FUNDAMENTALS OF ANALOG ELECTRONICS

Lecturer: Justiner Joseph

Office: Teaching Tower (TT-7)

Tel: +255 715836500

Email: [email protected]
 TOPIC TO BE COVERED
1. Introduction

2. Diodes and Diode Circuits

3. Transistors
i. Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT)
ii. Field Effect Transistors (FET)

4. Operational Amplifiers

5 Differential and Multistage IC Amplifiers

8 Output Stages and Power Suppliers

 Analogue Electronics
REFERENCES
• Robert Boylestad and Locis Nashelshy, (1991) “Electronic
Devices and Circuit Theories” Prentice –Hall

• M. Hassul and D.E. Zimmerman, (1996) “Introductory Electronic

Devices and Circuits” Prentice Hall

• Theodore F. Bogart, Jr, (1993) “Electronics and Circuits”

Maxwell Macmillan, 3rd Edition.

• Thomas. L. Floyd, (1992) “Electronic Devices, Prentice Hall, 3rd

Edition
 Introduction
Coverage
➢ Basic Concepts
➢ Electronic Components
➢ Device Numbering Systems • The general area of electronics began about a
➢ Electronic Instruments century ago and proved instrumental in the radio
and radar communications used during the two
world wars.

• Early systems incorporated “vacuum tubes,”

amplifying devices that operated with the flow of
electrons between plates in a vacuum chamber.

• However, the finite lifetime and the large size of

vacuum tubes motivated researchers to seek an
electronic device with better properties.
Electronics

• The branch of physics and technology

concerned with the design of circuits,
behavior and the movement of electrons in
those devices i:e a semiconductor,
conductor, vacuum, or gas.

• "electronics is seen as a growth industry“

circuits or devices using transistors,
microchips, and other components; plural
noun: electronics "the electronics have
been incorporated inside a connector“
The world of Electronics is all about electrical circuits, electronic
components, and interconnected technologies. All these elements can be
primarily categorized as digital, analog, or a combination of both. However,
here we will be focusing on the basics of the analog category in detail.

Analog electronics is a branch of electronics that deals

with a continuously variable signal. It’s widely used in
radio and audio equipment along with other applications
where signals are derived from analog sensors before
being converted into digital signals for subsequent
storage and processing.
• Although digital circuits are considered as a dominant part of
today’s technological world, some of the most fundamental
components in a digital system are actually analog in nature.

• In order to understand the concept, let’s first try to analyze

the word ‘Analog’.
• Analog means continuous and real. The world we
live in is analog in nature, implying that it’s full of
infinite possibilities.

• The number of smells we can sense, the number

of tones we can hear, or the number of colors we
can paint with; everything is infinite.

• The people working in the field of analog

electronics are basically dealing with analog
devices and circuits.
 Electronic Components
• Similar to a brick that constructs a wall, a component is the
basic brick of a circuit. A Component is a basic element that
contributes for the development of an idea into a circuit for
execution.

• Each component has a few basic properties and the

component behaves accordingly. It depends on the motto
of the developer to use them for the construction of the
intended circuit.
Electronic systems

In general, analog systems requires fewer individual circuit components than

do digital systems.
Discrete circuits — circuit components are manufactured separately
Integrated circuits — all at one time by a small number of steps
Digital circuits tend to be easier to implement with IC technology.
Digital systems are more adaptable to a variety of uses.

Lecture_1 ETU 07122 10

 Types of Components

➢ Active components Active Components

➢ Passive components
• Active Components are those which conduct
upon providing some external energy.
• Active Components produce (supply) energy in
the form of voltage or current to a circuit.

• Examples − Semiconductors i:e Diode and,

Transistors, voltage sources, current sources,
generators (DC generator alternators) etc.
Active and Passive components
Passive Components

• Passive components is electronic

component which can only receive energy
which it can store, dissipate or absorb and
maintain energy in the form of voltage or
current.

• Cannot amplify, oscillate, or generate an

electrical signal

• Examples − Resistors, Capacitors,

Inductors,Transformers etc.
Linear and Non-Linear elements.
Linear Components
• Linear elements or components are
the ones that have linear Non-linear elements or components are
relationship between current and
voltage. the ones that have a non-linear
relationship between current and voltage.
• The parameters of linear elements • The parameters of non-linear elements
are not changed with respect to are changed with respect to current and
current and voltage. voltage.

• Examples − Diodes, Transistors,

Transformers, etc. • Examples − Resistors, Capacitors,
Inductors, etc.

Such a combination of different components is known as a Circuit.

 Electronic Circuits

• A certain number of components when

connected on a purpose in a specific fashion
makes a circuit.

• A circuit is a network of different components.

There are different types of circuits.

• The following image shows different types of

electronic circuits. It shows Printed Circuit
Boards which are a group of electronic circuits
connected on a board.

