MODULE

HISTORY OF ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN (Hist. 1012)

FOR STUDENTS OF HIGHER LEARNING INSTITUTIONS

Writers

Surafel Gelgelo (PhD) Addis Ababa University

Deressa Debu (PhD) Jimma University
Dereje Hinew (PhD) Wollega University
Awegichew Amare (PhD) University of Gondar

Reviewers

Mohammed Hassen (PhD) Haramaya University

Ketebo Abdiyo (PhD) Jimma University
Tigab Bezie (PhD) Bahir Dar University
Samuel Negash (PhD) Addis Ababa University
Abdu Muhammed (PhD) Dilla University

Editor
Bahru Zewde (Professor)

September 2024
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
 Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION TO THE MODULE |
UNITONE 1
INTRODUCTION (3 HOURS)1
1.1. NATURE AND USES OF HISTORY 1
1.1.1. NATURE OF HISTORY 1
1.1.2. USES OF HISTORY 2
1.2. SOURCES AND METHODS OF HISTORICAL STUDY 3
1.3. HISTORIOGRAPHY OF ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN 5
1.4. THE GEOGRAPHICAL CONTEXT 8
UNIT TWO 11
PEOPLES AND CULTURES IN ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN (4 HOURS)11
2.1. HUMAN EVOLUTION 11
2.2. NEOLITHIC REVOLUTION 14
2.3. PEOPLING OF THE REGION 14
2.3.1. LANGUAGE AND LINGUISTIC PROCESSES 14
2.3.2. SETTLEMENT PATTERNS 15
2.3.3. ECONOMIC FORMATIONS 16
2.4. RELIGION AND RELIGIOUS PROCESSES 16
2.4.1. INDIGENOUS RELIGION 16
2.4.2. JUDAISM 18
2.4.3. CHRISTIANITY 18
2.4.4. ISLAM 19
UNIT THREE 21
POLITICS, ECONOMY AND SOCIETY IN ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN TO THE END OF THE THIRTEENTH
CENTURY (6 HOURS)21
3.1. EMERGENCE OF STATES 21
3.2. ANCIENT STATES 22
3.2.1. NORTH AND NORTH EAST 22
3.2.2. EAST, CENTRAL, SOUTHERN, AND WESTERN STATES 26
3.2.2.1. BIZAMO, DAMOT, ENARYA, AND GAFAT 26
3.2.2.2. MUSLIM SULTANATES 27
3.3. EXTERNAL CONTACTS 27
3.4. ECONOMIC FORMATIONS 28
3.5. SOCIO-CULTURAL ACHIEVEMENTS 30
UNIT FOUR 34
POLITICS, ECONOMY AND SOCIETY FROM THE LATE THIRTEENTH TO THE BEGINNING OF THE
SIXTEENTH CENTURIES (4 HOURS)34
4.1. THE "RESTORATION" OF THE "SOLOMONIC" DYNASTY 34
4.2. INTERNAL POLITICAL CONFLICT 34
4.3. POWER CONSOLIDATION AND SPATIAL EXTENSION 35
4.4. ADMINISTRATION AND MILITARY ORGANIZATION OF THE ETHIOPIAN CHRISTIAN KINGDOM 37
4.4.1. ADMINISTRATION 37
4.4.2. MILITARY ORGANIZATION 38
4.4.3. TEMPORAL ADMINISTRATIVE AND MILITARY DECLINE 39
4.5. ECONOMIC BASES OF THE KINGDOM 39
4.6. COOPERATION, COMPETITION AND CONFLICT BETWEEN CHRISTIAN AND MUSLIM RIVAL POWERS 40
4.7. INTERACTION AND INTEGRATION OF PEOPLES AND CULTURES 42
4.7.1. EXPANSION OF THE CHRISTIAN KINGDOM 42
4.7.2. POPULATION MOVEMENT, INTERACTION, AND INTEGRATION 43
4.7.3. ROVING COURT 43
4.7.4. ESTABLISHMENT OF MILITARY GARRISONS 44
4.7.5. WARFARE 44
4.7.6. MARKET CENTRES AS CULTURAL MELTING POTS 44
4.7.7. THE ETHIOPIAN ORTHODOX CHURCH AND MONASTIC NETWORKS FOSTERED INTEGRATION 45
4.7.8. ISLAM-PROMOTED INTEGRATION, UNITY AND COLLECTIVE IDENTITY 46
4.8. EXTERNAL RELATIONS 47
4.8.1. RELATIONS WITH EGYPT 47
4.8.2. RELATIONS WITH CHRISTIAN EUROPE 47
UNIT FIVE_______________________________________________ ____________________________ 49
POLITICS, ECONOMY AND SOCIAL PROCESSES FROM THE EARLY SIXTEENTH TO THE END OF THE
EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES (10 HRS)______________________________________________________ 49
5.1. CONFLICT BETWEEN THE CHRISTIAN KINGDOM AND THE SULTANATE OF ADAL AND THE AFTERMATH 49
5.2. FOREIGN INTERVENTION AND RELIGIOUS CONTROVERSIES 52
5.3. POPULATION MOVEMENTS 54
5.3.1. POPULATION MOVEMENTS OF THE ARGOBBA, AFAR, AND SOMALI 54
5.3.2. GADAA SYSTEM AND OROMO POPULATION MOVEMENT (1522-1618) 56
5.4. ETHNIC AND RELIGIOUS INTERACTION AND INTEGRATION 59
5.5. PEOPLES AND STATES IN EASTERN, CENTRAL, SOUTHERN AND WESTERN PARTS OF THE REGION 60
5.5.1 PEOPLES AND STATES IN THE EAST 60
5.5.2. PEOPLES AND STATES IN CENTRAL AND SOUTH CENTRAL PARTS 61
5.5.3. PEOPLES AND STATES IN THE SOUTH 63
5.5.4. PEOPLES AND STATES IN THE SOUTHWEST 64
5.5.5. PEOPLES AND STATES IN THE WEST 66
5.6. THE GONDARINE PERIOD AND ZEMENE- MESAFINT 67
5.6.1. THE GONDARINE PERIOD (1630-1780S) 67
5.6.2. THE ZEMENE- MESAFINT (ERA OF PRINCES, 1786-1853) 71
UNIT SIX_________________________________ ___________________________________________ 73
INTERNAL DEVELOPMENTS AND EXTERNAL RELATIONS OF ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN, 1800-1941 (10
HOURS)___________________________________________________________________ 73
6.1. NATURE OF INTERACTIONS AMONG THE PEOPLES AND STATES OF ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN 73
6.1.1. PEOPLES AND STATES IN SOUTH-CENTRAL, SOUTHWESTERN, AND WESTERN ETHIOPIA 73
6.1.2. TRADE AND TRADE ROUTES
6.2. THE MAKING OF THE MODERN ETHIOPIAN STATE
6.3. MODERNIZATION ATTEMPTS
6.4. SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENTS
6.4.1. AGRICULTURE AND LAND TENURE
6.4.2. SLAVERY AND SLAVE TRADE
6.4.3. MANUFACTURING
6.4.4. URBANIZATION
6.5. EXTERNAL RELATIONS
6.5.1. AGREEMENTS AND TREATIES
6. 5. 2. MAJOR BATTLES FOUGHT AGAINST FOREIGN AGGRESSORS AND PATRIOTISM
6. 5. 3. THE ITALIAN OCCUPATION (1936-41) AND THE PATRIOTIC RESISTANCE
UNIT SEVEN 94
INTERNAL DEVELOPMENTS AND EXTERNAL RELATIONS, 1941-1995 (5 HOURS)94
7.1. POST-1941 IMPERIAL PERIOD 94
7.1.1. EXTERNAL RELATIONS 94
7.1.2. SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENTS 96
7.1.3. CONSOLIDATION OF AUTOCRACY 97
7.1.4. OPPOSITIONS AND THE DOWNFALL OF THE MONARCHICAL REGIME 98
7.2. THE DERG REGIME (1974-1991) 104
7.2.1. RISE AND CONSOLIDATION OF THE DERG 104
7.2.2. ATTEMPTS AT SOCIO-ECONOMIC REFORM 106
7.2.3. POLITICAL MOVEMENTS AND OPPOSITION 107
7.3. TRANSITIONAL GOVERNMENT 110
REFERENCES 112
List of Maps, Pictures, and Tables
MAP 1. POLITICAL MAP OF ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN OF AFRICA 8
MAP 2: PHYSICAL MAP OF ETHIOPIA 10
MAP 3: THE ETHIOPIAN CHRISTIAN KINGDOM DURING THE REIGN OF EMPEROR AMDE-TSION 36
MAP 4: GADAA CENTERS 59
MAP 5: PEOPLES AND STATES OF ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN, C. 1800 75
MAP 6: TRADE ROUTES OF ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 76
PICTURE 1: THE FOSSIL OF LUCY 12
PICTURE 2: THE THIRD TALLEST AKSUMITE STELE 30
PICTURE 3: BETE GIYORGIS 31
PICTURE 4: DAWURO STONE WALLS 65
PICTURE 5: FASILEDES' CASTLE IN GONDAR 70
TABLE 1: AGE GRADES AND THEIR ROLES 57
 Introduction to the Module
This teaching material is prepared for a common course given to Ethiopian Higher Learning
Institutions Students/HLIS. The module is expected to help students understand the role of
history in human life and the goals of studying history as well as the importance of history in
nation/state building and the making of identity. It is useful to know how personalities helped
change the course of history, how societies, peoples, and the world that we live in have changed
over time. It explains how socio-cultural, religious, economic, and political experiences of the
past are interwoven and instrumental in the creation of the current Ethiopia and the Horn Region.
It focuses on the causes, courses, and consequences of major historical events in the region,
demonstrating changes and continuities that unfolded from ancient times to 1995, forming the
basis for the future. It tries to emphasize the history of peoples rather than the history of the
ruling elites. The contents consider the chronological and thematic relations of events in time and
space. To make this course as inclusive and as representative as possible, the module also
includes local histories across periods.

The module is divided into seven units. The first unit defines history, describes why history is
significant, how history is studied, and introduces the region. The second unit discusses peoples
and cultures in the region, treating human evolution, the Neolithic Revolution, peopling and
settlement patterns, and religion and religious processes. The third unit describes states, external
contacts, economic formations, and cultural achievements in the fields of architecture, writing,
calendars, and numerals to the end of the thirteenth century. Unit Four delves into the intricate
internal transformations and external relations from the late thirteenth century to the early
sixteenth century analyzing administrative, military and economic structures of the Christian
kingdom as well as its evolving relationships with the Muslim Sultanates.

Unit Five discusses a history of the region from the early sixteenth to the end of the eighteenth
centuries. It deals with conflicts, foreign interventions, religious controversies, and population
movements, and how these epochal events contributed to the integration of peoples across ethnic
and religious diversities, thereby significantly influencing the historical trajectory of the region.
In addition, the unit describes peoples and states in different parts of the region. The unit
concludes with major developments of the Gondarine period, and the Zemene- Mesafint (Era of
Princes), in which the Yejju played a dominant political role in the Christian Kingdom.
The social, cultural, economic and political developments in the region in the nineteenth and the
early twentieth centuries (from 1800 to 1941) that played vital role in shaping the modern history
of the region are discussed in greater detail in unit six. Historical processes including power
struggle, centralization, expansion and modernization attempts, socio-economic conditions,
external relations, foreign threats and major battles, and the Italian occupation take central stage
in the unit. The last unit discusses historical developments in the region since the period of
liberation from the Italian occupation (1941) to the period of the ratification of the Constitution
of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE) in 1995. Important issues discussed
include external relations, consolidation of imperial power and socio-economic conditions,
oppositions by various groups, the question of nations and nationalities, and reforms.

Objectives
The general objective of this module is to acquaint students with the extent to which interactions
between diverse peoples in the region and with the outside world have shaped its history.
The specific objectives of the module are to:
> understand the meaning, nature, uses and abuses of history;
> identify pertinent sources for studying the history of the region;
> demonstrate the region’s importance in human evolution and the Neolithic Revolution;
> trace the origin, development, and cultural achievements of the ancient states;
> explain the region’s ancient external contacts and their effects;
> analyze the role of the legend of the Queen of Sheba in the region from 1270 to 1974;
> show dynamics of relations between the Christian kingdom and the Muslim Sultanates;
> explicate the role of population movements in shaping the history of the region;
> assess states and societies in the eastern, central, southern and western parts of the region;
> illumine socio-economic, religious and political achievements of the Gondarine period;
> discuss the salient features and effects of the Zemene- Mesafint;
> expound the political process for the formation of Modern Ethiopia;
> explain the efforts and challenges of modernization in the region;
> point out the legacies of major battles and the patriotic struggle against colonialism;
> examine the major socio-economic and political developments from 1941 to 1974;
> discuss the political momentum, reforms, and oppositions during the Derg period;
> analize the socio-economic and political developments from 1991 to 1995.

ii
 UNIT ONE
INTRODUCTION (3 HOURS)
1.1. Nature and Uses of History
1.1.1. Nature of History
The term history is derived from the Greek word istoria, which means “learning through
enquiry” or “an account of one’s inquiries.” The first writer to systematically investigate and
document historical events was the Greek historian Herodotus (c. 484-425 BC). For this reason,
he is regarded as the “father of history.” In ordinary usage, history means all the things that have
happened in the human past. The past signifies all the events that have taken place and the facts
of the past. The distinction is between what actually happened in the past and which exists
independently of the historian and still awaits to be recorded, and the accounts of the past
reconstructed by historians. Historians apply their expertise to use surviving records and write
history in the form of accounts of the past. History can thus be defined as a systematic study and
organized knowledge of the past. The study involves the discovery, collection, organization, and
presentation of information about past events. The purpose is not simply to produce a mere
chronology of events and deeds of human beings in the past, but to find patterns and establish
meaning through a rigorous study and interpretation of sources.

