ANALOG & DIGITAL ELECTRONICS

UNIT – 01 B.TECH/CST/3RD SEM

POWER AMPLIFIER
An amplifier receives a signal from some pickup transducer or other input source and provides a larger
version of the signal to some output device or to another amplifier stage. An input transducer signal is
generally small (a few millivolts from a cassette or CD input, or a few microvolts from an antenna)
and needs to be amplified sufficiently to operate an output device (speaker or other power-handling
device). In small signal amplifiers, the main factors are usually amplification linearity and magnitude
of gain. Since signal voltage and current are small in a small-signal amplifier, the amount of power-
handling capacity and power efficiency are of little concern. A voltage amplifier provides voltage
amplification primarily to increase the voltage of the input signal. Large-signal or power amplifiers, on
the other hand, primarily provide sufficient power to an output load to drive a speaker or other power
device, typically a few watts to tens of watts.
The main features of a large-signal amplifier are the circuit’s power efficiency, the maximum amount
of power that the circuit is capable of handling, and the impedance matching to the output device.
Generally, large signal or Power Amplifiers are used in the output stages of audio amplifier systems to
drive a loudspeaker load. A typical loudspeaker has an impedance of between 4Ω and 8Ω, thus a
power amplifier must be able to supply the high peak currents required to drive the low impedance
speaker.
Amplifier Classes represent the amount of the output signal which varies within the amplifier circuit
over one cycle of operation when excited by a sinusoidal input signal. The classification of amplifiers
range from entirely linear operation (for use in high-fidelity signal amplification) with very low
efficiency, to entirely non-linear (where a faithful signal reproduction is not so important) operation
but with a much higher efficiency, while others are a compromise between the two.

Basically amplifier classes represent the amount the output signal varies over one cycle of operation
for a full cycle of input signal. These classes are defined as Class A, Class B, Class AB and Class C.

Class A amplifier:

Class A Amplifiers are the most common type of amplifier class due mainly to their simple design.
Class A amplifying devices operate over the whole of the input cycle such that the output signal is an
exact scaled-up replica of the input with no clipping i.e. the output signal varies for a full 360° of the
cycle. Class A amplifiers are the usual means of implementing small signal amplifiers.

Fig. 1(a)

Fig. 1(a) shows that this requires the Q-point to be biased at a level so that at least half the signal swing
of the output may vary up and down without going to a high-enough voltage to be limited by the

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supply voltage level or too low to approach the lower supply level, or 0 V in this description.

In a Class A circuit, the amplifying element is biased so the device is always conducting to some
extent, and is operated over the most linear portion of its characteristic curve Because the device is
always conducting, even if there is no input at all, power is drawn from the power supply. This is the
chief reason for its inefficiency.

Class B amplifier:

Class B amplifiers only amplify half of the input wave cycle or for 180° of signal, as shown in Fig.
1(b). The dc bias point for class B is therefore at 0 V, with the output then varying from this bias point
for a half cycle. Obviously, the output is not a faithful reproduction of the input if only one half-cycle
is present. Two class B operations—one to provide output on the positive output half-cycle and
another to provide operation on the negative-output half-cycle are necessary. The combined half-
cycles then provide an output for a full 360° of operation. This type of connection is referred to as
push-pull operation.

Fig. 1(b)

As such they create a large amount of distortion, but their efficiency is greatly improved and is much
better than Class A. Class B has a maximum theoretical efficiency of 78.5% (i.e., π/4). This is because
the amplifying element is switched off altogether half of the time and so cannot dissipate power.

A single Class B element is rarely found in practice, though it can be used in RF power amplifier
where the distortion levels are less important. However Class C is more commonly used for this.

Class AB amplifier:

As its name suggests, the Class AB Amplifier is a combination of the “Class A” and the “Class B”
type amplifiers. An amplifier may be biased at a dc level above the zero base current level of class B
and above one-half the supply voltage level of class A; this bias condition is class AB. Class AB
operation still requires a push-pull connection to achieve a full output cycle.

