COMPOSITES

Composites are any multiphase material that is

artificially made and exhibits a significant proportion
of the properties of the constituent phases. The
constituent phases of a composite are usually of
macro sized portions, differ in form and chemical
composition and essentially insoluble in each other.
Composites are made by combining two distinct
engineering materials. One is called matrix that is
continuous and surrounds the other phase –
dispersed phase. The properties of composites are a
function of the properties of the constituent phases,
their relative amounts, and size-and-shape of
dispersed phase.
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Classification- composites are classified using
different criteria like: (a) type of matrix material–
metal matrix composites, polymer matrix
composites and ceramic matrix composites (b) size-
and-shape of dispersed phase e.g particle-
reinforced composites, fiber-reinforced composites
and structural composites. The properties of
composites are improved versions of properties of
matrix materials due to presence of dispersed
phase. 1. Particle-reinforced composites are widely
available and cheap. There are two types:
dispersion-strengthened and particulate-reinforced
composites. In dispersion-strengthened composites,
particles are about 0.01-0.1μm in size.
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Here the strengthening occurs at atomic / molecular level
i.e.mechanism of strengthening is similar to that for
precipitation hardening in metals where matrix bears
the major portion of an applied load, while dispersed
particles hinder/impede the motion of dislocations.
Examples: thoria (ThO2) dispersed Ni-alloys (TD Ni-
alloys) with high-temperature strength; SAP (sintered
aluminium powder) – where Al matrix is dispersed with
extremely small flakes of alumina (Al2O3). 2. Particulate
reinforced composite contain large amounts of coarse
particles. They are designed to produce unusual
combinations of properties rather than to improve the
strength. Mechanical properties, such as elastic
modulus, of particulate composites achievable are in
the range defined by rule of mixtures as follows:
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EC (U) = Em Vm + Ep Vp
EC (l) = Em Ep ∕ EpVm + EmVp ,Where E and V are elastic
modulus and volume fractions respectively; c,m & p
represent composite, matrix and particulate phases.
Particulate composites are used with all material
types – metals, polymers and ceramics. Cermets
contain hard ceramic particles dispersed in a
metallic matrix. Eg.: tungsten carbide (WC) or
titanium carbide (TiC) used to make cutting tools.
Polymers are frequently reinforced with various
particulate materials such as carbon black. When
added to rubber enhances toughness and abrasion
resistance of the rubber. Aluminium alloy castings
containing dispersed SiC particles are widely used
for automotive applications including pistons and
brake applications.
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Concrete is the most commonly used particulate
composite. It consists of cement as binding
medium and finely dispersed particulates of
gravel in addition to fine aggregate (sand) and
water. Its strength can be increased by additional
reinforcement such as steel rods/mesh. The old
rule of thumb for mixing concrete is 1 cement: 2
sand : 3 gravel by volume. Water is critical,
therefore mix the components thoroughly before
adding water. Usual water is about 0.4 to 0.5 of
cement. Too little water results in a concrete that
is unworkable. Too much water results in weak
concrete. Water may separate out (bleed) from
the mixture.
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Fiber-reinforced composites provide improved strength and
other mechanical properties and strength-to-weight ratio
by incorporating strong, stiff but brittle fibers into a softer,
more ductile matrix. The matrix material acts as a medium
to transfer the load to the fibers, which carry most of the
applied load. The matrix also provides protection to fibers
from external loads and atmosphere. These composites
are classified as either continuous or discontinuous.
Generally, the highest strength and stiffness are obtained
with continuous reinforcement. Discontinuous fibers are
used only when manufacturing economics dictate the use
of a process where the fibers must be in this form. The
mechanical properties of fiber-reinforced composites
depend not only on the properties of the fiber but also on
the degree to which an applied load is transmitted to the
fibers by the matrix phase.
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Their mechanical properties depend on :properties of
the fiber, the degree to which an applied load is
transmitted to the fibers by the matrix phase, length
of fibers, their orientation and volume fraction as
well as the direction of external load. Effect of fiber
length: Define critical length (lc), necessary for
effective strengthening and stiffening of the
composite material, as:σ* f d /2τc where, σ*f is
ultimate/tensile strength of the fiber, d– diameter of
the fiber, – τc interface bond strength. Fibers for
which l >>lc(normally l >15lc) are termed as
continuous, discontinuous or short fibers on the
other hand.
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Effect of fiber orientation and concentration: with
respect to orientation, two extreme possibilities are
: parallel alignment and random alignment.
Continuous fibers are normally aligned, whereas
discontinuous fibers are randomly or partially
oriented. Two instants of loading are: longitudinal
loading and transverse loading. (a) Continuous fiber
composites: Under longitudinal loading, by
assuming that deformation of both matrix and fiber
is the same i.e. isostrain condition, rule-of-mixtures
results in the following: σc = σm Am/Ac + σf Af /Ac ,
where, Am/Ac and Af /Ac are the area fractions of the
matrix and fiber phases respectively. In the
composite, if matrix and fiber are all of equal length,