Evidently, what actually happened in the past is infinite. Historians, just like natural scientists,
select the topics and problems they wish to study. The major concern of history is the interaction
between human society and the environment, which is also a subject of study in other social
science disciplines. What differentiates history from other disciplines is that while the latter
study the interaction between humans and their environment in the present state, history studies
their interaction in the past within the framework of the continuous process of change taking
place in time. Due to the longevity of that time, historians organize and divide the past into
disctinct periods after identifying significant developments through a careful study of documents
and artifacts left by those who lived in the past. They then assign a label to each period to convey
the key characteristics and developments of that era. This is called periodization. In this regard,
history is conventionally divided into ancient, medieval, and modern.

When historians talk about continuities or persisting patterns, they do not imply that a particular
pattern applies to everyone in the world or even to a particular country or region. Nor are they

1
 claiming that absolutely nothing changes in the pattern they describe. All aspects of human life
—social, cultural, economic, and political— in the past have been changing from time to time;
and none of them were practiced in exactly the same way in the lifetime of our ancestors.
Nevertheless, some things remain more or less the same for long periods since few things ever
change completely. In the same vein, the basic fabric of society in Ethiopia and the Horn of
Africa remains similar and continues to have distinctive characteristics.

1.1.2. Uses of History

Peoples live in the present and plan for and worry about the future. History, however, is the study
of the past. So, why do we bother about the past?

History Helps Us Understand the Present

History is the only storehouse of information available for the examination and analysis of how
people behaved and acted in the past. People need to produce an account of their past because it
is difficult to understand the problems that face humanity and society today without tracing their
origins in the past.

History Provides a Sense of Identity

Knowledge of history is indispensable for understanding who we are and where we fit in the
world. As memory is to the individual, so is history to society. An individual without memory
finds great difficulty in relating to others and making intelligent decisions. A society without
history would be in a similar condition. It is only through a sense of history that communities
define their identity, orient themselves, and understand their relationships with other societies.

History Helps Develop Tolerance and Open-Mindedness

Most of us tend to regard our own cultural practices, styles, and values as the only ones that are
right and proper. Studying different societies in the past is like going to a foreign country, which
contributes to freeing ourselves from some of our inherent cultural provincialism. By studying
the past, students of history acquire broader perspectives that give them the broad-mindedness
and flexibility required in many life situations.

History Teaches Critical Skills

Studying history helps students develop key research skills. These include how to find and
evaluate sources; how to make coherent arguments based on various shreds of evidence and
present them clearly in writing. These analytical and communication skills are highly useful in
other academic pursuits as well. Gaining skills in sorting through diverse interpretations is also
essential for making informed decisions in our day-to-day life.

History Provides a Basic Background for Other Disciplines

Historical knowledge is valuable in the pursuit of other disciplines such as literature, art,
philosophy, religion, sociology, political science, anthropology, economics, etc. With regard to
the last four, it can be argued that history is a mother discipline because they arose out of
historical investigation or formed part of historical writing.

History Provides Endless Source of Fascination

Exploring the ways in which people in distant ages managed their lives offers a sense of wonder
and excitement, and ultimately another perspective on human life and society.

To conclude, history should be studied because it is essential to the individual and society. Only
through studying history can we grasp how and why things change and only through history can
we understand what elements of a society persist despite change. Aesthetic and humanistic goals
also inspire people to study the past, which broaden the understaning of the present reality.

Nevertheless, just as history can be useful, it can also be abused. Such abuses come mainly from
deliberate manipulation of the past to fit current political agenda. In such cases, history is written
backwards; the past is described and interpreted to justify the present. While personal biases are
not always avoidable, historians are different from propagandists in that the former take care to
document their ideas about the past so that they can be subjected to independent and external
verification. Yet how do historians study and interpret the past and the changes that occurred in
periods during which they have not lived? This takes us to the discussion of sources and
historical methodolgy.

1.2. Sources and Methods of Historical Study

Historians are not creative writers like novelists. Unlike the latter, the work of historians must be
supported by evidence arising from sources. Sources bring to life what appears to have been
dead. Therefore, sources are vital to the study and writing of history.
 Historical sources are broadly classified into two types: primary and secondary. Primary sources
are surviving traces of the past that are available to us in the present. They are original or first
hand in their proximity to the event both in time and space. Examples of primary sources include
manuscripts (handwritten materials), diaries, letters, minutes, inscriptions, chronicles,
hagiographies, court records and administrative files, travel documents, photos, maps,
audiovisual materials, coins, fossils, weapons, utensils, and buildings. Secondary sources, on the
other hand, are second-hand published and unpublished accounts of past events. They are written
after the event has occurred, providing an interpretation of what happened, why it happened, and
how it happened, often based on primary sources. Examples of secondary sources include
articles, books, textbooks, biographies, theses, dissertations, reports and stories or movies about
historical events. Secondary materials give us what appear to be finished accounts of certain
historical periods and phenomena. Nevertheless, no history work can be taken as final, as new
sources keep coming to light. New sources make possible new historical interpretations or
entirely new historical reconstructions.

Oral data constitute the other category of historical sources. Oral sources are especially valuable
for studying and documenting the history of non-literate societies. In many societies, people
transmit information from one generation to another through folk songs, folk sayings, etc. This
type of oral data is called oral tradition. People can also provide oral testimonies of their lived
experiences. Such source material is known as oral history and serves as primary source.

For the history of Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa, historians use a combination of the sources
described above. However, regardless of the source of information —primary or secondary,
written or oral— the data should be subjected to critical evaluation before it is used as evidence.
Primary sources must be verified for their originality and authenticity because sometimes
primary sources like letters may be forged. Secondary sources must be examined for the
reliability of their reconstructions. Oral data may lose originality and authenticity because of
distortion over time and should be cross-checked with other sources to determine credibility.

To conclude, historians must find evidence about the past, ask questions about that evidence, and
come up with explanations that make sense of what the evidence says about the people, events,
places, and the periods they study. Such a scientific examination of evidence is a crucial aspect
of the historical research method.
 1.3. Historiography of Ethiopia and the Horn
Historiography refers to the history of historical writing. It studies how knowledge of the past is
obtained and transmitted and how it has changed over time. The organized study and narration of
the past was introduced by ancient Greek historians, notably Herodotus and Thucydides (c.455-
400 BC). The other major tradition of historical thinking and writing about the past is that of the
Chinese, of which the most important early figure was Sima Qian (145-86 BC). History emerged
as an academic discipline in the second half of the nineteenth century, first in Europe and
subsequently in other parts of the world. The German historian, Leopold Von Ranke (1795-
1886), and his colleagues established history as an independent discipline in Berlin with its own
set of research methods. Ranke’s greatest contribution to the scientific study of the past is such
that he is considered as the “father of modern historiography.”

The historiography of Ethiopia and the Horn has changed enormously during the past century in
ways that merit fuller treatment than can be afforded here. This section explores significant
transformations in the historiography of the region in the twentieth century. This is preceded by a
brief account of earlier forms of historical writing to situate the discussion in context. The
earliest known written source for the history of the region is the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea,
written in the first century by an anonymous author. The Periplus was followed by the Christian
Topography written by Cosmas Indicopleustes, a Greek sailor, in the sixth century.

The earliest written Ethiopian material, excluding inscriptions, dates from the seventh century.
The document, which is in the form of an illustrated manuscript, was found at Abba Gerima
monastery near the town of Adwa. Next in line is a manuscript discovered in Haiq Estifanos
monastery of present-day Wollo in the thirteenth century. The value of manuscripts is essentially
religious, but they also provide insights into the country’s past. The largest groups of sources
available for medieval Ethiopian history are hagiographies originating from the Ethiopian
Orthodox Church. An important function of hagiographies is to enhance the prestige of saints.
Yet, other related anecdotes of historical importance are also included, often in the form of what
are known as marginalia. A parallel hagiographical tradition exists among Muslim communities.
One such account offers tremendous insight into the life of a Muslim saint, Shaykh Ja’far Bukko
of Gattira, in Wollo in the late nineteenth century. In addition to the saint’s life, the document
 discusses the development of indigenous Islam and contacts between the region’s Muslim
community and the outside world.

Furthermore, Ethiopia had an indigenous tradition of history writing called chronicles, composed
by court scribes or clergymen with recognized clerical training and calligraphic skills. The
earliest of these chronicles is The Glorious Victories of Amde-Tsion, and the last is Chronicle of
Abeto fyasu and Empress Zewditu. Chronicles incorporate both legends and facts about the
monarch. Notwithstanding their limitations, chronicles, in conjunction with other sources, can
give us a glimpse into the character and lives of kings, their preoccupations and relations with
subordinate officials, and, to some extent, the evolution of the Ethiopian state and society.

Accounts of Arabic-speaking visitors to the coast also provide useful information on various
aspects of the region’s history. For example, al-Masudi and Ibn Battuta described the culture,
language and import-export trade of the East African coast in the tenth and fourteenth centuries,
respectively. For the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, we have two eyewitness accounts of
Yemeni writers. Shihab al-Din’s Futuh al-Habasha (The Conquest of Abyssinia) recounts the
wars between the Christian kingdom and Adal Sultanate in sixteenth century while Al-Haymi
documented the experience of Yemeni delegation to the court of Fasiledas (r. 1632-67) in 1647.
Another vital contemporary material is Abba Bahrey’s Ge’ez account of the socio-political
organization and movement of the Oromo people written in 1593.

European missionaries and travelers also contributed to the development of Ethiopian

historiography. Examples of such accounts are The Prester John of the Indies, written by the
Portuguese chaplain Francisco Alvarez in the sixteenth century, and James Bruce’s Travels to
Discover the Source of the Nile (in five volumes), written in the eighteenth century. Meanwhile,
a German orientalist, Hiob Ludolf (1624-1704), who is regarded as the founder of Ethiopian
studies as an academic discipline in Europe, wrote Historia Aethiopica (translated into English as
A New History of Ethiopia). The book was largely based on information he collected from an
Ethiopian priest named Abba Gorgorios (Abba Gregory), who was in Europe at that time.

Historical writing made some departures from the chronicle tradition in the early twentieth
century. This period saw the emergence of Ethiopian writers who made conscious efforts to
distance themselves from chroniclers whom they criticized for their adulatory tone when writing

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 about monarchs. The earliest group includes Aleqa Taye Gebre-Mariam, Aleqa Atsme Giorgis
Gebre Mesih and, Debtera Fisseha-Giorgis Abyezgi. Later, Negadrases Afework Gebre-Iyesus,
Gebre-Hiwot Baykedagn, and Blatten geta Hiruy Wolde-Selassie joined them. Unlike
chroniclers, these writers dealt with a range of topics from social justice, administrative reform,
and economic analysis to history. Unfortunately, the Italian occupation of Ethiopia interrupted
this early experiment in modern history writing.

After liberation, Tekle-Tsadik Mekuria served as a bridge between the writers of the pre-1935
period and the subsequent generation of Ethiopian professional historians. He has published
about eight historical works. Another work of importance in the post-Liberation period is Yilma
Deressa’s Yeltyopiya Tarik Be ’asra Sidistegnaw Kifle Zemen (A History of Ethiopia in the
Sixteenth Century'). Blatten geta Mahteme-Selassie Wolde-Meskel, among others, wrote Zikre
Neger, which is a comprehensive account of Ethiopia’s pre-war administration, including the
land tenure system and taxation. Another writer in the same category is Dejjazmach Kebede
Tesema, whose memoir of the imperial period was published as Yetarik Mastawesha in 1962
E.C.

The 1960s was a crucial decade in the development of Ethiopian historiography because it was in
this period that history emerged as an academic discipline. The pursuit of historical studies as a
full-time occupation began with the opening of the Department of History in 1963 at the then
Haile Selassie I University (HSIU). Since then, researches by faculty members and students have
been produced on various topics. The Institute of Ethiopian Studies (IES), the other institutional
home of professional historiography of Ethiopia, was founded in the same year. The Institute
housed a number of historians, of whom the late Richard Pankhurst, the first Director of the
Institute, is worthy of note. Pankhurst’s prolific publication record remains unmatched. The IES
disseminates the results of research findings from diverse disciplines through its journal called
the Journal of Ethiopian Studies, which became the main platform of Ethiopian studies in the
following decades.

The professionalization of history in other parts of the Horn is a post-colonial phenomenon. With
the establishment of independent nations, a deeper interest in exploring their own past quickly
emerged among Africans. With this came an urgent need to recast the historical record and
recover evidence of many lost pre-colonial civilizations. At the same time, European
 intellectuals’ own discomfort with the Euro-centrism of previous scholarship provided for the
intensive academic study of African history, an innovation that developed in both Europe and
North America in the 1960s. Foundational research was conducted at the School of Oriental and
African Studies (SOAS) in London and the Department of History at the University of
Wisconsin-Madison. Francophone scholars were as influential as Anglophone ones. Yet African
historiography was not the creation solely of interested Europeans. African universities trained
their own scholars and sent many others overseas for training, eventually publishing numerous
works on different aspects of the continent’s history.

1.4. Geographical Context

The term “Ethiopia and the Horn” refers to that part of Northeast Africa, which now constitutes
the countries of Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia and Somalia. The region’s history has been shaped by
contacts with others through commerce, migrations, wars, slavery, colonialism, and the waxing
and waning of state systems.