In a class AB amplifier design each of the push-pull transistors is conducting for slightly more than the
half cycle of conduction in class B, but much less than the full cycle of conduction of class A.

In other words, the conduction angle of a class AB amplifier is somewhere between 180 o and
360odepending upon the chosen bias point as shown in Fig. 1(c).

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Fig. 1(c)

Class C amplifier:

The Class C Amplifier design has the greatest efficiency but the poorest linearity of the classes of
amplifiers mentioned here. The previous classes, A, B and AB are considered linear amplifiers, as the
output signals amplitude and phase are linearly related to the input signals amplitude and phase. The
Fig. 1(d) shows the class C amplifier.

Class C amplifiers conduct less than 50% of the input signal and the distortion at the output is high, but
high efficiencies (up to 90%) are possible. Some applications (for example, megaphones) can tolerate
the distortion. A much more common application for Class C amplifiers is in RF transmitters, where
the distortion can be vastly reduced by using tuned loads on the amplifier stage.

The input signal is used to roughly switch the amplifying device on and off, which causes pulses of
current to flow through a tuned circuit.

Fig. 1(d)

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Power Amplifier Classes

Class A B C AB

Conduction
360o 180o Less than 90o 180 to 360o
Angle

In between the
Position of Centre Point of Exactly on the Below the
X-axis and the
the Q-point the Load Line X-axis X-axis
Centre Load Line

Better than A
Overall Poor Better Higher
but less than B
Efficiency 25 to 30% 70 to 80% than 80%
50 to 70%

Signal None if Correctly At the X-axis

Large Amounts Small Amounts
Distortion Biased Crossover Point

Series fed class A amplifiers:

The simple fixed-bias circuit connection shown in Fig.1 (e). The only differences between this circuit
and the small-signal version considered previously is that the signals handled by the large-signal
circuit are in the range of volts and the transistor used is a power transistor that is capable of operating
in the range of a few to tens of watts. This circuit is not the best to use as a large-signal amplifier
because of its poor power efficiency. The beta of a power transistor is generally less than 100, the
overall amplifier circuit using power transistors that are capable of handling large power or current
while not providing much voltage gain.

Fig. 1(e): Series-fed class A

large-signal amplifier Fig. 1(f)

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DC bias operation:-
The DC bias set by Vcc and Rb

Collector current IC=βIB

Collector –emitter voltage
VCE=VCC-ICRC
AC Operation:-
When an input ac signal is applied to the amplifier of Fig. 1(f), the output will vary from its dc bias
operating voltage and current. A small input signal, as shown in Fig.1 (g) will cause the base current to
vary above and below the dc bias point, which will then cause the collector current (output) to vary
from the dc bias point set as well as the collector–emitter voltage to vary around its dc bias value. As
the input signal is made larger, the output will vary further around the established dc bias point until
either the current or the voltage reaches a limiting condition. For the current this limiting condition is
either zero current at the low end or VCC/RC at the high end of its swing. For the collector–emitter
voltage, the limit is either 0 V or the supply voltage, VCC.

Fig. 1(f)
Power considerations:

 The power into an amplifier is provided by the power supply

 With no input supply, current drawn is collector bias current ICq.

Output power
The output voltage and current varying around the bias point provide ac power to the load.

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Efficiency:
Efficiency of an amplifier represents the amount of ac power delivered from
dc source. It can be calculated using

Maximum efficiency
The maximum efficiency of a class A series fed amplifier is thus seen to be 25%.
The maximum efficiency occurs only for ideal conditions of both voltage and current swing. Thus
practical circuits will have less than this percentage.

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Difference between Voltage Amplifiers and Power Amplifiers

 Voltage amplifiers have a high voltage gain, while power amplifiers have a high power gain.
 In most voltage amplifiers, current gain is very low, while power amplifiers have a significant
current gain, which results the power gain.
 Voltage amplifiers dissipate relatively less heat than power amplifiers. Therefore, voltage
amplifiers have higher power efficiency than power amplifiers. Also, power amplifiers require
additional cooling mechanism due to this fact.

