piece of stick with an
ostrich feather on it is bound on each side of the head; a band of sanseviera
fibre, ndivai, 2 is bound round the forehead, and on this band bird skins are
fastened.
These ornaments are worn for eight days only; bows and arrows are also
carried and sandals are worn. After eight days they put off the ornaments
and give up the bows and arrows, leaving them in the village where they
were circumcised. They then have their heads shaved at the village and
return home.
CLIMBING THE “MUGUMO” FIG TREE TO GATHER LEAVES.
Those circumcised Kikuyu fashion go through [87]none of this, but for two
days wear a strip of banana fibre, maigoia, in the lobe of each ear. During
five days after recovery they also wear in their ears a round plug of
mununga wood whitened on the top with ira and a necklace of the leaves of
the mutathi plant. This is probably a protective magic to preserve them from
evil influence during their convalescence.
The marks just enumerated only apply to the male sex. With regard to girls,
further inquiry has elicited the following facts: a girl whose father belongs to
the Masai guild wears rings of copper called ndogonyi on each ankle. A girl
whose father belongs to the Kikuyu guild wears an anklet of iron with little
rattles, called nyara runga, attached to it.
If a girl who is Masai marries a man who is Kikuyu the ndogonyi are taken
off at marriage. If a girl who is Kikuyu marries a man who is Masai she does
not, however, discard the nyara runga.
The elaborate ceremonial of old days in connection with circumcision is now

rapidly dying out in Southern Kikuyu.
Inquiries were made as to whether the bull-roarer, which is well known in

Kikuyu as kiburuti, was used in these ceremonies, but curiously enough it
appears to survive only as a child’s toy, whereas in many of the neighbouring
tribes it and its first cousin, the friction drum, are regularly used in initiation
ceremonial.
Among the Kikuyu, two men circumcised at the same ceremony cannot go
into each other’s huts or even touch one another and neither may their
children by their first wives. The prohibition may be removed by an
exchange of goats, or beer, which both families consume together in a hut.
This prohibition does not extend to children of younger wives or to
grandchildren. It does not appear to be connected in any way with thabu,
but a penalty of a goat or two is paid for breach of the custom.
Generations of the A-Kikuyu.—The description of [88]the circumcision may be

concluded by an enumeration of the circumcision ages of the Kikuyu as far
back as they can be traced.
In the December number of Man, 1908, the late Hon. K. Dundas gives a list
of the Rika or circumcision ages of the A-Kikuyu which probably goes back
about one hundred years or so, but this enumeration did not go sufficiently
into detail, and certain important points were missed, so it has now been
revised.
Four well-known elders, named Katonyo wa Munene, Karanja wa Hiti,

Ithonga wa Kaithuma, and Mukuria wa Mucheru, were consulted, and the
following lists are probably as reliable as can be expected, dependent as
they unavoidably are on the memory of old men. The first list was given me
by the first two, the second list by the second two. There are slight
variations, but these are almost inevitable under the circumstances.
Morika, or Muhurika, singular—Rika, plural, is the circumcision age or

generation, and corresponds more or less to the poror among the Masai. The
Rika called Manjiri, Mamba, Manduti, and Chuma were not recognised by
either of the elders, who both commenced their count with Chiira, which is
obviously the same as Shiera of Dundas’s paper, and possibly the farther
north one goes among the Kikuyu tribe the farther back do their legends go.
The following is the list beginning at the most remote point:
Version I
1. Chiira.
2. Mathathi.
3. Endemi.
4. Iregi
5. Kiarie These three, it is said, are often grouped as Iregi.

6. Kamao[89]
7. Kinuthia
8. Karanja
9. Njuguna
The fathers of the oldest men alive in the country
10. Kinyanjui belonged to these ages, and are called Maina.
11. Kathuru
12. Ngnanga
13. Njerogi, means the orphans, Chief Katonyo is of this morika.