Source: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Political-map-of-the-Horn-of-Africa_figl_353430291

Yet, to a considerable extent, the evolution of human history also owed to geographical factors,
notably drainage systems, topography, and climate. This section briefly describes the impact of
these factors on the way people live and organize themselves.
The region has five principal drainage systems. Flowing from Uganda in the south to the Sudan
in the north, the White Nile meets the Blue Nile (or Abay, as it is known in Ethiopia, that starts
from the environs of Lake Tana) in Khartoum and drains through Egypt into the Mediterranean
Sea. The Awash River System is an entirely Ethiopian system that links the cool rich highlands
of Central Ethiopia with the hot, dry lowlands of the Danakil Depression. The Ethiopian Rift
Valley Lakes System is a self-contained basin that includes a string of lakes stretching from Lake
Ziway in the north to Lake Turkana (formerly known as Rudolf) on the Ethio-Kenyan border.
The Gibe-Gojeb-Omo River System links southwestern Ethiopia to the semi-desert lowlands of
northern Kenya. The Shebele and Genale rivers originate in the Eastern highlands and flow
southeast toward Somalia and the Indian Ocean. Only the Genale (known as the Jubba in
Somalia) flows into the Indian Ocean; the Shebele disappears in the sand just inside the
coastline. These watersheds are crucial in the life and history of the peoples inhabiting the
region. Besides providing people with a source of livelihood, the drainage systems also
facilitated the movement of peoples and goods across diverse environments, resulting in the
exchange of ideas, technology, knowledge, cultural expressions, and beliefs.

Another element of geography that has a profound impact on human history is topography. The
major physiographic features of the region are the massive highland complex of mountains and
plateaus created through the formation of the Great Rift Valley and surrounded by lowlands,
semi-desert, desert, and tropical forests along the periphery. The diversity of the terrain led to
regional variations in climate, natural vegetation, soil composition, and settlement patterns.
Accordingly, Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa can be divided into three major environmental
zones. The vast Eastern lowland covers the narrow coastal strip of northeastern Eritrea, widens
gradually and descends southwards to include much of lowland Eritrea, the Sahel, the Danakil
Depression, the lower Awash valley, and the arid terrain in northeast Djibouti. It then extends to
the Ogaden, the lower parts of Hararghe, Bale, Borana, Sidama, and the whole territory of the
Republic of Somalia. There is little seasonal variation in climatic conditions in this zone. Hot and
dry conditions prevail year-round along with periodic monsoon winds and irregular (little)
rainfall, except in limited areas along the rivers Awash, Wabe-Shebele and Genale (Jubba) that
traverse the region and a few offshore islands in the Red Sea, Gulf of Aden, and Indian Ocean
that are inhabited by people closely related to those of immediate mainland districts. Shrubs and
bush cover much of the lowland territories.
 Immediately to the west of and opposite to the eastern lowland region forms the highland massif
that starts from northern Eritrea and continues all the way to southern Ethiopia. The major divide
between the western and eastern parts of this zone is the Rift Valley.

Further to the west, along the western foothills or on the periphery of the plateau and on
borderlands of the Sudan stretching from north to south are hot lowlands that were characterized
in earlier times by thick forests chiefly on the banks of the Nile and its tributaries.

Yet, peoples of the region were never isolated; they interacted from various locations as far back
as recorded history goes. Thus, as much as there are many factors that make people of a certain
region distinct from the others, there are also commonalities which people shared in the past.
Map 2: Physical Map of Ethiopia

Source: Bahru Zewde (Compiled), A Short History of Ethiopia and the Horn (Addis Ababa University, 1998), p. 9.

Learning Activities
> Discuss the similarities and differences between the two perceptions of history?
> Why is history a subject worth studying?
> What are the different sources of history? How do you evaluate them?
> What is the difference between history and historiography?
> Illustrate how geographical factors shaped human history with examples from the Horn.
 UNIT TWO
PEOPLES AND CULTURES IN ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN (4 HOURS)
2.1. Human Evolution
Human evolution accounts for only a fraction of the history of the globe that had evolved since
circa/c.4.5 billion years before present (BP). The earliest life came into being between 3 and 1
billion years BP. Blue green algae, small plants, fishes, birds and other small beings emerged at
c. 800 million years BP. Primates branched into placental mammal as of 200-170 million years
BP, and then some primates developed into Pongidae (chimpanzee, gorilla, gibbon, orangutan,
baboon...) while others evolved into Hominidae (human ancestors).

Archeological evidence shows that the East African Rift Valley is the cradle of humanity. Pieces
of evidence related to both biological and cultural evolution have been discovered in the Lower
Omo and Middle Awash River valleys by both Ethiopian and foreign scholars. A fossil named
Chororapithecus dated 10 million BP was unearthed in Anchar (in West Hararghe) in 2007.
Ardipithicus kadabba (dated 5.8-5.2 million years BP) was discovered in the Middle Awash.
Ardipithicus ramidus (dated 4.2 million B.P.) was discovered at Aramis in Afar in 1994. Earlier
forms of Australopithecines were uncovered at Belohdelie (dated 3.6 million years BP) in
Middle Awash. A 3-years old child’s fossil termed Australopithecus afarensis, Selam, dated to
3.3 million years BP, was discovered at Dikika, Mille in 2000. Australopithecus afarnesis
(Lucy/Dinkinesh, dated c. 3.18 million years BP) with 40% complete body parts, weighing 30 kg
and with a height of 1.07 meters and a pelvis resembling that of a bipedal female was discovered
at Hadar in 1974 AD.
 Picture 1: the Fossil of Lucy

Source: Bahru Zewde (compiled), A Short History...y. 12.

A fossil named Australopithecus anamensis was discovered around Lake Turkana in 1995. An
eco-fact named as Australopithecus garhi (literally ‘surprise’ in Afar language) dated to 2.5
million years BP was discovered at Bouri in Middle Awash between 1996 and 1999.

The development of the human brain was the main feature of the next stage, which produced the
genus Homo, believed to have emerged 2-2.5 million years BP. A partial skull of a fossil dated
1.9 million years BP and termed Homo habilis, which is derived from the Latin terms “Homo”
(human being) and “Habilis” (skillful use of hands), was found in the Lower Omo. A fossil
named Homo ereclus (walking upright) and with 900-1100 cc brain size, dated 1.6 million years
BP, was discovered at Melka Kunture, Konso Gardula and Gadeb. Homo erectus is said to have
originated in Africa and then spread to the rest of the world. The skeleton of Archaic Homo

12
sapiens (“wise” human being, dated 400,000 years BP) named Bodo and with a brain size of
1300-1400cc was discovered in Middle Awash. Fossils of Homo sapiens sapiens (100,000 years
BP), a sub-species of Homo sapiens were discovered at Pore Epic near Dire Dawa and Kibish
around Lower Omo in 1967. Kibish fossils were re-dated in 2004 to 195,000 BP, the oldest date
in the world for modern Homo sapiens. Homo sapiens idaltu, another sub-species of Homo
sapiens that was found in the Middle Awash in 1997, lived about 160, 000 years BP.

Cultural evolution is related to socio-economic transformations, conventionally grouped into the

Stone, Bronze and the Iron Ages. Stone tools were grouped into Mode I (Oldowan, named based
on the first report at Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania); Mode II (Acheulean, named after the first report
at St. Acheul, France) and Mode III (Sangoon). Mode I tools are characterized by crude and
mono-facial styles, and were produced by direct percussion, i.e. striking the stone directly. Mode
II tools were produced by indirect percussion, i.e. striking the stone via an intermediate tool,
using hand-axe or hammer and were mainly characterized by bifacial, pointed, and convex
features. Mode III tools are characterized by a flexible and refined production form using
obsidian, a black glass-like volcanic rock.

Examples of these tools have been found in the Horn. Fossilized animal bones dating back to 3.4
million years BP were found with stone-tool-inflicted marks (the oldest evidence of stone tool in
the world) at Dikika (in the Afar Region) in 2010. Artifact findings suggest that Oldowan tools
made by Homo habilis were discovered near Gona (2.52 million years BP) in 1992 and at
Shungura, both in the Afar Region. Homo erectus produced Acheulean tools dated 1.7 million
years BP, invented fire and started burial practice. Acheulian tools (aged over 1 million years)
were found at Kella, Middle Awash, in 1963, as well as in Konso. Homo sapiens produced
Sangoon tools that date back up to 300,000 years BP. The Gademotta site in the central
Ethiopian Rift Valley has been dated back to 200,000 BP. Other important sites such as Gorgora,
Ki’one, and Yabello in Ethiopia and Midhidhishi and Gudgud in Somalia have offered
noteworthy information about Stone Age communities.

Stone Age is divided into three sub-periods. The first, the Paleolithic (Old Stone Age, from 3.4
million to 11,000 years BP), was the period when humans developed language, sheltered in
caves, and used stone, bone, wood, fur and skin materials to prepare food and clothing. There
 was a division of labor based on sex and age, whereby the able-bodied males hunted fauna
(animals), and children and females gathered flora (plants). The Mesolithic (Middle Stone
Age/11,000-10,000 BP) was a transition from Paleolithic to Neolithic (New Stone Age/10, 000­
6, 000 BP) periods.

2.2. Neolithic Revolution

During the Neolithic period, human beings transformed from a mobile to sedentary way of life
with a radical shift from hunting and gathering to the domestication of plants and animals.
Climatic change and an increased population of hunters and gatherers resulted in a decline in the
number of animals and the availability of plants. As food gatherers were already aware of the
growing cycle of most grass types, they began to grow those plants that were most common and
yielded more edible seeds. The big animals, which depended on dense bushes for sustenance,
were reduced by hunting and the animals that people could domesticate easily were smaller.

The process of domestication took place independently in various parts of the world. In more
elevated and wetter parts of the Horn, plants like eragrotis teff, dagussa (eleusine coracana), nug
(guzotia'), ensete ventricosum etc. were cultivated. The discovery of polished axes, beads,
ceramics, grinding stones, stone figures and animal remains in Emba-Fakeda around Adigrat in
Tigray as well as Aqordat and Barentu in Eritrea is evidence of Neolithic material culture.
Gobodara rock shelter near Aksum has provided agricultural stone tools. Remains of
domesticated cattle, chickpeas, and vegetables have been excavated from Lalibela Cave on the
southeastern shore of Lake Tana. Stone tools used for cutting grass and rock paintings of tamed
animals have been found at the Laga Oda rock shelter in Chercher. Evidence for domesticated
cattle also comes from around Lake Basaqa near Matahara town. Playa Napata and Kado in the
Sudan, Cyrenaica in Libya and Futajalon in West Africa were among the known places of
domestication of animals like Nidamawa and Zebu (Bos indicus) cattle, which in due course
expanded to Ethiopia and the Horn.

2.3. Peopling of the Region

2.3.1. Languages and Linguistic Processes
There are approximately 90 languages with 200 dialects in Ethiopia and the Horn. Linguists
classify the languages of Ethiopia and the Horn into two major language super families:
Afro-Asiatic: this super family is further sub-divided into the following families:

i^frt^blic t**'*
Ration ,
 > Cushitic:
• Northern: represented by Beja, spoken in northwestern Eritrea bordering the Sudan.
• Central: Agaw, including Awign, Kunfel, Qimant, Hamtanga and Bilen.
• Eastern: Afar, Ale, Arbore, Baiso, Burji, Darashe, Dasanech, Gedeo, Hadiya, Halaba,
Kambata, Konso, Libido, Mosiye, Oromo, Saho, Sidama, Somali, Tambaro,
Tsemai...
• Southern: represented by Dhalo in Kenya and Nbugua in Tanzania.
> Semitic: is divided into:
• North: Ge'ez, Rashaida (spoken around the Eritrea-Sudanese border); Tigre (spoken
in the Eritrean lowlands); Tigrigna (spoken in highland Eritrea and Tigray).
• South:
Z Transverse: Amharic, Argobba, Harari, Silte, Wolane and Zay.
Z Outer: Gafat (extinct) and Gurage.
> Omotic: Anfillo, Ari, Bambasi, Banna, Basketo, Bench, Boro-Shinasha, Chara, Dawuro,
Dime, Dizi, Dorze, Gamo, Ganza, Gayil, Gofa, Hamer, Hozo, Kachama-Ganjule, Karo,
Keficho, Konta, Korete, Male, Melo, Nayi, Oyda, Sezo, Shekkacho, Shekko, Wolayta,
Yem, Zayse, etc.
Nilo-Saharan: Anywa, Berta, Gumuz, Kacipo-Balesi, Komo, Kunama, Kwama, Kwegu,
Majang, Mi'en, Murle, Mursi, Nara, Nu’er, Nyangatom, Opo, Shabo, Suri and Uduk.

Language classification does not remain static. Factors like population movements, warfare,
trade, religious and territorial expansion, urbanization, etc. have resulted in intense linguistic
processes that forced languages to be affected. In this process, some languages died out or have
been in danger of extinction while others thrived over time.

2.3.2. Settlement Patterns

The spatial distribution of people in northeast Africa is the culmination of long historical
processes. Since early times, Cushitic and Semitic peoples have inhabited the area between the
Red Sea in the east and the Blue Nile in the west, from where they have dispersed in different
directions. In due course, the Cushites have evolved to be the largest linguistic group in the Horn
of Africa and have also spread over wide areas from the Sudan to Tanzania. Similarly, the
Semites spread over a large area and eventually settled in the northern, north central,
 northeastern, south central and eastern parts of the Horn. The Semites are the second largest
population, next to the Cushites. Except for the Bambasi and Boro, who live in Benishangul-
Gumuz and Anfillo in Wallaga, most Omotic peoples have inhabited southwestern Ethiopia
along the Omo River basin. Yet, in earlier times, they extended much further to the north. The
Nilotes are largely settled along the Ethio-Sudanese border, although some of the Chari-Nile
family, identified as the Karamojo cluster, inhabited as far as Turkana Lake.