area fractions will be equal to volume fractions.
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In case of transverse loading, it is assumed that both
matrix and fiber will experience the equal stress i.e.
isostress condition.Longitudinal tensile strength:
Here, matrix material is softer i.e. fibers strain less
and fail before the matrix. And once the fibers have
fractured, majority of the load that was borne by
fibers is now transferred to the matrix.
Structural composites: are special class of composites,
and consists of both homogeneous and composite
materials. Their properties depend on the
properties of the constituents as well as the
geometrical design of the various structural
elements. There are two: laminar composites and
sandwich structures. (a) Laminar composites are
composed of two-dimensional sheets/layers that
have a preferred strength direction.
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These layers are stacked and cemented together
according to the requirement. Materials used for
fabrication are metal sheets, cotton, paper, woven
glass fibers embedded in plastic matrix, etc.
Examples: thin coatings, thicker protective coatings,
claddings, bimetallics, laminates. Many laminar
composites are designed to increase corrosion
resistance while retaining low cost, high strength or
light weight. (b)Sandwich structures consist of thin
layers of a facing material joined to a light weight
filler material. Neither the filler material nor the
facing material is strong or rigid, but the composite
possesses both properties. Example: corrugated
cardboard. The faces bear most of the in-plane
loading and also any transverse bending stresses.
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Typical face materials include Al-alloys, fiber-
reinforced plastics, titanium, steel and plywood.
The core serves two functions – it separates the
faces and resists deformations perpendicular to
the face plane and provides a degree of shear
rigidity along planes that are perpendicular to
the faces. Typical materials for core are: foamed
polymers, synthetic rubbers, inorganic cements,
balsa wood. Sandwich structures are found in
many applications like roofs, floors, walls of
buildings, and in aircraft for wings, fuselage and
tail plane skins.
 Degradation of concrete and rebar corrosion
One of the important hydration rxns of cement is:
2[(Ca0)3 SiO2] + 6H20 → (CaO)3. (SiO2)2. 3H20 +
Ca(0H)2
The presence of Ca(0H)2 is the weakness in cement
and thus in concretes. The interactions of concrete
with the environment are typified by: a.
Carbonation
Ca(OH) 2 + CO2  CaCo3 + H2O
CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O  Ca(HCO3)2 ;
Ca(HCO3)2 is very soluble, thus it can be leached from
the concrete causing a fall in pH from about 12 to
8.However, if the concrete is of good integrity, the
carbonation reactions take place only on the surface.
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b. SO2 can react with Ca(0H)2 directly.
2Ca(0H) 2 + 2S02  CaSO3 + CaSO4 + H2O + H2 Or SO2
can react with atmospheric O2 and H2O to form
H2SO4. The So42- then reacts with Ca(0H)2 thus,
Ca(0H)2 + SO4 2- + 2H2O  CaSO4 + 2H2O + 20H-
CaSO4. 2H2O can then react with tricalcium aluminate
in the concrete to form “ENTTERINGITE” – calcium
sulpho–aluminate hydrate. Its volume is 1.7 times
the original volume of calciumaluminate. The
formation of this bulky product leads to cracking
and consequent erosion of the concrete. To solve
the problem, sulphate resisting cement should be
employed in making the concrete . Other
contaminants like chlorides, oils and organic acids
do cause deterioration of concretes based on similar
reactions as above.
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When prepared initially, concretes are alkaline, thus,
the steel will not need protection. However,
reinforcement steel corrosion still occurs in practice.
This can be traced to factors, such as variation in
porosity, permeability and cracks in the concrete.
This state of affairs can lead to creation of micro and
macro electrochemical cells depending on the
distance between the anode and cathode on the
steel surface. Other factors include air and water
pollution, marine atmosphere, joints, depth of
concrete cover, lack of supervision etc. during
construction.
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Renovation of Concretes: Concretes do flake and
spall as a result of general weathering including
corrosion caused by airborne pollutants. Prior to
painting, cut away patches of weathered, open-
textured and spalled concretes up to a
predetermined depth, 100mm is usually adequate.
Then apply cement grout as binder before filling
with a modified repair mortar. After allowing for
drying time, the faces of the wall should then be
treated with fungicidal wash, followed by wire
brushing. Then apply 3 – coats of a polyurethane
based paint system. This will provide an effective
and long lasting protection against the most
extreme environmental conditions. . Recent
developments in the coating world have made it
possible for the use of water based paints of very
high quality and they are also corrosion resistant.
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Prevention of Reinforcement bar Corrosion
Use of paint: Prior to implanting the reinforcing steel,
the steel bar should be coated with epoxy based
coating. Epoxy resists alkaline attack. Also, the
exterior of the concrete can be coated with high
performance coating to exclude the environment
from attacking the surface of the concrete. The use
of textured coatings on concrete surfaces is highly
recommended for rural and city environments.
Textured paints are specially reinforced with silica.
Silica is inert, and will not disintegrate on interacting
with atmospheric pollutants. However, in heavily
industrialized areas, the use of high performance
coatings are favoured. Cathodic protection can be
applied as well although current demand for the
reinforcing bars are usually very high.
 ANSWERS

1.c 2.a 3.a 4.b 5.a 6.a 7.c 8.b 9.d 10.a 11.d 12.a