14. Wainaina, means those who shivered during the circumcision ceremony.
15. Mungai, means swelled faces.
16. Kitao, refers to their eating colocasia roots after they were circumcised.
17. Ngua ya nina, those who wore their mothers’ clothes.
18. Mbugwa or Kuchu, because the circumcision wounds did not heal.
19. Mwiruri, name of a song they sang at the ceremony that year.
20. Mwitungu, means small-pox.
21. Kiambuthi, called Mwangi, those of the dancing place.
22. Kirira or Ngugi, because fire was on Kenya at the time of the
circumcision ceremony.
23. Mangorio, named after a sweet-smelling tree used to decorate the
youths after circumcision.
24. Rohangha, named after a girl who had decorated her ears before
marriage.
25. Wanyoiki, because they came one by one to the place of circumcision.
26. Boro, the big stomach of a sheep.
27. Imburu, the poor people (there was a famine at the time).
28. Ngoraya.
29. Kiniti, from a song.[90]
30. Ingigi, season of the locusts (Katonyo’s son, Thuku, belongs to this
generation).
31. Mutongu Time of the small-pox,
probably about 1895. When
Called Mwangi.
32. Kenjeko circumcised they went to dig
potatoes in the fields.
33. Kamande Time of the caterpillar plague.
34. Wanyaregi The wanderers.
35. Kanyuto The man-eating leopards;
there were several about in
that year.
36. Thegeni The year of the cutting of the
Called Mwiringhu. This is a iron wire.
name given by the youths
37. Kariangara themselves to this age. They
They ate gruel made of
will probably be renamed later immature maize (Thuku’s son
by the elders when the belongs to this year).
generation is complete.
38. Njege The porcupines.
39. Makio Named after a liquid magic
medicine which was sold in
Kikuyu during the year. Those
circumcised in 1910 belong to
this morika, it will finish early
in 1911.
Version II
1. Chiira. 15. Ngnanga. 29. Mwitongu.

2. Mathathi. 16. Njerogi. 30. Mwiruri.
3. Endemi. 17. Ubu. 31. Uchu.
4. Iregi. 18. Wainaina 32. Kiambuthi.
5. Mukuria. 19. Kangnethi These are often 33. Ngugi or
grouped as Kirira.
Wainaina.
6. Kicharu. 20. Kitao 34. Mangorio.
7. Kamao. 21. Mungai 35. Rohangha.
8. Kiarie.[91] 22. Injehia Often grouped as 36. Wanyoike.

Mungai.
9. Kimemia. 23. Mairanga 37. Kinyiti.
10. Kimani. 24. Marire. 38. Imboru.

11. Karanja. 25. Wangigi. 39. Ingigi.
12. Kinuthia. 26. Ngua ya nina. 40. Mutungu.
13. Njuguna. 27. Wakirutu. 41. Kenjeko.
14. Kinyanjui or 28. Mougwa or Kitindiko. 42. Kamande.
Kathuru.
This brings us up to the last few years, and the elders said they had no
interest in them.
The name given to the morika generally has some topical allusion to an
event which occurred during the year and about the time of the circumcision
ceremonies; these allusions are naturally forgotten in course of time, and the
derivations in many cases now appear senseless.
One morika extends over two years, or four Kikuyu seasons, called Kimera.
The terms Maina and Mwangi as names for the rika of the last fifty years
seem to be fixed as far as one can gather, e.g.:—
The Chief Katonyo’s father was Maina.

Katonyo himself is Mwangi.
Katonyo’s children are Maina. [92]
Katonyo’s grandchildren when circumcised become Mwangi.
His great-grandchildren when circumcised become Maina.
So apparently every person when circumcised takes the name of the morika
of his grandfather.
The word morika is used indifferently as applying to the larger group as well
as to the group of a particular year. Any young men, however, who have
been circumcised of recent years, and are still under the class Mwiringhu,
would not be called Mwangi until the group of years was complete.
The time of the completion of a group of years is decided by the elders, but
what determined the commencement of a new group was not ascertained.
These rika names only apply to males.
A leading Kikuyu elder named Lorigi was independently questioned on these