2.3.3. Economic Formations

The domestication of plants and animals gave humanity two interdependent modes of life: arable
and pastoral farming. While there may be pure pastoralists, it is very rare to think of a farmer
without a head of cattle or two. Likewise, in the Horn, these two forms of livelihood have
coexisted and are quite often interrelated. However, topographic features and climatic conditions
largely influenced economic activities in the region.

A predominantly pastoral economy (rearing camel, goat, cattle, etc.) has characterized the
eastern lowlands of Afar, Saho, and Somali as well as Karayu and Borana Oromo. While the
Afar and Karrayu depend on the Awash River, the Somali have owed a great deal to the Wabi
Shebelle and Genale (Jubba) rivers. Most of the highland population (the Cushites, Semites, and
Northern Omotic groups) has been engaged in mixed farming since 10,000 years BP, whereas
southern Omo predominantly practiced pastoralism and fishing. Many Omotic groups were also
engaged in metallurgy, weaving, and other crafts as well as trade. The Nilotes along the Blue
Nile and Baro-Akobo rivers have been shifting cultivators, with sorghum as the staple food.
Millet, cotton, and other crops were also produced in these sparsely populated western lowlands.
Among the majority of Nilotic communities, cattle have high economic and social values,
supplemented with apiculture, fishing and hunting.

2.4. Religion and Religious Processes

2.4.1. Indigenous Religion
This includes various beliefs and practices that have been followed by the people of the region
since ancient times. Its distinctive mark is belief in a Supreme Being, with special powers
attributed to natural phenomena, which are considered sacred. Spiritual functionaries have
officiated rituals and propitiated divinities as intermediaries between society and the spirits.
 Waqeffanna of the Oromo is based on the existence of one Supreme Being called Waqa. Waqa's
power is manifested through Ayyana (spirits), including Abdari (plant fertility spirit), Atete
(animal fecundity spirit), Awayi (sanctity), Balas (victory spirit), Chato (beasts’ defender),
Gijare (father’s and mother’s sprit), Jaricha (peace spirit), Qasa (health deity) and Ekera (dead
ghost residing at Hujuba/grave). At the edge of the ever-flowing river and on the mountain top,
in autumn and spring respectively, the Irrecha (thanksgiving festival) is held. Revered experts
{Qallu (male) and Qallitti (female)) have maintained a link between the Ayyana and believers
through Dalaga (ecstasy) at Galma (ritual house). The Jila/Makkala (delegates) made a
pilgrimage to get the consecration of Abba Muda (anointment father) dwelling at Goro-Fugug,
roving within the southeastern highlands of Ethiopia and the Horn, until c. 1900.

In Hadiya’s Fandanano (original creed), the Supreme Being is known as Wa’a, who is believed
to have created the world (Ooccancho), and whose eyes are denoted by Elincho (sun) and Agana
(moon). Spirits like Jara (male’s protector), Idota (female’s guard), Hawsula and Woriqa
attracted prayers and sacrifices. Some connoisseurs are believed to have the power to bring rain
during drought. The Kambata have had Negita/Aricho Magano (Sky God) and Magnancho
(religious officials). The Gedeo have had Mageno (Supreme Being) and Deraro (thanksgiving
rite). The Konso religion has been centered on worship of Waaq (Wakh). The Gojjam Agaw
called the Supreme Being Diban.

Among the Gurage, there have been Waq/Goita (Supreme Being), Bozha (thunder deity) and
Damwamwit (health goddess). The Yem worshipped Ha’o (Sky God); the So’ala clan was in
charge of Shashokam (the most vital deity), and religious functions were performed through
couriers in each village called Magos. The Konta spirit-cult was called Docho. The Wolayta
called God Tosa and spirits Ayyana, including Tawa-Awa/Moytiliya (father’s spirit dwelling
Dufuwa/grave), Sawuna (justice spirit), Wombo (rain spirit), Micho (goat spirit), Nago (sheep
spirit), Kuchuruwa (emergency spirit), Gomashera (war spirit), Talahiya (Omo spirit), etc. The
Sharechuwa (religious practitioners) have had Becha/Kera Eza Keta (ritual house).

The Keficho called the Supreme Being Yero, the spirit Eqo, and all spirits fathers host Dochi-
nayo (Ibedechino/Ibede-gudeno). Harvest spirit/AYZZo’s sacrifice is Dejo. Earth and area spirits
are known as Showe-kollo and Dude-baro, respectively. There are also local spirits like Channa’s
Damochechi, Sharada ’s Yaferochi, Adio 's Wogidochi, and Gepetato (hill kings) identified by the
Yetecho clan. Dugo clan members led spiritual services.

Among the Boro clans (Enoro, Endiwo and Dowa), supernatural power is called Iqa. Among the
various prayer rituals, Gure shuka is designated for ecological preservation through slaughtering
animals at mountain tops. Shade de’na is slaughtering when an unexpected disease occurs.
Marrowa shuka is slaughtering to prevent children from diseases, for wealth rehabilitation, and
to promote a harmonious life and productivity in the family. Rituals are led by recognized elders.

The Nuer believe in Kuoth Nhial (God in Heaven) coming through rain, lightning and thunder,
and the rainbow is his necklace. Sun, Moon and other entities are also signs of God. There are
also clan spirits such as WiW (spirit of war) associated with thunder.

An interesting feature of indigenous religion is the way in which its beliefs and practices are
fused with Christianity and Islam. This intermixing of religions is known as syncretism.

2.4.2. Judaism
In northern and northwestern Ethiopia, the Bete-Israel (literally, ‘house of Israel’/ Ethiopian
Jews), formerly known as “Falasha,” practiced Haymanot (religious practices different from
Rabbinic Judaism). Many of their accounts trace the origin of the same people from the Dan
Tribe that migrated to Ethiopia led by the sons of Moses during the Exodus (1400-1200 BC).
Others claim they arrived with Menilek I, believed to be the son of King Solomon (r. 974-932
BC) of Israel and Queen Saba (Sheba), also known as Azeb (Makeda). Another group is said to
have arrived in Ethiopia led by persons known as Azonos and Phinhas in the sixth century AD.
Still others are said to have been Jewish immigrants who intermarried with the Agaw groups. On
the other hand, scholars like Taddese Tamrat and Kay Shelmay argue that they are remnants of
Old Testament followers of Orthodox Christianity and local converts, not migrants.

2.4.3. Christianity
Christianity became a state religion in 334 AD during the reign of King Ezana (r. 320-360), who
dropped pre-Christian gods like Ares (the war god), Arwe (serpent-python god), Bahir (sea god)
and Midir (earth god), and embraced Christianity. Instrumental in the conversion were two
Syrian brothers, Aedesius and Frementius (Fremnatos). When Fremnatos (also known as Kasate
Birhane or Abba Salama) visited Alexandria, Patriarch Atnatewos (328-373) appointed him as
the first Bishop of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church (EOC). The consecration of bishops by the
Coptic Church continued until 1959, when Abune Basilios became the first Ethiopian Patriarch.

Christianity was expanded among the mass of the people during the reign of Ella Amida II (478­
86) by the Nine Saints, who came mostly from different regions of the Byzantine Empire. The
saints built several churches, such as Debre Damo, and translated the Holy Bible and other
spiritual texts into Ge’ez. The expansion of Christianity continued and gained fresh momentum
during the Zagwe dynasty (1150-1270) and the early medieval period (1270-1527), when many
churches and monasteries were constructed. These churches and monasteries are not mere
religious centers, but have served as repositories of ancient manuscripts and precious objects of
art throughout the ages.

The Jesuits attempted to convert EOC to Catholicism from the mid-sixteenth to the early
seventeenth centuries, which Taddesse calls “evangelizing the evangelized.” However, this led to
bloody anti-Catholic rebellions and civil war that directly led to the expulsion of the Jesuits in
1632. Missionaries’ religious expansion was one of the dominant themes of the treaties
concluded between European diplomats and Ethiopian authorities in the nineteenth century. The
Catholic Giuseppe Sapeto (founder of the Lazarist mission), Giustino De Jacobis (founder of the
Capuchin order) and Cardinal Massaja were the more prominent ones. The Anglican Church
Missionary Society (ACMS), Church Missionary Society of London (CMSL), and Wesleyan
Methodist Society led by Gobat, Isenberg and Krapf introduced and expanded Protestantism.

2.4.4. Islam
When the Prophet Muhammad started preaching Islam in Makkah in 610 AD, he faced
opposition from the Quraysh rulers. To avoid persecution, he sent some of his early followers to
Aksum. The first group of refugees was led by Jafar Abu Talib. In his advice to his followers, the
Prophet described the Ethiopian ruler as “...a king under whom none are persecuted. It is a land
of righteousness, where God will give you relief from what you are suffering.” The then
Aksumite king, Armah Ella Seham/Ashama b. Abjar (Ahmed al-Nejash in Arabic sources), duly
gave them asylum. When the Quraysh leaders asked him to repatriate the refugees, Armah is said
to have replied, “If you were to offer me a mountain of gold I would not give up these people
who have taken refuge with me.”

Subsequently, Islam spread to the Horn by peaceful means, including trade. Islam was well
established in the Alalay (Dahlak) Islands on the Red Sea by the beginning of the eighth century.
The Muslim community on the islands developed a sultanate that predominantly influenced
pastoral communities of the coastal areas in the early tenth century. However, the Dahlak route
played a minor role in the spread of Islam into the interior as Christianity was strongly
entrenched in Aksum and the successor states of northern Ethiopia. Thus, the port of Zeila on the
western coast of the Gulf of Aden served as an important gateway for Islam, which was firmly
established in the coastal areas by the eighth and ninth centuries. From there, it radiated to the
eastern, northeastern, central and southern parts of the Horn through the agency of Muslim
clerics who followed in the footsteps of traders. A religious leader by the name of Sheikh
Hussein played a vital role in Islam’s expansion into Bale, Arsi and other southeastern parts of
the Hom. Another Islamic center in Bale is the Sof Umar cave. Harar also played a pivotal role
in the expansion of Islamic learning. Islam was introduced into Somali territories through the
Indian Ocean coasts of Benadir (Mogadishu, Brava and Merca) in the eighth century. Mosques
and other centers became the depositories of cultures, traditions and literature of the local
Muslims.

Learning Activities
> Why has Lucy attracted more attention from the world than other human remains?
> Discuss the salient features of the three species of the Homo family.
> List major developments in the three Stone Ages.
> Clarify the link between hunting and taming animals, and gathering and plant
domestication.
> Explain the relation between domestication of plants and animals, and early civilizations.
> What are the major categories of language families in the Horn?
> Describe the geographical distribution of languages in the region.
> Explain how the study of language can be useful in understanding cultures and societies.
> Identify the commonalities among the indigenous religions of Ethiopia and the Horn.
> Discuss the role of trade and religion in relations between the peoples of the Hom.
 UNIT THREE
POLITICS, ECONOMY AND SOCIETY IN ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN
TO THE END OF THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY (6 HOURS)
3.1. Emergence of States
State refers to an autonomous political unit with population, defined territory, sovereignty and
government with power to decree and enforce laws. States arose independently in different
regions and at various times. The first states were theocratic states, with priests (shaman)
overseeing the social and religious affairs of their people. As production became market-
oriented, the priests were gradually replaced by chiefs, who began collecting regular and
compulsory tributes known as protection payments with which they maintained themselves and
their supporters, chiefly the army, the bureaucracy, and other followers.

One important factor in the emergence of states was the beginning of sedentary agriculture.
People had to descend from mountainsides to build houses near cultivated plots, fencing both
farming fields and residences, and harvested crops had to be stored and protected from humidity
and rodents. Families preferred to live together, forming larger communities for better security
and to help each other in the hard work involved. Using sticks or hoes for planting was steadily
replaced by ox-drawn plough which resulted in surplus production. Farming communities
exchanged their products with better woven clothes and tools from artisans who specialized in
the production of these items. Gradually, intermediaries (traders) began to buy the products of
both parties and take them to predetermined places or markets for exchange. Thus, states were
formed mainly through the expansion of agriculture, which greatly contributed to the
specialization of labor. Furthermore, the growth of trade facilitated the development of states.

Ethiopia and the Horn is one of the regions in Africa where early state formation took place.
From small beginnings, such states gradually developed into powerful kingdoms and even
empires with a well-demarcated social structure. Geographical proximity to and control of
international water bodies like the Red Sea, Gulf of Aden and Indian Ocean along with their
ports as well as rich interior favored some of them to become stronger than their neighbors and
to eventually dominate them.
 3.2. Ancient States
3.2.1. North and Northeast
Punt
Punt is the earliest recorded state in Ethiopia and the Horn. The evidence for Punt comes from
Egyptian hieroglyphic writings, accompanied by vivid paintings that describe a series of naval
expeditions that the Egyptian Pharaohs dispatched to the area. Pharaoh Sahure (r. 2743-2731
BC) sent an expedition to collect myrrh, ebony and electrum (gold and silver alloy). During the
reign of Pharaoh Asosi, the treasurer of God Bawardede took the dancing dwarf (“dink”) from
Punt to Egypt. The best described and illustrated expedition was undertaken during the reign of
Queen Hatshepsut/Hashepsowe (1490-1468 BC). She sent five ships under the leadership of the
black Nubian Captain Nehasi via Wadi-Tumilat. The expedition was warmly welcomed by the
King of Punt, Perehu, and his wife, Ati. The expedition returned to Egypt, collecting
frankincense, sweet-smelling woods, leopard and leopard skins, ostrich feathers and eggs, live
monkeys and giraffes etc. Hatshepsut presented some of the items to her god, Amun. Because of
the spiritual importance of its exports, Punt was also known as the Khebis of the Ta Netjeru
(“divine or ghosts’ land”). In return, axes, daggers, swords, knives, sickles, clothes, bracelets,
necklaces, and other trinkets were imported from Egypt to Punt.