FEEDBACK AMPLIFIER
 Almost no electronic system can work without an amplifier. For instance radio receivers amplify very
weak signals until they are very strong enough to make the sound audible.
 The transducers employed in medical & scientific investigations generate signals in microvolt or
milivolt range which are applicable to operate signals need amplification thousand and million times so
as to be strong enough to operate indicating instruments.
 An ideal amplifier provides an output signal which is a perfect replica of input signal.
 The voltage gain, input impedance, output impedance, bandwidth etc are few important characteristics
of an amplifier. These parameters are more or less const. for a given amplifier. Quite often these
parameters are required to be controlled. This can be easily achieved by employing the technique, called
the feedback.
 The term ‘feedback’ implies transfer of energy (voltage/current) from the output of a system to its input
i.e. when a part or fraction of output is combined to the input, feedback is said to be exist.
 The process of combining a fraction of o/p energy (voltage/current) back to the i/p is called feedback.

Block diagram of feedback amplifier

i/p Vi Vo
Mixer Basic amplifier (A)
Vs

Vf=βVo Feedback

Network (β)

Feedback Amplifier (Af)

 The above figure shows the block diagram of a feedback amplifier consisting of a basic or an internal
amplifier and a feedback network.
 A sampled o/p is feedback through feedback n/w and combined with the i/p signal through mixer and
then fed to the basic amplifier.

Vs –a.c. signal in the i/p side (current/voltage) Vi –i/p signal to the basic amplifier
Vo –o/p signal A –gain of the basic amplifier; A=Vo/Vi => Vo
=AVi
Β –Feedback Ratio/ Feedback Factor Vf –Feedback signal (current/voltage)
Af –Gain of the feedback amplifier

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 The feedback n/w can contain passive elements like resistors, inductors or capacitors and active
elements like transistors.
 A portion, Vf=βVo is extracted from the o/p voltage Vo and added or subtracted from the externally
applied i/p signal voltage Vs by the feedback n/w.

I/p voltage to the basic amplifier,

Vs=(Vi ±Vf)

Positive Feedback

Feedback

Negative Feedback

Positive feedback
If the feedback signal (V or I) is applied in such a way that it is in phase with i/p signal and thus enhance or
increase the magnitude of the i/p signal, then it is called Positive Feedback or Direct Feedback or
Regenerative Feedback.

 The overall gain of the amplifier is increased by the positive feedback.

 Since, positive feedback causes excessive distortion and instability, it is seldom used in amplifiers.
 Because of the capability of increasing the power of the original signal it is used in oscillator circuits.

Block diagram of Positive Feedback Amplifier

+ Vi 180o _ Vo
Basic amplifier (A)
Vs Mixer
o/p

+ +

Vf + 180o _
Feedback

Network (β)

 Total 360o i.e. 180o phase shift is done by basic amplifier and 180o phase shift is done by feedback n/w.
From the above figure,
A = Vo/Vi => Vo =AVi
Β = Vf/Vo => Vf =βVo
Here the feedback signal is in phase with the i/p signal and hence increase the i/p signal and thereby increasing
o/p. This type of feedback is called Positive Feedback or Direct Feedback or Regenerative Feedback. So, i/p
signal given to the basic amplifier,
Vi = (Vs + Vf)
 Vs = (Vi – Vf)
Now, the gain of the feedback amplifier with positive feedback,

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Af = Vo/Vs = Vo/(Vi – Vf ) [Vs = (Vi – Vf)]

 Af = Vo/[ ( Vo/A) – βVo ] [Vi = Vo/A ; Vf = βVo ]

 Af = AVo/ [Vo ( 1 – Aβ )]

Therefore, Af = A / (1 – Aβ ) (i)

Gain of the positive feedback amplifier.

In the absence of any feedback, β = 0, so Af = A

Thus A represents the transfer gain without feedback
A Open loop gain

Now, if I 1- Aβ I < 1 [from the above eqn (i) ]

Then, I Af I > IAI

If, IAβI = 1 , then, Af =∞ [ from the eqn (i) ]

Hence, the gain of an amplifier with positive feedback is infinite and amplifier gives an ac o/p without any ac
i/p. Thus the positive feedback amplifier acts as an Oscillator.