matters by Mr C. Dundas, and his view was as follows: The Azamaki of to-
day are practically all Mwangi, and Lorigi himself, who is among the most
senior Azamaki, belongs to Mwangi. Kamiri, and a few others, are Maina, like
the Mwangi he attends the councils. The sons of Maina are Mwangi and the
sons of Mwangi are Maina, so that a man always belongs to the same
division as his grandfather: thus Lorigi’s father was a Maina and his son also
belongs to Maina, but Lorigi himself belongs to Mwangi as his grandson
does. It thus comes about that there are two generations of Mwangi and
Maina living at the same time, and the younger generation of either is
distinguished by the temporary name of Mwirungu (plural Irungi). When
these become elders they will be called Mwangi or Maina, as the case may
be, without the addition of Irungu.
The Itwika Ceremony.—As explained in the last section, the Kikuyu have rika
or circumcision ages, and a long list was given; these rika fall into groups
and so many form a greater rika, named either Mwangi or [93]Maina, which
follow one another alternately. It was not clear at the time what determined
a group of rika being lumped together as Maina or Mwangi; it now appears,
however, that this is connected with a periodic ceremony called the itwika,
which takes place every fifteen years or so. These correspond to a great
extent to the eunoto of the Masai, and are of tremendous importance to the
Kikuyu; the elders, in fact, state that they originated in Kikuyu, and were
copied by the Masai during the period when the Kapotei and Dogilani Masai
were very friendly with the S. Kikuyu and the Purko Masai with the N.
Kikuyu; in the present state of our knowledge it is, however, impossible to
say whether there is any foundation for this. 3 Probably the best test would
be to inquire if the Bari people who live in or near the country from which
the Masai are believed to be derived, possess this kind of social organisation.
The itwika has been described by Mr. Routledge as a secret society
connected with snake worship, but as far as can be discovered in S. Kikuyu
there is no foundation for this idea, elders, however, do not care to discuss
its ceremonial unless one is very well known to them; they are not supposed
to discuss it with any person of younger grade than themselves, and the
ceremonies may be considered, in fact, as a final initiation at which only fully
qualified elders are allowed to attend.
The last great itwika ceremony was at the end of the big famine of 1898–9,
and was held about the time that the Government founded Fort Hall. 4 The
gatherings were formerly held on the area between the Thika and Chania
rivers, just above the junction of these two rivers, and the name Thika is
derived from its connection with the itwika. The last itwika was held [94]near
Kalaki’s, in the district known as Tingnanga in Mimi wa Ruchu’s country; it is
said that on account of the decimation of the people by famine and small-
pox it was decided not to hold it at the old place. The next itwika will take
place when the grandchildren of people of the same rika as the chief
Kinanjui have all been circumcised, and the decision of the date rests with
the athuri ya ukuu of the Maina generation, this being the senior generation
to-day. This apparently corresponds to the ngaje of the Masai (vide Hollis’s
“Masai”).
An account of the last ceremony was obtained from one who was present,
and the first step is said to be the building of a huge long hut to
accommodate those who participate in the festival. This is divided into two
main divisions, one for elders of the Maina generation and one for those of
the Mwangi generation, and in addition, a small room for the athuri ya ukuu,
who may be considered as the officiating priests of the festival. These thuri
ya ukuu are always eight in number, and at the last itwika their names were,
Muthaka, Ngombwa Tutua, Kimwaki, Kathungu, Kithenji wa Njuki, Rimui wa
Kanjuku, Ngegenya and Mbura wa Katuku, and the whole programme rested
in their hands.
The principal elder of each village is supposed to attend, and often the next
in importance as well; the gathering, therefore, consists of several thousand
souls, and the proceedings continue for three months or more. Each elder
brings sheep and goats, bullocks, gourds of honey-beer, and gourds of
sugar-cane beer, and relays of food are brought to the camp during the
ceremonies by women, but no women are allowed within the confines of the
camp. A number of men are also selected to collect firewood, but do not
come inside the camp. The only persons allowed inside the camp, except the
elders, are eight spearmen, who are told off to attend on the eight athuri ya
ukuu.
It does not appear possible to obtain a detailed account of the proceedings,

but it is said that every [95]day the eight athuri ya ukuu instruct their juniors
in the customs of the tribe and so forth, the elders also hold “ngomas” or
dances.
One man is chosen as an official trumpeter to the proceedings, and he

collects the elders for the various rites by blowing a horn of the rare bongo
antelope (ndongoro). The horn is called choro, and no one else is allowed to
blow it; this is considered a very honourable office, and the trumpeter is paid
nine rams and nine female kids for his services.
In former days towards the end of the festival the elders in charge of an
itwika sent two envoys to a certain place on a stream called Kikira, in Kenya
province, which was said to be the habitat of a mysterious reptile called the
ndamathia. It was described as being more like a crocodile than like a snake.
This beast was given beer to drink, and when it was drunk hairs were
plucked from its tail. A hairy tail is not characteristic of reptiles, but all are
agreed that the hairs were obtained. The envoys then returned, and the hair
was plaited together with some strands of fibre of the wild date palm
(Phœnix reclinata), and then placed on the top of the itwika hut. At the
conclusion of the festival the people went in procession to a sacred fig tree
(mugumu) in the vicinity, and stuffed the hair into a crevice in the tree and
left it there. They then took the milk of a cow which had only borne one calf,
the milk of a ewe which had only borne one lamb, and the milk of a goat
which had only borne one kid, and poured them as a libation at the foot of
the fig tree; a dance round the fig tree then ensued. This was the concluding
ceremony of the itwika. Each person attending was finally adorned on the
wrist with a rukwaru or strip of skin from a male goat, and the itwika house
was broken up and they returned home.
At the last itwika held in South Kikuyu the elders did not send for the hair of
the ndamathia, but the concluding ceremony was carried out with a big black
ox, which was tied by its fore and hind legs and laid [96]between two poles;
all the people then came along, one after the other, and stamped on the ox,
which eventually died. The ox was not eaten but was left lying there, and
they then poured libations of milk and fat at the foot of the sacred mugumu
tree and danced round it, praying to God (Engai). After this they shaved
their heads, were adorned with the rukwaru from a male goat, and returned
home. Upon reaching their villages each elder killed a ram and placed a
rukwaru cut from its skin on every person in his village; these were worn for
one day only, the villagers then ceremonially bathed and threw them away.
These ceremonies are said to be very pleasing to God (Engai). No one is