Scholars have not reached agreement on the exact location of Punt. Looking at the varieties of
incense and myrrh, some scholars suggested northern or northeastern Somalia while others
pointed to Northern Ethiopia because of references to gold, ebony and monkeys. The latter
reinforce their assertion by saying that, at that early period, Egyptian sailboats were not strong enough
to pass through the Strait of Bab-el Mandeb (Gate of Tears) into the Gulf of Aden and the Indian
Ocean. Considering these two suggestions, some others argue that it probably stretched from
Swakim or Massawa to Babel Mandeb and Cape Guardafui.

Da’amat
Da’amat had its center a little to the south of Aksum. The kings of Da’amat used the politico­
religious title Mukarib. Various gods and goddesses like Almonqah (principal god), Astater
(Venus god), Na’uran (light god), Shamsi (sun god) and Sin (moon god) were worshipped in
Da’amat and other pre-Aksumite cultural centers, similar to South Arabia at the time.
Among the major cultural centers in northern Ethiopia and Eritrea were:
> Yeha: is located 30 km northeast of Aksum and was the oldest of these centers. It
probably emerged c.1000 BC as an emporium where South Arabian merchants stored
commodities coming from the interior. Its zenith was from 750 to 500 BC. Remains of
walls, stone masonry, a temple that is still standing and inscriptions indicate its glory.
> Hawulti Melazo: is located to the southeast of Aksum, where stone tablets inscribed in a
rectangular temple surrounded by a wall with paintings denoting herds of cattle have
been excavated.
> Addi-Seglemeni: is 10 kms southwest of Aksum, from where a stone slab is fetched and
the oldest Ethiopian monumental inscription is discovered.

There were also other centers like Addi Gelemo, Addi Grameten, Addi Kewih, Atsbi Dera,
Feqiya, Hinzat, Sefra, Senafe, and Tekonda, etc.

The Aksumite State

The nucleus of the Aksumite state was formed in a small area comprising Aksum town and its
environs c. 200-100 BC. In its heyday, it extended from the Red Sea coast in the east to the
western edge of the plateau overlooking the Nile Valley in the west and from the northern corner
of Eritrea in the north to northern Shewa in the south. According to the Periplus of the
Erythraean Sea, Adulis on the western coast of the Red Sea was the major port of Aksum. The
long distance trade routes from Adulis and other posts on the Red Sea coast passed inland
through such centers as Kaskasse, Coloe, Matara, and even further west across the Takaze River.
The document also mentioned ports of the Aden (Eudaemon) Gulf like Avalites (Zeila) and
Malao (Berbera), and the Indian Ocean coasts of Benadir like Serapion (Moqadishu), Nicon
(Brava) and Merca. The Aksumite export items included ivory, emerald, spices (like ginger,
cassia and cinnamon), rhinoceros horns, hippopotamus hides, tortoise shells and curiosity
animals like apes. In return, Aksum imported a variety of manufactured products like garments
and textiles from Egypt, Italy, India, and Persia; glassware and jewelry from Egypt and other
places; metallic sheets, tools or utensils of various kinds, oil and wine from Italy and Syria. The
document also mentioned Zoscales’, king of Aksum (c. 76-89), and his acquaintance with the
Greek language, the lingua franca of the Greco-Roman world.
 The Adulis Inscription written in Greek about an unknown king was published in Christian
Topography, which in turn describes commercial activities of the Red Sea areas, and internal
long distance trade between Aksum and Sasu, located most probably in Beni Shangul and the
adjoining lands beyond the Blue Nile. A caravan of close to 500 merchants, some of them special
agents of Aksumite kings, would take cattle, salt blocks and iron to Sasu in exchange for gold.
Yet, as they did not speak each other’s language, and did not even trust to be near and see each
other to bargain through gestures, the whole exchange was done silently from a distance.

The Aksumite ships were the main means of transportation from the first to the seventh centuries
AD. Aksum was the only town with sufficient sources of timber for shipbuilding with its
technology in Adulis. Aksum had a large fleet of ships, which was used not only for trade but
also for its military campaigns across the Red Sea. Aksumite kings like Aphilas, Endybis,
Ousanas II etc. minted coins from gold, silver and bronze for both local and overseas
transactions from the third to the seventh centuries.

The Aksumite kings had extensive contacts, notably with South Arabia, leading to the exchange
of ideas, material and spiritual culture. Sometimes such contacts involved conflicts. One of these
took place c. 200 AD, when peoples in the Southern Arabian Peninsula in present-day Yemen
had difficulties in defending themselves from the army of the Aksumite king, Gadarat. Kaleb (r.
500-35) expanded Aksum’s overseas territories beyond Himyar and Saba, but a local prince
Dhu-Nuwas, who was converted to Judaism, killed many Christians in Zafar and Nagran. The
Byzantine Emperor/Vasaliev Justinian (r. 527-65), with the blessing of Patriarch Timit III (518­
38), provided Kaleb with ships to transport armies led by Julianos and Nonossus against Dhu
Nuwas, who was defeated.. Kaleb then appointed Abraha as his viceroy in Arabia and he
continued to rule until his death in 570 AD. It was during the reign of Kaleb’s son and successor
Gabra Masqal (r. 535-48) that the famous composer Yared developed the Ethiopian Orthodox
Church liturgical songs and hymns.

The decline of the Aksumite state was commenced in the late seventh century. It is primarily
attributed to the disruption of its international and domestic trade network, the devastation of
the port of Adulis in 702 AD by the Muslim Arabs, ecological degradation, decreased
agricultural productivity, and possibly plague outbreaks. Its economic decline led to the decline
of its political and military prowess not only on the Red Sea coast but also in its interior, where
its administrative control was challenged by rebellions of the Beja and the Queen of Bani al
Hamwiyah, more popularly known as Gudit (Yodit).

Zagwe Dynasty (c. 1150 to 1270)

After its decline, the center of Aksumite state shifted southwards to the Kubar rural highland in
the territory of the Agaw. Agaw elites had been actively integrated in the Aksumite state
structure, serving as soldiers and functionaries for at least four centuries. Accordingly, the Agaw
prince Merra Teklehaimanot married Masobe Worq, the daughter of the last Aksumite king, Dil
Na'od. Later, he overthrew his father-in-law and took power, which marked the beginning of
Zagwe rule. The Zagwe Dynasty ruled from its center in Bugna District in Wag and Lasta, more
exactly at Adafa near Roha (Lalibela). It administered a realm corresponding to much of today’s
Eritrea and northern and central Ethiopia, extending southwards to Lasta and Wag as well as to
Damot, and thence westwards to Begemider. Merra-Teklehaimanot’s successors include
Yimirahana Kirstos, Harbe, Lalibela, Ne'akuto La'ab, and Yetbarek.

The Agaw rulers renewed trade contact with the eastern Mediterranean region. The most
important export items included slaves, ivory and rare spices, while cotton, linen, silver and
copper vessels, various types of drugs, and newly minted coins were imported. The Zagwe
period was marked by the production of paintings and the translation of some religious works
from Arabic into Ge'ez. However, Zagwe rulers are best known for the construction of the
famous monolithic churches of Lalibela. The idea behind the collection of 11 churhces was to
replicate the Holy Land in Ethiopia. By constructing these churches, Zagwe rulers wanted to
establish the second Jerusalem, and mitigate or even avoid the difficulties that Ethiopian
piligrims encountered in their journey to the Holy Land.

The Zagwe Dynasty came to an end due to internal problems of royal succession and opposition
from a group claiming descent from the ancient rulers of Aksum. The latter considered the
Zagwe kings “illegitimate rulers” or usurpers. The allegation was based on the legend of the
Queen of Sheba, whose journey to Jerusalem to visit King Solomon had resulted in the birth of a
son, Menilek I, the founder of the so-called “Solomonid” dynasty. The story was documented in
a book known as Kebre-Negest (‘Glory of Kings’). The book was translated from Coptic to
Arabic and then into Ge’ez. According to the legend, the “Solomonid” Dynasty ruled the
Aksumite state until power was “usurped” by the Zagwes. Yekunno-Amlak (r. 1270-1285), who
claimed descent from the last Aksumite King, Dil Na'od, assisted by the ecclesiastical hierarchy,
organized his forces and defeated and killed the last king of Zagwe, Yetbarek, in Gayint. He took
power and proclaimed the “restoration” of the “Solomonid” Dynasty.

3.2.2. East, Central, Southern, and Western States

3.2.2.1. Bizamo, Damot, Enarya, and Gafat
Bizamo: was a kingdom on the southern bend of the Abay River just opposite to the present
region of Gojjam and around Wembera. It was founded in the eighth century and had early
connections with Damot.

Damot: was a strong kingdom that expanded its territories into most of the lands to the south of
Abay and north of Lake Turkana as well as to the west of the Awash River and east of the
Didessa River. Motalami was a prominent king of Damot in the thirteenth century.

Enarya: was a kingdom in the Gibe region in southwestern Ethiopia. The royal clan was
Hinnare Bushasho (Hinnario Busaso). Enarya’s kingship was deemed divine: the king (Hinnare-
Tato) was secluded and considered sacred. He communicated with visitors through an
intermediary, Afe-Busho. Real power rested with the Mikretcho (council), including Awa-rasha
(king's spokesperson) and Atche-rasha (royal treasurer). The kings had residences in Yadare and
Gowi. The Aksumite King, Digna-Jan, is said to have led a campaign into Enarya, accompanied
by Orthodox Christian priests carrying tabotat (singular tabot, also called tsellat, replica of the
Ark of the Covenant) in the ninth century.

Gafat: historically, Gafat’s territory lies south of the Blue Nile River on the southwestern
periphery of the Christian Kingdom, adjoining Damot. It is not clear from the available records
whether Gafat formed a “state” or not, but the Gafat mountains provided a rich source of gold.
Despite efforts by Christian evangelists, the people of Gafat largely remained practitioners of
their own indigenous religion. As of the early medieval period, Gafat was paying tribute to the
Christian Kingdom mainly in cattle, which came from six districts, among which Gambo and
Shat are Gafat clan names. Gafat’s rulers bore the title of awalamo.
 3.2.2.2. Muslim Sultanates
With the spread of Islam since the beginning of the eighth century, viable Muslim communities
and states had been established in several locations, especially along the main trade routes from
Zeila and its many branches penetrating the interior. These states include:
Shewa: Makhzumi Khalid ibn al-Walid, who claimed decent from Meca, founded the
Makhzumite Sultanate on the northeastern foothills of Shewa in 896 AD (283 AH).
Fatagar: was founded around Minjar, Shenkora and Ada’a in the eleventh century. It was a hilly
lowland area with thoroughly cultivated fields of wheat and barley, fruits, and extensive grazing
grounds full of numerous herds of cattle, sheep and goats.
Dawaro: was located south of Fatagar between the upper waters of Awash and Wabi-Shebelle,
extending to Chercher in the northeast and Gindhir in the southeast. Dawaro had a currency
called hakuna for conducting commercial transactions.
Bali: was an extensive land occupying high plateau, separating the basins of Shebelle River and
the Rift valley lakes. It was separated from Dawaro by the Wabi-Shebelle River and extended
southwards to the Gannale Dirre River. It had a strong army composed of cavalry and
infantry. Trade was mainly based on barter, exchanging cattle, sheep, cloth, etc.
Ifat: its territory ran from Afar plain to the Awash River. It was established by Umar Walasma,
who claimed descent from the Hashemite clan of the Prophet, and came from Arabia between
1271 and 1285. He intervened between the quarrelsome Makhzumite princes, Dil-Marrah and
Dil-Gamis, weakened and annexed the Shewan sultanate. The sultanate was fertile and well
watered. Its inhabitants earned their living from the cultivation of wheat, sorghum, millet and
teff, and animal husbandly. Sugarcane, bananas, a variety of fruits, beans, squash, cucumbers and
cabbage consisted of their diet. Khat was used for the first time as a stimulant in Ifat.
Mogadishu: Abu Bakr Ibn Fukura al Din Sahil established the Moqadishu Sultanate c.1269.
Others: mutually independent states like Arababani (between Hadiya and Dawaro), Biqulzar,
Dera (between Dawaro and Bale), Fadise, Gidaya, Hargaya, Harla, Kwilgora, Qadise, Sharkah
(West of Dawaro and North of Bale in Arsi) and Sim also flourished.
3.3. External Contacts
Ethiopia had contacts with Egypt since at least 3,000 BC. It also had very close relations with all
commercially active South Arabian kingdoms starting before 1,000 BC. However, the rapid
expansion and eventual control of the Muslim Arabs over the Near and Middle East, North
Africa and the Nile valley led to the decline of Aksumite trade routes and shipping lines.
Successive Egyptian sultans used the consecration and sending of a bishop as an instrument to
further their own foreign policy objectives and squeeze concessions from Ethiopian Christian
rulers, who reacted by threatening to divert the Abbay River. The coming to power of the
Mamluks was followed by the reciprocal persecution of religious minorities. Moreover, the
Mamluk presented a barrier to contacts between Christian Ethiopia and European states.