 The positive feedback decreases the stability of an amplifier, reduces the bandwidth, increases the
distortion.

Negative Feedback
If the feedback signal (V or I) is applied in such a way that it is in phase opposition with i/p signal and thus
diminishes the magnitude of the i/p signal, then it is called Negative Feedback or Inverse Feedback or
Degenerative Feedback.

Negative feedback reduces the overall amplifier gain but it has numerous advantages (such as stability reduction
in non – linear distortion, reduction in noise, increase in i/p impedance, decrease in o/p impedance, and increase
in bandwidth).
Block diagram of Negative Feedback Amplifier
+ Vi 180o _ Vo
Basic amplifier (A)
Vs Mixer
o/p

_ +

Vf _ 0o _
Feedback

Network (β)

 180o phase shift is done by basic amplifier.

 0o phase shift is done by feedback n/w.

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From the above figure,
A = Vo/Vi => Vo =AVi
Β = Vf/Vo => Vf =βVo
Here, the feedback signal is an phase opposition to the i/p signal and hence decrease the i/p signal.
So, i/p signal given to the basic amplifier,
Vi = (Vs – Vf )
 Vs = (Vi + Vf)

Hence, the i/p voltage applied to the basic amplifier as decreased and correspondingly the o/p is decreased. So,
voltage gain is reduced. This type of feedback is known as Negative Feedback or Inverse Feedback or
Degenerative Feedback.

Now, the gain of the feedback amplifier with negative feedback,

Af = Vo/Vs = Vo/(Vi + Vf )

 Af = Vo/[ ( Vo/A) + βVo ]

 Af = AVo/ [Vo ( 1 + Aβ )]

Therefore, Af = A / (1 + Aβ )

Gain of the negative feedback amplifier.

If, I1 + AβI > 1

Then, IAfI < IAI

If, IAβI >> 1, then, Af ̴ 1/β

 The gain of the feedback amplifier may be depends on feedback n/w.

 If the feedback n/w contains only stable passive element, the gain of the amplifier using negative
feedback is also stable.

Points to be remembered:
 The product of open loop gain (A) and feedback factor (β) is called loop gain.
For positive feedback, loop gain= Aβ
For negative feedback, loop gain= -Aβ
 The difference b/w unity and loop gain is called the return difference.
 The feedback introduced into an amplifier is usually expressed in decibel (dB) by the relationship,
F = dB of feedback
= 20 log10 IAf/AI = 20 log10 I 1/ (1+Aβ) I
[For negative feedback, F is negative since I1+AβI > 1 for such a feedback. When the feedback is positive,
I1+AβI <1 and F is positive].

Prob: Voltage gain of an amplifier without feedback is 60 dB. It decreases to 40 dB with feedback. Calculate
the feedback factor.
Soln : voltage gain of an amplifier without feedback,
A = 60 dB
 20 log10 A = 60
 Log10 A = 60/20 = 3

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 A = 103
 A = 1000
Now, voltage gain with feedback,
Af = 40 dB

 20 log10 Af = 40
 Log10 Af = 40/20 = 2
 Af = 102 = 100
Gain with negative feedback,
Af = A/(1+Aβ)
 100= 1000/ (1+ 1000β)
 1+1000β = 10
 1000β = 9
 β = 9/1000  ans.