• Electronic circuits can be grouped under

different categories depending upon their
operation, connection, structure, etc.
 Types of Electronic Circuits.
Active Circuit

• A circuit that is build using Active components is

➢ Active circuit called as Active Circuit.
➢ Passive circuit
➢ Analog circuit
➢ Digital circuit • It usually contains a power source from which the
➢ Mixed circuit circuit extracts more power and delivers it to the
load.

• Additional Power is added to the output and

hence output power is always greater than the
input power applied.
 Passive Circuit
• A circuit that is build using Passive
components is called as Passive Circuit.

• Even if it contains a power source, the

circuit does not extract any power.
• Additional Power is not added to the
output and hence output power is always
less than the input power applied.
• The power gain will always be less than
unity.
Analog circuit Digital Circuit

• An analog circuit can be one which has •A digital circuit can be one which
linear components in it. Hence it is a has non-linear components in it.
linear circuit. Hence it is a non-linear circuit.

•It can process digital signals only.

• An analog circuit has analog signal
inputs which are continuous range of •A digital circuit has digital signal
voltages.
inputs which are discrete values.
 Mixed Signal Circuit
A mixed signal circuit can be one which
has both linear and non-linear
components in it. Hence it is called as a
mixed signal circuit. Whatever might be the
purpose of an electronic
circuit,
• These circuits consist of analog circuitry
along with microprocessors to process to process,
the input. to send,
to receive ,
to analyze.
• Depending upon the type of connection,
circuits can be classified as The process is carried out in
either Series Circuit or Parallel Circuit. the form of signals.
 Signals

Examples
• An alarm gives a signal that it’s time.
• A Signal can be understood as "a
representation that gives some • A cooker whistle confirms that the food is
information about the data present at the cooked.
source from which it is produced." • A red light signals some danger.
• A traffic signal indicates your move.
• This is usually time varying. Hence, a • A phone rings signaling a call for you.
signal can be a source of energy which
transmits some information. This can
easily be represented on a graph. ➢ Signal produced from an electronic
equipment, is called as Electronic
Signal or Electrical Signal
Electronic systems
➢Analog versus digital signals
Information-bearing signals can be either analog or digital.

ADC

DAC

Figure 1.0: Analog signals take a continuum of amplitude values.

Digital signals take a few discrete amplitudes.
 Electronic systems
➢Relative advantages of analog and digital systems
Noise is any undesired disturbance added to the desired signal.
One of the most significant advantages that digital systems have, compared with analog
systems, is in the way that noise affects the signals.

Figure 1.2
After noise is added, the original amplitudes of a digital signal can be determined. This is not true for an
analog signal.
Difference between Analog and Digital Signals
Analog Components and Circuitry

Analog components are the most basic type of components while the digital components
are widely used in today’s devices.

Both the branches are independently significant in their own way so we are enlisting certain
cases when the analog components and circuitry would be ideal.

• Filtering Signals: While dealing with a continuous signal, a continuous analog filter is
needed to remove all possible frequency content that you don’t want. As compared to a
digital filter, it is much easier to use as well as costs less.
• High Power: Although digital measurement and control may be useful for high
power systems, a digital signal switching from 0 to 400V may not be efficient
enough. The continuous nature of power delivery in the AC and DC systems
require analog components as these are more durable and characterized.

• Before A/D and After D/A: In order to switch between continuous and discrete
data, hybrid systems need both Analog-to-Digital and Digital-to-Analog
converters, but as per the Nyquist’s Theorem, the sampling frequency must be
at least twice the frequency of the highest frequency component contained in
the signal. So, in order to fulfill the theorem, any signal inadvertently included
in the original signal can be filtered so as to remove noise after sampling.
Fundamentals of Electronic Circuits

➢Basic Concepts

• Charge
✓Is an electrical property of the atomic particles of which matter consists .
✓It is measured in coulombs (C).
✓In 1 C of charge, there are 1/(1.602 × 10−19) = 6.24 × 1018 electrons.
✓Therefore 1 electron has the charge of 1.602 × 10−19 coulombs.
 Fundamentals of Electronic Circuit Continue…..

• Current
✓Is the time rate of change of
charge.
✓It is measured in amperes (A).
✓Two common types of current:
direct current (dc) and
alternating current (ac)
✓A direct current (dc) is a current
that remains constant with time.
✓An alternating current (ac) is a
current that varies sinusoidally
with time.
Fundamentals of Electronic Circuit Continue…..

• Voltage
✓Is the energy required to move a unit charge
through an element
✓It is measured in volts (V).

Direct voltage source Alternating Voltage Source

Produce direct voltage output A device which produce alternating voltage
continuously example d.c generators output continuously i:e a.c generator. It
When RL is connected current flows from reverse the output voltage.
+ve to –ve terminals.
➢ Current flowing is Alternating current (AC)
➢ Current is Direct current because it has
just one direction (DC)
28
Fundamentals of Electronic Circuit Continue…..