However, the tradition of visiting holy places in the Middle East began at the end of the first
millennium AD. Ethiopian Christian pilgrims used the land route to Egypt and from Cairo to the
Holy land. As a result, there were considerable numbers of Ethiopian Christian communities in
Egyptian monasteries, holy places in Palestine and Armenia, and Italian city-states in subsequent
centuries. These communities served as an important link between the Ethiopian Christian
Kingdom and Europe. When pilgrims met their fellow Christians in these holy places, they
transmitted information about the EOC’s unique liturgical practices and the territorial extent of
the Christian Kingdom.

From this information, a myth about a very rich and powerful Christian ruler known as “Prester
John” began to circulate in Europe around the middle of the twelfth century, when the balance of
the Wars of the Crusade (1095-1291) fought over Jerusalem between the Christians of Europe
and the Muslims of the Middle East was tilted in the latter’s favor. A letter addressed to
European kings, thought to have been sent by the “Prester John,” appeared in Europe in 1165.
The geographical location of the country of the “Prester John” was not accurately known in
Europe for over a century. Ultimately, Europeans began to regard the Ethiopian Christian
Kingdom as the true land of “Prester John” because it was seen as the most powerful Christian
kingdom between the Red Sea and the Indian sub-continent. Then, they began to search for its
exact location to form a Christian alliance against the Muslim powers.

3.4. Economic Formations

Agriculture and Land Tenure System
The mainstay of these early states’ economy was agriculture. Mastery of irrigation technology
contributed to the growth of agricultural production. Small valley wetlands were drained for dry
season cultivation that provided essential grains before the main upslope harvest became
available. The people used diverse soil fertility enhancement strategies like manuring,
composting and spreading residues as well as fallowing, crop rotation, intercropping and contour
plowing. In times of labor shortage, farmers also developed teamwork.
The rules according to which members of the society hold, share, and use the land constitute
what is known as the land tenure system. The most ancient system, which survived in many parts
of the Horn, is the communal land tenure, which is a group right to the land of the community to
which the individual belonged. In the northern part of the Horn, rist was the birth right to land by
members of the kin or lineage, whose ancestors had settled in the area over a long period. It was
inherited from generation to generation. The bale-rist (rist owners) paid tribute through a
complex hierarchy of state functionaries, who were given gult right over the areas and
populations they administered on behalf of the central government. Gult is the right to levy
tribute on the produce of rist owners. The tribute collected by bale-gults was partly allotted for
their own upkeep and the rest was sent to the imperial court. Gult right that became hereditary is
known as riste-gult, whereby officials transfer their position to their offspring.
Handicraft
The conditions of ancient states allowed the emergence of artisans in various fields. Metal
workers produced javelins, bows, traps, slings, shields, slashes, machetes, hatchets etc.
Carpenters were engaged in carving wood implements like stools, mortars, beams, yoke, stilt,
coffins, etc. Potters produced ceramic utensils like saucepan, jars, kettles, granaries etc. Tanners
produced leather tools used for bed covers, saddles, harnesses, sacks... and clothes until they
were replaced by weavers’ cotton dresses. However, except for the carpenters and in some cases
masons, artisans were mostly despised and marginalized. The public attitude towards artisans
was not at all encouraging. The ruling elites mostly spent their wealth on imported luxurious
items rather than domestic technology although they were not actively engaged in importing
foreign technological knowledge. Consequently, locally produced agricultural implements and
house furniture did not show any significant improvement or sophistication.

Trade
The political centers of early states seem to have also been major trade centers with wide-ranging
contacts in various directions within the region and with merchants coming to the area across the
international water bodies. A network of roads connected the centers with the coast and various
dependencies in the interior. Local and international merchants frequented these roads. The
regular flow of trade was vital to the states as they obtained considerable income from it. Hence,
one of their major concerns was to protect the trade routes and make them safe from robbers.

3.5. Socio-cultural Achievements

Architecture
As the states expanded, architecture also began to flourish, and one of the unique architectural
technologies was the carving of stelae (singular stela/stele). There were a total of 58 stelae in and
around Aksum that can be grouped into well-made, half-completed and megaliths (not hewn).
According to traditions, the stelae were engraved at Gobodara, from where they were transported
and planted in Aksum and its environs in the third century AD. The longest of the stelae, which
now lies broken on the ground, measures 33m tall (the first in the world). It is highly decorated
on all of its four sides and represents a-14 storied building with many windows and a false door
at the bottom, and bears pre-Christian symbols (disc and crescent/half-moon) at the top. Scholars
suggest that it was broken while people were trying to erect it. The second stele measures 24m
tall, and represents a ten-storied building with many windows and a false door at the bottom. It
was taken to Rome in 1937 by the invading Italians and was restored only in 2005. The third
measures 21 meters, and represents a nine-storied building with many windows and a false door
at the bottom that is smooth at its backside and with no decoration.
Picture 2: The third tallest Aksumite Stele
Zagwe architecture used softer material like sandstone, which was cut and shaped all round,
except the floor, in various delicately decorated churches. These were of three types:
1. Cave: with some decoration inside, almost similar to a natural cave, e.g. Bete Meskel.
2. Semi-hewn: with detailed interior decoration and partial exterior decoration. Their roofs or
walls are still attached to the surrounding rock, eg. Bete Denagil, Bete Debresina (Mikael), Bete
Golgota, Bete Merqoriwos, Bete Gabri’el-Rufa’el, and Bete Abba Libanos.
3. Monolithic: detailed interior and exterior decoration being completely carved out from
surrounding rock, e.g. Bete Amanuel, Bete Giyorgis, Bete Mariyam and Bete Medhanialem.

The Zagwe churches were registered by UNESCO as part of world cultural heritage in 1978, two
years before that of the Aksumite monuments. Among these churches, Bete Medhanelem is the
largest and Bete Giyorgis the most finely built in the shape of the cross.

Source: https://hasanjasim.online.
Writing System
The Sabean language had an alphabet written from left to right and right to left alternatively. The
earliest Sabean inscriptions in Eritrea and Ethiopia date to the ninth century BC. The early
Sabean inscriptions had no vowels as most of the words were written in consonants. For
instance, Da’amat was described as D’mt, while its successive kings were written as RDM, RBH
and LMN with their title as mlkn. However, variants of the script arose, evolving into Ge'ez

31
 script (an alpha syllabary) direction after the seventh and sixth centuries BC. “Ge’ez alphabet”,
an abjad (26 consonant letters only) written left-to-right with letters identical to the first-order
forms of vocalized alphabet arose by the first century AD. Vocalized letters in Wazeba’s coin
had existed 30 or so years before the first completely vocalized Ezana’s trilingual (Greek,
Sabean and Ge'ez) inscriptions of c. 330 AD. The process was developed under the influence of
Christian scripture by adding vocalic diacritics for vowels (u, i, a, e, a, o) to consonants in a
decipherable but slightly irregular way so that it is laid out as a syllabary. This indigenous
writing system has made an immense contribution to the development of literature and art.

Calendar
People needed to know and remember the times when the rains would begin and end as well as
the rise and fall of the water level. The responsibility of understanding these vital climatic cycles
required expertise. In due course, calendars were invented, developed and adopted among
various peoples of the Horn; in most cases, the length of the month was based on the movement
of the moon or the apparent movement of the sun.

Oromo calendar has been based on astronomical observations of the moon in conjunction with
seven specific stars called Urjii Dhahaa (guiding stars consisting of Lemi, Busan, Algajima,
Bakkalcha, Arba Gaddu, Walla and Besa). There are 29.5 dates in a month and 354 days in 12
months of a year. It has been suggested that pillars (dated 300BC) that were discovered in
northwestern Kenya from 1978-86 by Archaeologists Lynch, Robbins and Doyl represent sites
used to develop the Oromo calendar. In connection with this, an Oromo named Waqlim is said to
have taken the art of shaping phallic bowls to Zimbabwe c. 900AD.

The Sidama calendar rotates following the movements of stars with 13 months a year, 12 of
which are divided equally into 28 days while the thirteenth month has 29 days. The Sidama week
has 4 days (Dikko, Dela, Qawado and Qawalanka) and each month has 7 weeks. The nominated
Mote (King) is presented to the public at Fiche Chambalala, the New Year ritual, and the
ceremony is known as qetela or popular demonstration.

The Ethiopian solar calendar has 12 months of 30 days plus 5 or 6 (the latter occurring every 4
years) epagomenal days. This thirteenth month is known as Pagume. A gap of 7-8 years between
the Ethiopic and Gregorian calendars results from alternative calculation in determining the date
of Annunciation. Accordingly, the first day of the year, 1 Meskerem (Enkutatash) is usually on
Seprtember 11 (Gregorian), or on September 12 in years before the Gregorian leap year.

The Muslim (Islamic) calendar is a lunar calendar consisting of 12 months in a year of 354 or
355 days. It starts counting from the Hijra year of 622 AD, when Prophet Muhammad and his
followers fled from Makkah to Medina. Dates in this era are hence denoted AH (After Hijra, “in
the year of the Hijra’j. The years before the Hijra are reckoned as BH (“Before the Hijra”).

Numerals
Ge'ez numerals comparable to those of the Hebrew, Arabic and Greek appeared at the beginning
of fourth century AD. However, they lack characters for 100 multiples. Numbers are over- and
underlined in typesetting to create single bar that some less sophisticated fonts cannot render.

Learning Activities
> Undertake research on ancient states addressing the questions: what, where, when, why,
how and by whom.
> Explain role of agriculture and trade in the formation and consolidation of ancient states.
> Assess importance of Christianity and Islam in the cultural life of ancient states.
> Discuss the various hypotheses on the location of Punt.
> What did the states of Punt and Aksum have in common?
> Explicate the origin, growth, and outstanding cultural achievements of Aksumite state.
> Elucidate internal and external factors for the decline and fall of the Aksumite kingdom.
> What were the major reasons that led King Lalibela to construct rock-hewn churches?
> What is the significance of the legend of Queen of Sheba in Ethiopian politics?
> What factors brought the Zagwe dynasty to an end?
> Explain the role of trade and trade routes in the interactions between peoples and states.
> Sketch the major trade routes that linked northern and southern Ethiopia and the Horn
with the outside world.
> Clarify how Ethiopian societies were influenced by contact with the outside world while
concurrently influencing external societies with whom they had contacts.
 UNIT FOUR
POLITICS, ECONOMY AND SOCIETY FROM THE LATE THIRTEENTH TO THE
BEGINNING OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURIES (4 HOURS)
4.1. The “Restoration” of the “Solomonid”1 Dynasty
The Zagwe dynasty was overthrown in 1270 by a powerful force that combined military,
economic, and ideological resources. Yekunno-Amlak, a contender from Amhara, about whose
origin and early career very little is known, launched a series of military campaigns from Lasta
to Gayint, ultimately defeating Yetbarek, the last Zagwe king. Relatively quiet politically and
militarily, the Zagwe rulers were unable to resist, much less control, Yekunno-Amlak’s military
power base in Shewa, which had grown rich by diverting trade away from traditional routes
through Lasta.

In the dominant ideological narrative of the “Solomonids”, the Zagwe dynasty was cast as the
“usurper” of the royal throne of the ancient kingdom of Aksum, despite its promotion of
Christianity and adherence to Aksumite secular culture. The Kibre Negest (“The Glory of the
Kings”), the foundational myth of the Christian kingdom of Ethiopia, claims that Ethiopian
rulers have descended from the ancient rulers of Aksum and beyond that from King Solomon
and the Queen of Sheba. This has been constantly evoked to delegitimize the Zagwe and
legitimize the “Solomonid” dynasty. Taking the reign of Yekunno-Amlak (r. 1270-85) as the
starting point of the “restoration” of the ancient “Solomonid” dynasty of Aksum, the legend
essentially binds Ethiopia with the Judeo-Christian tradition.

4.2. Internal Political Conflict

The formative years of the “Solomonids” were chacterized by two vexing challenges:
establishing a consistent modality of succession to the throne and formulating an effective
policy for regulating Christian-Muslim relations in Ethiopia. As the emperors practiced
polygamy and arranged political marriages between their offspring(s) and those of the tributary
kings and provincial nobilities, intrigues were rife even before the demise of a reigning

'The term “Solomonid” is enclosed in quotation marks to signify that the rulers who purportedly trace their
lineage back to King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba lack historical evidence to support their claims. The same
also applies to "restoration" of the dynasty, and the accusation levelled against the Zagwe dynasty as "usurper".
These terms are loaded with the ideological narrative of the “Solomonid” claimants.
monarch. For instance, such crises of succession erupted following the death of Yekunno-
Amlak (1285) and his son and successor, Yegba-Tsion (r. 1285-94).

To prevent a similar future power struggle between potential heirs, a "royal prison" was
established at Amba Gishen, in Wollo, commissioned by Widim-Ra’ad (r. 1299-1314). The
fortress served the intended purpose from the thirteenth century until it fell to Imam Ahmed ibn
Ibrahim al-Ghazi’s army in 1540. This flat-topped mountain fortress, with its steep sides,
accessible only through a heavily guarded entrance, became the residence of the sons of
monarchs, their immediate predecessors, and other princes, providing them with all kinds of
amenities befitting their royal status. According to a fifteenth century manuscript, by the middle
of the same century, 590 descendants of sovereigns were sequestered at Amba Gishen.