OSCILLATOR
Oscillator is an electronic circuit that makes a repetitive electronic signal, frequently a sine wave or a square wave.
It is essential in many different types of electronic equipment. Like a quartz watch, which uses a quartz oscillator to
keep record of what time it is. An AM radio transmitter uses an oscillator to generate the carrier wave for the
station, and an AM radio receiver uses a special form of oscillator called a resonator to tune in a station. There are
also oscillators in computers, metal detectors and even stun guns.
Basic Features:
 Any circuit which is used to generate a.c voltage without a.c i/p signal is called an Oscillator.
 A system consisting of active and passive ckt. elements to produce a sinusoidal or other repetitive
waveforms at the o/p without the application of an external i/p signal .
 It transforms the dc power from the supply source to the ac power in the load. Thus the function of
oscillator is opposite to that of a rectifier.
 It finds application in Radio & TV Transmitters & Rectifiers, in the laboratory test equipments.
Classification:
 According to the type of waveform at the o/p, oscillators are of two types 
(i) Sinusoidal / Harmonic Oscillator
(ii) Relaxation / Non – sinusoidal Oscillator
(i) Sinusoidal Oscillator  if the generated waveform is sinusoidal or nearly so with definite freq, the
oscillator is said to a Sinusoidal Oscillator.
(ii) Relaxation Oscillator  if the o/p waveform is non – sinusoidal (such as square or sawtooth
waveforms), the oscillator is said to be Relaxation Oscillator.

V V

Sinusoidal Rectangular

V V

t t

Saw – tooth Triangular

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 According to freq generated, the oscillators can be grouped as below

(i) Audio freq Oscillator (AF) : a few Hz – 20 KHz
(ii) Radio freq Oscillator : 20 KHz – 30 MHz
(iii) Very High freq Oscillator (VHF) : 30 MHz – 300 MHz
(iv) Ultra High freq Oscillator (UHF) : 300 MHz – 3 GHz
(v) Microwave Oscillator : 3 GHz – several GHz
Sinusoidal Oscillators can be classified as 
(According to the type of ckt. used)
(i) Tuned ckt Oscillators :
 Use a tune ckt. consisting of Inductors (L) & Capacitors (C).
 Used to generate high freq signal. Hence, yhey are also known as radio freq (RF) Oscillator.
 Such Oscillators are – Hartley, Colpitts , Clapp Oscillators etc.
(ii) RC Oscillators :
 Use resistors & capacitors.
 Used to generate low or audio freq signal. Hence, they are also known as audio freq (AF) Oscillators.
 Such Oscillators are – Phase shift, Wein – bridge Oscillator.
(iii) Crystal Oscillators :
 Use quartz crystals.
 Used to generate highly stabilized o/p signal with freq upto 10 MHz.
 Ex – Pierce Oscillator.
(iv) Negative – Resistance Oscillator :
 Use negative resistance characteristic of the devices such as tunnel diodes.
 Ex – Tunnel Diode Oscillator
Positive Feedback Amplifier As An Oscillator
The main application of positive feedback is in Oscillators. An oscillator generate o/p signal without any i/p ac
signal. A part of the o/p is fed back to the i/p and this feedback signal is the only i/p to the internal amplifier.
To understand how an oscillator produces an o/p signal without an external i/p signal, let us consider fig
(i) below. The voltage soyrce V drives the i/p terminals YZ of the internal amplifier (with voltage gain A). The
amplifier signal AV drives the feedback n/w to produce voltage AβV. This voltage returns to the point X. If the
phase shift due to the amplifier and feedback n/w is correct, the signal at point X will be exactly in phase with
the signal driving the i/p terminals YZ of the internal amplifier.
The action of an oscillator is explained a little later. For the time being, assume that we connect points X & Y,
and remove voltage source V. The feedback signal now drives the i/p terminals YZ of the amplifier (see fig (ii)).

If Aβ is less than unity, AβV is less than V and the o/p signal will die out as shown in fig (iii). This happens
because enough voltage is not returned to the i/p of the amplifier. On the other hand, if Aβ is greater than unity,
AβV is greater than V and the o/p signal will builds up as shown in fig (iv). Such oscillations are called growing
oscillations. Finally, if Aβ equals unity, no change occurs in the o/p. We get an o/p voltage whose amplitude

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remains constant as shown in fig (v). That means, when Aβ = 1, the spurious o/p voltage regenerates itself or the
amplifier oscillates.
Vo fig (iii) Vo fig (iv) Vo fig (v)