ever allowed to cultivate on the area which has been used for an itwika
ceremony, and no one must ever cut the mugumu (fig tree) with an axe or
knife. [97]
Members of the Kikuyu tribe from birth to old age pass through various grades of
1
initiation, but the ceremonial observed is of two classes, one of which is referred to by
the natives as the Kikuyu system, and the other the Masai system. The Kikuyu system is
probably the older, whilst the so-called Masai system is probably contact metamorphism due
to the proximity of the Masai and the partial intermingling which has occurred from time to
time. Curiously enough, the Masai system bears very little resemblance to the Masai
customs of the present day, so presumably it has been modified to fit in with the psychology
of the Kikuyu who adopted it. ↑
Ol-divai is the Masai word for the wild Sanseviera. ↑
2
Vide article on Masai and their traditions, by A. C. Hollis—London Quarterly Review,
3 July, 1907, p. 104—“Now the Masai themselves say they learnt this peculiar ceremony
(viz.: their method of circumcision) from the Kikuyu.” ↑
Mr Routledge mentions a later one which took place near Karuri’s about 1904, but
4
according to the S. Kikuyu natives it was only a local ceremony. ↑
[Contents]
CHAPTER VI

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La Plata, Argentina Osvaldo Civitarese

1 An Introduction to Statistical Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

3 Operator Representations of the Statistical Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . 63

6.3.1 Homogeneous Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

Dr. Osvaldo Civitarese is an Emeritus Professor of

Dr. Manuel Gadella is a Professor of Physics at the

1.1 Partition Functions

1.1.1 Systems with Discrete Spectrum

Let us consider a system for which the dynamics is governed by a Hamiltonian H ,

At first order the variation δρ is written as

which constitutes a definition of the temperature.

The partition function Z is defined as the sum in the denominator in (1.3):

After (1.10), we have

and make the variation

which is the form already adopted for the probability at equilibrium.

(E)2 = (E − E)2 = E 2 + (E)2 − 2E E = (E 2 ) − (E)2 (1.20)

is the standard deviation of the energy.

where we have defined the specific heat at constant volume as

C V = O(N ) and E = O(N ) , (1.25)

where O represents “order of magnitude”, following the notation of Landau. Then,

The energy of the configuration of n dipoles parallel to the magnetic field is

E(n, N ) = n(−μB) + (N − n)(μB) = (N − 2n)μB , (1.28)

S(n, N ) = k B ln (n) = k B ln N ! − k B ln n! − k B ln(N − n)! . (1.29)

If we apply in (1.29) the Stirling formula for the logarithm, ln q! ≈ q ln q − q,

and the derivative of the energy (1.28) is

Equation (1.33) implies

After some straightforward manipulations, (1.34) can be cast in a more illustrative

Z 1 = eε/k B T + e−ε/k B T = e x + e−x = 2 cosh x . (1.36)

For N = 2n distinguishable particles with no interaction among them, the parti-

In the limit x = ε/kT >> 1, we have

E(N ) ≈ −N ε ≈ E(n = N ) , (1.40)

We are now in the position to calculate the free energy:

F = −N k B T ln(2 cosh(ε/k B T )) (1.42)

and the entropy:

Specific heat at constant volume per particle:

Entropy per particle:

Free energy for particle:

The average dipole moment per particle is

and the mean value for the system of N particles is

where, as before, n is the number of dipoles parallel to the magnetic field.

where x = ω/k B T . For a single oscillator, the free energy is written as

Analogously, the average energy per oscillator is (recall that β = 1/k B T )

Note that the frequency ω depends on the

in (1.57), to show that

• The Boltzmann entropy is S = k ln , where is the statistical weight.