4.3. Power Consolidation and Spatial Extension

When Yekunno-Amlak ascended the throne in 1270, the Christian kingdom had already
expanded its territory to a large portion of present-day Eritrea, northern, northwesteren and
central Ethiopia. However, it had no control east of the Shewan plateau, a territory increasingly
occupied by such Muslim states as Ifat and Hadiya. Moreover, there were other political entities
of various sizes, including the kingdom of the Ethiopian Jews, the kingdom of Gojjam, the
kingdom of Damot, and Muslim principalities along the coast from the Dahlak archipelago in
the Red Sea to the Somali settlement of Brava on the coast of the Indian Ocean.

Upon becoming king, Amde-Tsion (r. 1314-44) embarked on two major projects: solidifying the
power of the “Solomonid” dynasty in the Christian provinces, and enlarging the kingdom by
conquering other political units. His efforts to consolidate power were resisted by governors
seeking to strengthen their own positions at the expense of the central authority. Amde-Tsion
dealt with the pressing internal problem by successfully suppressing politically motivated
revolts, particularly in the northern region of Enderta. In the immediate aftermath of the
suppression of the revolts, he reorganized the rebellious provinces into smaller, more easily
governable units led by trusted governors, backed and controlled by strategically placed
imperial garrisons.

Under Amde-Tsion, the Christian kingdom saw rapid expansion, with no parallel in medieval
Ethiopian history. The emperor marched south and successfully conquered the vast kingdoms of
Damot and Hadiya, the strongest polities west and south of the Awash River, respectively, in
1316-17. His kingdom’s sphere of influence stretched to the region encompassing the basins of
the Gibe, Gojeb and Omo rivers. Subsequently, Gojjam and the northern area of Lake Tana
were also annexed around this time. Thus strengthened, Amde-Tsion was able to assert his
authority over a chain of Muslim communities stretching from the Gulf of Aden to the Awash
valley - Ifat, Dawaro, Sharkha, and Bali. In reducing the powerful Muslim principalities into
tribute-paying vassalage and strengthening the Christian military positions on all fronts, Amde-
Tsion’s achievement was immense. The Arab historian Ibn Fadil al Umari described him as
having “ninety-nine kings under him, and that he makes up the hundredth.” Amde-Tsion is
rightly credited for shaping and solidifying the medieval Christian kingdom of Ethiopia.

That said, it is important to bear in mind that the emperor’s expansionist campaigns were
primarily motivated by the ambition to seize new lands and gain control over the lucrative trade
routes dominated by Ethiopian Muslims. In short, the “Solomonids” had set their eyes on
“terrain and trade.” Yet, the kingdom’s rapid expansion to the trade hubs of the southern and
western regions entailed the subjugation of the indigenous peoples on the one hand and the
admixture of linguistic, religious and cultural features on the other.
Map 3: The Ethiopian Christian Kingdom during the Reign of Emperor Amde-Tsion

Source: Taddesse Tamrat, Church and State in Ethiopia, 1270-J527 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972), p. 133.
 4.4. Administration and Military Organization of the Ethiopian Christian Kingdom
4.4.1. Administration
Amde-Tsion’s vast kingdom, with few additions by his descendants, was not a unified state. It
was a loose confederation of numerous principalities with diverse religious, ethnic, and
linguistic traits. Despite the constant use of military campaigns, the monarchs attempted to form
a functional government and administrative machinery to render the kingdom more cohesive.

The hybrid administrative system served as the basic organization of the kingdom. It consisted
of three concentric circles around a core. The innermost circle constituted the core provinces
directly controlled by the emperor and administered by his representatives. It was in these
provinces that centralized administration appeared stronger. The second circle, the largest part,
included territories whose rulers, upon submission to the king, payment of tribute and fulfilment
of obligations, could retain their autonomy and hereditary positions. The core army which the
Christian emperors maintained as a symbol and mainstay of their authority ensured the
continued loyalty of these territories. As such, they were heavily garrisoned by the chewa, as
this military regiment was known. The third circle consisted of territories that lay beyond the
direct control of the king although considered an integral part of the kingdom’s political realm.
In these outlying areas, the authority of the monarchs was more symbolic than real, with local
rulers recognized as autonomous actors, and it hinged on the monarch’s ability to compel their
designated governors into submission. Yet, the local rulers were expected to acknowledge the
suzerainty of and pay tribute to the king. Failure to do so often resulted in raids and devastation.

Despite the appointment of numerous titled officials at both the royal court and local levels, a
centralized system of administration was never fully achieved. As the kingdom expanded,
governing the realm through the traditional military administration became increasingly
difficult. The daily lives of people in different regions were highly localized. Emperor Zara-
Yaqob (r. 1434-1468) was particularly determined to establish a centralized administrative
system by strengthening the central authority, creating a body of state officials, reorganizing
court officials, bolstering the army, and increasing control over revenue sources. He also sought
the active involvement of the church hierarchy and monastic orders in implementing his
reforms. However, unlike his predecessors’ cautious approach, Zara-Yaqob’s radical approach
ultimately backfired, as it united rival factions and power holders against his reforms.
 4.4.2. Military Organization
For much of the medieval period, the kingdom’s army consisted of four types of regiments: 1)
regular troops of the Emperor; 2) regular troops of individual military leaders; 3) specially
mobilized territorial troops, and 4) irregular troops. The spearhead of the traditional military
units were regiments called chewa. The word chewa has had a complex history, for its earliest
meaning was a military regiment. Other terms used to describe units or armies included serawit,
hara (‘army’), and chefra (‘body of troops’). These regiments were organized on the basis of
region of origin and identity, and relied on provisions supplied by the peasantry.

A network of chewa regiments formed the core of the state’s army from the late fourteenth
century to the early sixteenth century. The rapid expansion of territories allowed Amde-Tsion
and his successors to create new chewa regiments from the conquered peoples, who were
known for their martial abilities. These military units had diverse religious and ethnic
composition. Emperor Yekunno-Amlak frequently participated in fierce battles, with his front
line commanders often chosen from trusted friends and relatives. These officers held titles such
as azmach, dejjazmach, ras, fitawrari, balambaras, azazh and basha. The number of soldiers
under the command of each type of officer varied, with a ras typically commanding larger
armies (up to 40,000), dejjazmach or fitawrari commanding mid-sized corps (up to 10,000
men), and other officers commanding smaller groups of men (2,000 to 5,000).

During Amde-Tsion’s reign, a significant reorganization and enhancement of the royal army
occurred with the introduction of new units. The chronicle of Amde-Tsion documents three
distinct types of units. The first unit consisted of territorial forces named after the provinces
from which they were recruited, such as Amhara, Shewa, Gojjam, Damot, Hadiya, Seqelt,
Gondar, Harb Gwanda (likely Gafat), and Nara. The second unit consisted of elite contingents
with prestigious names signifying their military prowess, such as Tekula (‘Jackal’), Qeste neheb
(‘arrow of a bee’), and Korem (‘cavalry’). The third group was identified by the weapons or
equipment that the soldiers wielded. Tsewareyane warmat (‘carriers of spear(s)’), the
Tsewareyane warmat abbiyan (‘carriers of large spears’), and the Tsewareyane asayeft
(‘carriers of swords’), among others, were some of the units in this category.
Regiments and units in the armies of later emperors followed similar patterns. Zara-Yaqob, in
particular, reorganized the chewa regiment by keeping them in the royal camp as a mobile
striking force and strengthening his bodyguards. He also attempted to introduce new
technologies and methods of warfare into his army from Mamluk Egypt and Christian Europe.
Shihab al-Din describes the army of Emperor Lebne-Dengel (r. 1508-1540) “as numerous as
locusts”, with approximately 16,000 cavalry and 200, 000 infantry at one point around 1529.

4.4.3. Temporal Administrative and Military Decline

The traditional dominance of the Christian kingdom in Ethiopia's balance of power began to
wane in the last three decades of the fifteenth century. One significant factor for this decline
was internal political rift, which began at the end of Zara-Yaqob’s reign. Law and order reached
a low point, the power of the monarchy weakened, and the economy suffered. Lords who
resented centralized power often defected to the Muslim forces. By the early sixteenth century,
the kingdom was once again divided amid internal rivalry, followed by large scale violent
conflict. The second factor was the failure of national integration. The extensive conquests of
the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries brought into the orbit of the Christian kingdom diverse
communities. However, cultural assimilation and political integration could not be fully
realized. Emperor Zara-Yaqob made serious attempts to forge a unified nation from various
communities. However, in his efforts to achieve unity, he attempted to superimpose religious
nationalism on his subjects, ultimately resulting in substantial failure. Worse yet, his successors
proved to be powerless to remedy the situation. Thus, dynastic instability followed, worsened
by the short reigns of youthful and inexperienced monarchs, and ambitious royal councillors. As
can be anticipated, the weakening of the central power reduced the revenue flow as more of it
was retained by local authorities due to the withdrawal or weakening of imperial garrisons.

4.5. Economic Bases of the Kingdom

The economic power of the kingdom was primarily derived from control over land, labour, and
trade routes. Possessing land and the revenue it generated enhanced the ability to maintain
larger military forces. The conquests not only expanded the court and the army, but also
enriched the monarchs themselves. Land was the cornerstone of the country’s economy,
supporting farming, animal husbandry, and mining of minerals such as copper, iron, gold, and
silver. The numerous land grants associated with the “Solomonids” suggest that a significant
 source of their power stemmed from the allocation of fiefs to their extensive followers in
exchange for primarily military services. Moreover, a significant portion of the wealth came
from tributes imposed on dependent peripheries. Failure to pay tribute was viewed as a
seriousact of treason and subjected to punishment: disgrace, arrest, or execution of the
responsible vassals.

After conquering the Muslim territories along the eastern frontiers, the monarchs could tap into
a profitable source of wealth through their control over trading activities. They capitalized on
these activities to generate revenue by levying import and export taxes on all traded goods and
organizing well-equipped caravans led by their own appointed commercial representatives.

4.6. Cooperation, Competition and Conflict between Christian and Muslim Rival Powers
By the end of the thirteenth century, the flourishing trade had given rise to powerful Muslim
communities that formed well-organized principalities and states. Among the most significant
were Shewa, Ifat, Fatagar, Dawaro, Hadiya, Bale, and Adal. In this regard, it is important to
note the distinction between the sultanates of Adal and Ifat, which are often mistakenly
conflated. Adal was a small state believed to have been situated south of Ifat, possibly in the
direction of the Harar Plateau. It was conquered by the Walasma ruler of Ifat in 1288, following
his triumph over the Makhzumite dynasty of Shewa, and other Muslim principalities. In the
years following 1288, Adal apparently regained its sovereignty. This is because during Amde-
Tsion’s conflicts with the Muslims, Adal operated independently from Ifat. It eventually formed
an alliance with the Walasma ruler Jamaladdin, rather than being a vassal. However, this
coalition was defeated by Amde-Tsion.

Soon afterwards, however, Adal became subordinate to Ifat. This arrangement apparently
persisted until 1415. In this year, Zeila was captured by King Yishaq, and the Walasma sultan
Sadaddin Abu 1-Barakat Muhammad b. Ahmad was killed. The members of the Walasma family
were forced to flee to Yemen but later returned. From then on, they no longer held the title
“sultan of Ifat” but “sultan of Adal.” It appears that their homeland Ifat was vulnerable to
Christian attacks, forcing them to relocate the centre of their state farther south. Their capital
shifted to Dakar, east of Harar. Adal was no longer part of Ifat; rather, Ifat was part of Adal.
Adal inherited the political mantel and aspirations of Ifat, and solidified its authority using its
new centre as a base to launch military campaigns against the Christian Kingdom.
One of the most challenging tasks for the Christian Kingdom was to establish amicable relations
with the influential Muslim Sultanates. In the absence of effective policy, the interactions
between the Christian Kingdom and the Muslim principalities swung between peace and
hostility. To the extent possible, peaceful cooperation was achieved through the implementation
of a tributary system. Many Muslim principalities continued to be governed by their hereditary
rulers as long as they acknowledged the suzerainty of the Christian monarch, paid tribute, and
guaranteed the safe passage of traders to the coast. This peaceful approach benefited both
parties, as each desired security on the trade routes that crisscrossed their respective territories.

The desire for economic and political hegemony lay behind the causes of the hostility that for
the most part characterized the relationship between the two rival Christian and Muslim power
centres. Refusal to pay tribute and the prevention of free passage of messengers and agents were
factors precipitating several armed confrontations, all stemming ultimately from the desire for
economic and political hegemony. For instance, determined to expand the power of the
“Solomonid” dynasty, Yekunno-Amlak reduced Ifat to a tributary status. Amde-Tsion's punitive
campaigns against Ifat, and later against Hadiya, Fatagar, and Dawaro, were provoked by the
attack of Ifat's ruler Haqaddin I on the Christian Kingdom in 1328, as well as the arrest of a
Christian servant of the emperor en route to the coast. He also ahead crushed the planned
attacks of Ifat’s Sultan Sabreddin, Dawaro’s ruler Haydara and Hadya’s king Amano in 1332.

Neway Maryam (r. 1371-80) launched a campaign against Adal after Haqaddin II (1363-86)
refused to pay tribute. The confrontations of Dawit II (r. 1379-1412), Tewodros I (r. 1412-1413)
and Yeshaq (r. 1413-1430) with successive leaders of Adal were driven by both parties' desire
to assert dominance. The well-documented battle of Yeguba in 1445 was triggered by the
refusal of the Adal king Ahmed Badlay to send tribute to Emperor Zara-Yaqob. Peaceful
relations resumed when Mohammed Ahmed (r. 1445-71), the son and successor of Ahmed
Badlay, sent the required tribute to Emperor Ba'ede Mariam (r.1468-78). Emir Mahfuz's
advance against Emperor Lebne-Dengel ended in failure and resulted in his death in July 1517.
These military campaigns were aimed at ending the economic hegemony of the Christian
kingdom and establishing his own hegemony over the Christian Kingdom.
 The religious difference between Christian emperors and Muslim rulers was not the primary
cause of the conflicts. However, both rulers fortified their campaigns with religious motivations,
as this allowed them to effectively mobilize their troops with crusading or jihadist fervour.
Thus, the conflicts should not be viewed solely through ethno-religious lenses, but rather as a
complex interplay of varying economic and political aspirations.