• Power
✓Is the time rate of expending
or absorbing energy
✓It is measured in watts (W).

• Energy
✓Is the capacity to do work.
✓It is measure in joules (J)
Passive devices/ components
Passive Components
• Passive components dissipate,
absorb or store and maintain energy
in the form of voltage or current.

• Examples − Resistors, Capacitors,

Inductors, transformers etc.

November,2023
➢Passive Components

• Resistors
✓Control the flow of electric current
✓They are of two types: fixed resistors and variable
resistors

Review
• Series and parallel connection for RLC
circuits.
 Resistors contin….

Connecting and soldering: Resistors may

be connected either way around. They are
not damaged by heat when soldering

Resistor values are normally shown using

coloured bands, each color represent a
number
- The 1st band gives the 1st digit
- The 2nd band gives the 2nd digit
- The 3rd band indicates the number of
zeros
- The 4th band gives the tolerance of the
resistor (i.e. silver ± 10%, gold ± 5%, red
± 2%, brown ± 1%, and ± 20% for no 4th
band)
Resistors contin….

For the value of resistors less than 10 Ω, two special colours are used for
the 3rd band
- Gold which means x 0.1 or silver which means x 0.01
- The 1st and 2nd bands represents digits as normal
- When selecting a resistor; resistor value and power rating should
be highly considered.

When selecting a resistor; resistor value and power rating should be

highly considered.
 Fundamentals of Electronic Circuit Continue…..

Capacitors

✓Store electric charge.

✓Block DC current and pass AC current
✓They can be split into two group: polarised and
unpolarised capacitors.

✓Connecting and soldering:

- Polarized capacitors must be connected the correct way
around.
- Unpolarised capacitors may be connected either way around.
- Both polarised and unpolarised capacitors are not damaged
by heat when soldering.

✓Polarized capacitors: Electrolytic and Tantalum bead

capacitors
 Fundamentals of Electronic Circuit Continue…..

- Electrolytic capacitors are clearly printed

with their capacitance and voltage rating.
- Modern tantalum bead capacitors are
printed with their capacitance, voltage,
and polarity in fully.
- Older tantalum bead capacitor use colour
code system, two stripes for the two digit
and a spot of colour for the number of
zeros. The value is given in µF
- Grey and white colour were used as a spot
to show the values of older tantalum bead
capacitors less than 10 µF. Grey = x 0.01
while white = x 0.1

✓Polarised capacitors are of larger values

greater than 1 µF. They have quite low
voltage rating.
 Fundamentals of Electronic Circuit Continue…..

✓Unpolarized capacitors
- They are of small values less or equal to 1 µF
- They have high voltage ratings of at least 50 V.

✓Capacitor number code: A number code is

often used on small capacitors where printing
is difficult.
- The 1st number is the 1st digit,
- The 2nd number is the 2nd digit,
- The 3rd number is the number of zeros to give the
capacitance in pF,
- Any letters indicate tolerance and voltage rating.
- Examples: 102 means 1000pF = 1nF, 472J means
4700pF = 4.7nF (J means 5% tolerance)
Fundamentals of Electronic Circuit Continue…..

Capacitor colour code: The colours

should be read like the resistor code.
The top three colour bands gives the
value in pF. The 4th and 5th bands
Capacitor unit and conversions represents tolerance and voltage
rating respectively.

Review
✓Real capacitor values: 10, 15, 22, 33,
• Series and parallel connection for 47, 68, 100, 150, 220, 330, 470, 680,
capacitor connections. 1000, …
38
Example
Determine the value of a capacitor with a color
code yellow, violet, orange, white and red.

Solution
The value of yellow is 4, violet is 7, orange is 3
which represents multiplier. White is ±10 which
is the tolerance value. Red represents the
voltage.

Hence the value of the capacitor is 47nF, 10%

250v
Fundamentals of Electronic Circuit Continue…..

Inductors

✓Are coils of wires which may have a core of

air, iron, or ferrite
✓Its electrical property is called inductance
✓Inductors are mainly used in tuned circuit
✓They pass DC easily, but block high
frequencies AC signals
✓They may be connected either way round
and no special precautions required when
soldering
Symbols
The symbols of various types of inductors are as given
below.

Inductor is a passive two-terminal

component that temporarily stores
energy in the form of a magnetic field.

It is usually called as a coil. The main

property of an inductor is that it
opposes any change in current.
Factors affecting Inductance

Review
• Series and parallel connection for Inductor circuits .
ASSIGNMENT 1
• Measuring devices .

• Fundamental Laws of Electricity

• Nodes, branches, and loops
• Ohm’s Law
• Kirchhoff’s Laws

• Circuit Theorems
• Superposition Theorem
• Thevenin’s Theorem
• Norton’s Theorem
Active components
➢Diodes ➢Transistor