0 t 0 t 0 t

IAβI < 1 IAβI >1 IAβI =1

To find the necessary condition for the sinusoidal oscillations, we can also apply the feedback theory to the ckt
of fig (ii).
For positive feedback amplifier, overall voltage gain,
Af = A /( 1 – Aβ)
Where, A is the voltage gain of the internal amplifier, β is the feedback ratio and Aβ is the loop gain.
Now, if IAβI = 1
Then, Af = ∞
The gain becomes infinity that means there is o/p without any i/p. In other hand, the amplifier becomes an
oscillator.
The condition, IAβI = 1 is known as Barkhausen Criterion.
Barkhausen Criterion:
(i) Aβ = 1, i.e. magnitude of the loop gain will be unity.
(ii) The total phase shift around the closed loop is zero (0o) or 360o.

Phase shift oscillator:

The mathematics for calculating oscillation frequency and oscillation criterion for this circuit is surprisingly
complex, due to each RC stage loading the previous ones. The calculations are greatly simplified by setting all
the resistors (except the negative feedback resistor) and all the capacitors to the same values. In the diagram, if
R1=R2=R3=R, and C1=C2=C3=C, then:

and the oscillation criterion is:

Without the simplification of all the resistors and capacitors having the same values, the calculations become

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more complex:

Oscillation criterion:

As with other feedback oscillators, when the power is applied to the circuit, thermal electrical noise in the
circuit or the turn-on transient provides an initial signal to start oscillations. The oscillations grow rapidly in
amplitude until saturation of the op-amp or transistor limits the gain, and they stabilize at constant amplitude at
which the loop gain of the circuit is unity.
When the oscillation frequency is high enough to be near the amplifier's cutoff frequency, the amplifier will
contribute significant phase shift itself, which will add to the phase shift of the feedback network. Therefore
the circuit will oscillate at a frequency at which the phase shift of the feedback filter is less than 180 degrees.

Wien Bridge Oscillator:

Due to the advantages like good frequency stability, very low distortion and ease of tuning, a Wien bridge
oscillator becomes the most popular audio frequency range signal generator circuit. This type of oscillator uses
RC feedback network so it can also be considered as RC oscillator.
The figure below shows a widely used type of Wien bridge oscillator. The operational amplifier is used in a non
inverting configuration and feedback form a voltage divider network. The resistances R1 and Rf forms the part
of the feedback path which determines or facilitates to adjust the amplifier gain.
The output of op-amp is connected as input to the bridge at points a and c while the output of the bridge at
points b and d are connected to the input of op-amp.

A portion of the amplifier output is feedback through the voltage divider network (a series combination of
resistor and capacitor) to the positive or non-inverting terminal of the amplifier.
Also, second portion of the amplifier is feedback to the inverting or negative terminal of the amplifier through
the impedance of magnitude 2R.
If the feedback network elements are chosen properly, the phase shift of the signal input to the amplifier is zero
at certain frequency. Since the amplifier is non-inverting which introduce zero phase shift plus the feedback
network zero phase shift, the total phase shift becomes zero around the loop hence the required condition of
oscillations.
The gain of the operational amplifier is expressed as
A = 1 + (Rf / R1)
The gain of non-inverting amplifier must be of minimum 3 to satisfy Barkhausen criterion.
Therefore, 1 + (Rf / R1) ≥ 3
→ (Rf / R1) ≥ 2
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Therefore the ratio of resistances Rf to R1 must be equal to or greater than 2. The frequency of oscillations is
given by
f = 1 / 2πRC

MULTIVIBRATORS
A multivibrator circuit is nothing but a switching circuit. It generates non-sinusoidal waves such as Square
waves, Rectangular waves and Saw tooth waves etc. Multivibrators are used as frequency generators, frequency
dividers and generators of time delays and also as memory elements in computers etc.
According to the definition, A Multivibrator is a two-stage resistance coupled amplifier with positive feedback
from the output of one amplifier to the input of the other.

Types of Multivibrators

There are two possible states of a Multivibrator. In first stage, the transistor Q1 turns ON while the transistor
Q2 turns OFF. In second stage, the transistor Q1 turns OFF while the transistor Q2 turns ON. These two states are
interchanged for certain time periods depending upon the circuit conditions.
Depending upon the manner in which these two states are interchanged, the Multivibrators are classified into
three types. They are
Astable Multivibrator
An Astable Multivibrator is such a circuit that it automatically switches between the two states continuously
without the application of any external pulse for its operation. As this produces a continuous square wave
output, it is called as a Free-running Multivibrator. The dc power source is a common requirement.
The time period of these states depends upon the time constants of the components used. As the Multivibrator
keeps on switching, these states are known as quasi-stable or halfstable states. Hence there are two quasi-stable
states for an Astable Multivibrator.
Monostable Multivibrator
A Monostable Multivibrator has a stable state and a quasi-stable state. This has a trigger input to one transistor.
So, one transistor changes its state automatically, while the other one needs a trigger input to change its state.
As this Multivibrator produces a single output for each trigger pulse, this is known as One-shot Multivibrator.
This Multivibrator cannot stay in quasi-stable state for a longer period while it stays in stable state until the
trigger pulse is received.
Bistable Multivibrator
A Bistable Multivibrator has both the two states stable. It requires two trigger pulses to be applied to change the
states. Until the trigger input is given, this Multivibrator cannot change its state. It’s also known as flip-flop
multivibrator.

Construction of Astable Multivibrator

Two transistors named Q1 and Q2 are connected in feedback to one another. The collector of transistor Q1 is
connected to the base of transistor Q2 through the capacitor C1 and vice versa. The emitters of both the
transistors are connected to the ground. The collector load resistors R1 and R4 and the biasing resistors R2 and
R3 are of equal values. The capacitors C1 and C2 are of equal values.
The following figure shows the circuit diagram for Astable Multivibrator.

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Operation of Astable Multivibrator

When Vcc is applied, the collector current of the transistors increase. As the collector current depends upon the
base current,
Ic=Βib
As no transistor characteristics are alike, one of the two transistors say Q1 has its collector current increase and
thus conducts. The collector of Q1 is applied to the base of Q2 through C1. This connection lets the increased
negative voltage at the collector of Q1 to get applied at the base of Q2 and its collector current decreases. This
continuous action makes the collector current of Q2 to decrease further. This current when applied to the base of
Q1 makes it more negative and with the cumulative actions Q1 gets into saturation and Q2 to cut off. Thus the
output voltage of Q1 will be VCE (sat) and Q2 will be equal to VCC.
The capacitor C1 charges through R1 and when the voltage across C1 reaches 0.7v, this is enough to turn the
transistor Q2 to saturation. As this voltage is applied to the base of Q2, it gets into saturation, decreasing its
collector current. This reduction of voltage at point B is applied to the base of transistor Q1 through C2 which
makes the Q1 reverse bias. A series of these actions turn the transistor Q1 to cut off and transistor Q2 to
saturation. Now point A has the potential VCC. The capacitor C2 charges through R2. The voltage across this
capacitor C2 when gets to 0.7v, turns on the transistor Q1 to saturation.
Hence the output voltage and the output waveform are formed by the alternate switching of the transistors
Q1 and Q2. The time period of these ON/OFF states depends upon the values of biasing resistors and capacitors
used, i.e., on the RC values used. As both the transistors are operated alternately, the output is a square
waveform, with the peak amplitude of VCC.
Waveforms
The output waveforms at the collectors of Q1 and Q2 are shown in the following figures.

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Frequency of Oscillations
The ON time of transistor Q1 or the OFF time of transistor Q2 is given by
t1 = 0.69R1C1
Similarly, the OFF time of transistor Q1 or ON time of transistor Q2 is given by
t2 = 0.69R2C2
Hence, total time period of square wave
t = t1 + t2 = 0.69(R1C1 + R2C2)
As R1 = R2 = R and C1 = C2 = C, the frequency of square wave will be
f=1t=1/1.38RC=0.7RC

Advantages
The advantages of using an astable multivibrator are as follows −

 No external triggering required.

 Circuit design is simple
 Inexpensive
 Can function continuously
Disadvantages
The drawbacks of using an astable multivibrator are as follows −

 Energy absorption is more within the circuit.

 Output signal is of low energy.
 Duty cycle less than or equal to 50% can’t be achieved.
Applications
Astable Multivibrators are used in many applications such as amateur radio equipment, Morse code generators,
timer circuits, analog circuits, and TV systems.

Construction of Monostable Multivibrator

Two transistors Q1 and Q2 are connected in feedback to one another. The collector of transistor Q1 is connected
to the base of transistor Q2 through the capacitor C1. The base Q1 is connected to the collector of Q2 through
the resistor R2 and capacitor C. Another dc supply voltage –VBB is given to the base of transistor Q1 through
the resistor R3. The trigger pulse is given to the base of Q1 through the capacitor C2 to change its state.
RL1 and RL2 are the load resistors of Q1 and Q2.
One of the transistors, when gets into a stable state, an external trigger pulse is given to change its state. After
changing its state, the transistor remains in this quasi-stable state or Meta-stable state for a specific time period,
which is determined by the values of RC time constants and gets back to the previous stable state.
The following figure shows the circuit diagram of a Monostable Multivibrator.

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Operation of Monostable Multivibrator

Firstly, when the circuit is switched ON, transistor Q1 will be in OFF state and Q2 will be in ON state. This is
the stable state. As Q1 is OFF, the collector voltage will be VCC at point A and hence C1 gets charged. A
positive trigger pulse applied at the base of the transistor Q1 turns the transistor ON. This decreases the collector
voltage, which turns OFF the transistor Q2. The capacitor C1 starts discharging at this point of time. As the
positive voltage from the collector of transistor Q2 gets applied to transistor Q1, it remains in ON state. This is
the quasi-stable state or Meta-stable state.
The transistor Q2 remains in OFF state, until the capacitor C1 discharges completely. After this, the transistor
Q2 turns ON with the voltage applied through the capacitor discharge. This turn ON the transistor Q1, which is
the previous stable state.
Output Waveforms
The output waveforms at the collectors of Q1 and Q2 along with the trigger input given at the base of Q1 are
shown in the following figures.

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The width of this output pulse depends upon the RC time constant. Hence it depends on the values of R1C1.
The duration of pulse is given by
T=0.69R1C1

Advantages
The advantages of Monostable Multivibrator are as follows −

 One trigger pulse is enough.

 Circuit design is simple
 Inexpensive
Disadvantages
The major drawback of using a monostable multivibrator is that the time between the applications of trigger
pulse T has to be greater than the RC time constant of the circuit.
Applications
Monostable Multivibrators are used in applications such as television circuits and control system circuits.

555 Timer IC

Pin Diagram and Functional Diagram

In this section, first let us discuss about the pin diagram of 555 Timer IC and then its functional diagram.
Pin Diagram
The 555 Timer IC is an 8 pin mini Dual-Inline Package (DIP). The pin diagram of a 555 Timer IC is shown in
the following figure −

Functional Diagram
The pictorial representation showing the internal details of a 555 Timer is known as functional diagram.
The functional diagram of 555 Timer IC is shown in the following figure −

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555 timer in astable operation

When configured as an oscillator the 555 timer is configured as in figure 2 below. This is the free running
mode and the trigger is tied to the threshold pin. At power-up, the capacitor is discharged, holding the
trigger low. This triggers the timer, which establishes the capacitor charge path through Ra and Rb. When
the capacitor reaches the threshold level of 2/3 Vcc, the output drops low and the discharge transistor turns
on.

The timing capacitor now discharges through Rb. When the capacitor voltage drops to 1/3 Vcc, the trigger
comparator trips, automatically retriggering the timer, creating an oscillator whose frequency is determined
by the formula in figure 2.

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555 timer in monostable operation
Another popular application for the 555 timer is the monostable mode (one shot) which requires only two
external components, Ra and C in figure 3 below. Time period is determined by 1.1 X Ra C.

Astable multivibrator using 555 timer Monostable multivibrator using 555 timer

Schmitt Trigger using 555 timer

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