4.7. Interaction and Integration of Peoples and Cultures

In the evolution of a multi-ethnic society, three key patterns underpin the Ethiopian collective
experience. These are the continuous interaction between diverse peoples, the formation of
shared cultural characteristics across Ethiopia, and a distinct mode of absorbing periodic influx
of new peoples and cultures. The successive conquests of the Christian Kingdom brought into
the fold a diverse array of peoples with varying identities. Of necessity, these peoples
continuously interacted with one another, resulting in the process a shared sense of
belongingness. The intricate web of interactions among the diverse peoples of Ethiopia laid the
condition for the possibility of conceiving a composite version of Ethiopian history, one that
avoids the pitfail of mechanical aggregation. This, as the record shows, came in the backdrop of
the following historical factors.

4.7.1. Expansion of the Christian Kingdom

The expansion of the Christian Kingdom in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries promoted the
integration of Ethiopia in two respects. First, it broadened the support base for the kingdom by
attracting more people in the highland plateau who needed little prompting to identify with the
Christian Kingdom and its Christian religion. Second, the expansion enthralled the outlying
kingdoms and peoples with the grandeur of the imperial center and the power of its religion.
They even began to associate themselves with the legend of the Queen of Sheba. For example,
the kings of Kafa and Kambata claimed descent from Solomon and Sheba. The Sidama have a
legend that describes Emperor Zara-Yaqob’s reign as their own golden age, while the Dizi and
others in the Maji area remember the emperor as Seraqo. A more telling indication of the
influence of the Christian Kingdom’s ruling “Solomonid” dynasty is the use of Amharic
terminologies in the political vocabulary of the Omotic kingdoms, such as yegebir adarash
(royal hall), amakari (councilor), awaj (proclamation), gebir (tribute), negarit (royal drum), and
debab (royal umbrella).
4.7.2. Population Movement, Interaction, and Integration
As the Christian Kingdom expanded, various populations also moved into the kingdom through
both small and large-scale movements. A good number of Ethiopian people have travelled over
time in search of new lands or on raiding expeditions, or to escape famine, or to conduct trade
or in pursuit of religious studies and on pilgrimages. These frequent travels have helped to forge
intimate relationship between otherwise distinct ethnic groups of Ethiopia.

The Amarro, Konta, and other ethnic groups have credible traditions regarding the immigration
of the Amhara from the north several centuries ago. Conversely, the Wolayta trace one of their
prominent dynasties, called Tigre, to Tigrean immigrants. Likewise the kingdom of Dawuro is
believed to have been established by refugees from Dawaro in the sixteenth century. During this
period, groups of Gurage were even found as far north as Gondar. The Kafa minstrels have rich
stories that tell of their origin from northern Agew immigrants who intermarried with and
passed down their art to some noble Kafa clans. The Muslims of Shewa and the Gurage claim to
have hailed from a locality in Tigray. What can be said with certainty is that Christians migrated
from Tigray in the north to the Amhara province and eventually farther south to Shewa.

4.7.3. Roving Court

Adafa, the seat of the Zagwe rulers, served as the last permanent capital of the Ethiopian
Christian Kingdom until the establishment of Debre Birhan for a brief period in the 1450s.
While Aksum retained its status as a spiritual capital, Yekunno-Amlak and his successors
governed their vast territories from mobile royal camps in regions such as Ifat, Amhara, Shewa,
Dawaro, and Fatagar. This mobility allowed them to assert their authority, dispense justice,
quell uprisings, deter raids from lowland pastoralists, and avoid resource diversion.

Despite its mobility, the royal court played a crucial role as an integrative force. It remained the
central hub of political and economic activity for all subjects, acting as a melting pot for the
bearers of diverse customs and languages. The royal encampment also served as trading centre
where Christian and Muslim artisans, vendors and merchants met to exchange goods and
services. This regular traffic between the court and country no doubt fostered cultural exchange
between large numbers of Ethiopians, contributing to the relative cohesion of the kingdom.
 4.7.4. Establishment of Military Garrisons
The military regiments of the Ethiopian Christian Kingdom also played a crucial role in both
political and cultural integration. Military garrisons of chewa regiments were established in
newly conquered territories. The regiments became less mobile, forming strong connections
with the inhabitants of the territories they were stationed in, which in due course evolved into a
territorial army over time. The soldiers of the chewa regiments gradually melded with the local
population through marriage and other social ties. Their ambitious commanders were also
married to the local nobility and began to identify with elites of the host community. This
integration allowed the soldiers to promote Christianity, languages, class manners, and the land
tenure system to the regions they were stationed in. Even if lopsided, this cultural integration
served the kingdom's expansion further and influenced new territories.

4.7.5. Warfare
Throughout history, various Ethiopian social groups have engaged in conflicts for a multitude
of reasons, such as acquiring cattle, slaves, territory, control over trade routes, fulfilling ritual
obligations or display of masculinity. These conflicts facilitated interactions among different
groups. The resulting displacement and resettlement also fostered new forms of encounters.

4.7.6. Market Centres as Cultural Melting Pots

Due to the limited resources available in Ethiopia's diverse ecological regions, the necessity of
meeting consumption needs prevented any of the distinct peoples from remaining isolated for
extended periods. Markets have served as a platform for interethnic interactions. Local and
regional markets facilitated direct contact between different groups, and indirectly through
caravan trades. Local markets, which typically convened weekly, attracted numerous traders
and buyers from distant locations and diverse ethnic and religious backgrounds. Most
Ethiopians are not confined to a single market but are rather familiar with markets networks in
their area that meet on different days of the week.

In addition to meeting local demands, goods from local markets are transported by traders to
larger and distant regional centers. Regional markets draw people and products from more
diverse locations and greater distances. Historical marketplaces such as Dabarwa in Eritrea,
Manadalay in southern Tigray, Qorqora/Qoreta (around Waldiya) and Wasel near Ware-Illu had
played an important integrative role. The ruins surrounding Jigjiga, Harar and Charchar attest to
market towns that had once thrived along the main trade routes. Weez-Gebeya in western
Shewa, Suq-Wayzaro in Damot, and Suq-Ameja and Gandabalo in Ifat-Awsa in eastern Shewa
were famed hubs for commercial and cultural exchange. Gandabalo, in particular, stands out as
a site of convivial interaction between Muslim and Christian communities.

4.7.7. The Ethiopian Orthodox Church and Monastic Networks Fostered Integration
The Ethiopian Orthodox Church has historically been a force of integration particularly on the
religious and cultural planes. It played a crucial role in uniting diverse groups whose
heterogeneity was quite marked, particularly in the wake of the territorial expansions of the
kingdom. The church wove a fabric of unity and identity where the administrative and military
organization of the kingdom had little success.

Two factors which prompted this role were the internal revival within the church and the
emergence of monastic networks. The church's missionary work closely followed the kingdom's
expansion in the fourteenth century, with support from the kingdom in the form of land grants
to aid in the evangelization of non-Christian populations in newly conquered regions. The
revival of the church also led to the rise of monastic activities, particularly in Amhara and
Shewa, by monastic figures like lyesus Mo’a of Debre Hayq and Tekle-Haymanot (1215-1313)
of Debre Asbo (renamed in the fifteenth century as Debre Libanos). Monasteries became the
epicenters of the dissemination of Christianity, with organized missionary activities dating back
to the thirteenth century. Later, monastic fathers and their disciples went to the Ethiopian
interior with little more than a cross.

Christianity was evangelized without completely eradicating traditional beliefs and practices.
Nevertheless, Emperor Zara-Yaqob’s church reforms, which aimed to maintain the “purity” of
Christianity, were the last serious blow to this practice of syncretism. His reforms had grave
consequences for people suspected of magical practices and monastic communities accused of
alleged heresies. While the Ewostatean monastic movement, active since the fourteenth century
and centered on the issue of the observance of the Sabbath, was peacefully resolved, others, like
the Stephanites, who refused to bow before religious icons, faced gruesome persecution.
Despite his zealous efforts to draw a clear line between Christian and indigenous practices,
Zara-Yaqob had little success in eradicating non-Christian practices within the Christian faith.
 As a result, Christianity continued to intertwine with traditional beliefs, giving rise to a
syncretism that persists to this day. The cultural repertoire of monastic missionaries laid the
groundwork for the Judeo-Christian tradition in Ethiopia. To the Christian faithful, Christianity
offered a sense of belonging to a new worldview, and a way of life. The faith drew converts
from diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds, manifested by the numerous monasteries and
parishes that dotted the kingdom from north to south, and east to west.

4.7.8. Islam Promoted Integration, Unity and Collective Identity

Islam has played a crucial role in Ethiopia in uniting diverse groups who had either abandoned
their indigenous beliefs or converted from other faiths to embrace the tenets of the Islamic faith.
In the views of most Muslims, Ethiopia enjoys a privileged status as a place of sanctuary for the
persecuted companions of the prophet Mohamed. The story of Al-Najashi in Islamic tradition
holds a unique place in Ethiopia's socio-political narrative, serving as a source of collective
memory of interfaith harmony.

Thanks to the preaching of itinerant Sufi Sheikhs and scholars, learned men, sometimes of
foreign origin (especially Yemenites), and traders, Muslim communities thrived from eastern
Ethiopia as far north as Tigray from the eighth to the sixteenth centuries. There was regular
contact between the various Muslim communities through trade, education, pilgrimage and
movement of peoples.

Basic Islamic cultural institutions in Ethiopia did not take root in the first half of the fourteenth
century, but developed in time. Islamic literature in Arabic and local languages flourished in
Harar and Wollo. This was greatly facilitated by the mystical orders that inspired the
composition of the hagiographies of Sufi masters. Manzuma poems in praise of the Prophet and
the saints were recited throughout the country. Like Christianity, Islam offered wide room for
local customs insofar as they did not contradict the fundamental tenets of the religion.

In a nutshell, the missionary activities of Christians and Muslims intertwined Ethiopia with
networks of supra-ethnic alliances. Despite occasional conflicts between the two religious
groups, mutual accommodation was common throughout the period in question. Given the
syncretic nature of Islam and Christianity in Ethiopia, followers of both faiths have found
common ground in shared religious practices.
4.8. External Relations
4.8.1. Relations with Egypt
Yekunno-Amlak sent an emissary to Egypt’s sultan, Baybars, in 1272 requesting an abun from
the Coptic Church. Furthermore, both Egypt and Ethiopia continued to act as protectors of
religious minorities in their respective domain. Egypt also wanted to ensure the secure flow of
the Blue Nile. The Egyptian ruler Mohammed ibn Qala’un persecuted the Copts and destroyed
their churches in Cairo in the early fourteenth century. In response, Amde-Tsion demanded the
restoration of the churches and warned that failure to do so would result in the diversion of the
Nile waters. Patriarch Marqos (1348- 63) sent a message to Sayfa-Arad (r. 1344-71), revealing
his imprisonment by the then Egyptian Sultan. Sayfa-Arad is said to have mobilized a huge army
against Egypt after which the Sultan released the patriarch and sent a delegation to the King.
Besides, Patriarch Matewos (1328-1408), delegated by the sultan, established harmonious
relations between Dawit II and Egypt. The sultan is said to have sent a piece of the "True Cross"
and, in return, Dawit II is said to have given a number of religious paintings to the sultan.

Zara-Yaqob wrote a friendly letter to Sultan Barsbay requesting the protection of Christians in
Egypt in 1437/8. Yet, three years later, Patriarch Yohannes XI wrote Zara-Yaqob a letter stating
the demolition of the famous church of Debre-Mitmaq. Zara-Yaqob then sent an envoy to Sultan
Jaqmaq (r. 1438-53) with a strongly worded letter. In reply to this, Jaqmaq sent an envoy to
Ethiopia, with complimentary gifts to the emperor but rejected the reconstruction of the church.

4.8.2. Relations with Christian Europe

Amde-Tsion sent a message to King Phillip of France in 1332. The Ethiopian delegation that
carried the letter was in attendance at Gian Galeazzo Visconti’s coronation in Milan in 1395. The
earliest known message to Ethiopia from a European monarch is the letter of King Henry IV of
England dated 1400 AD and addressed to “Prester John.” Emperor Dawit II received some
craftsmen, mainly Florentines. The emperor sent his first delegation to Europe led by a
Florentine man, Antonio Bartoli, in 1402. Three Ethiopians attended an ecumenical council of
the Catholic Church held in the diocese of Constance, in present-day Germany from November,
1414 to April 1418, addressing issues such as the schism between the Western and Eastern
churches, heresies, ecclesiastical conciliarism and papal supremacy.

^ nK^ex-^
Alphonso de Paiva V of Aragon (today’s Spain) received a delegation sent to ask for more
artisans from Yishaq in the city of Valentia in 1427. The embassy of Charles, the Duke of Berry,
consisting of craftsmen (the Neapolitan Pietro, a Spaniard and a Frenchman) reached Yishaq’s
court. A Silican, Pietro Rombulo, who had been in Ethiopia since the last years of Dawit's reign
and who had previously carried out a successful trade mission to India on behalf of the king, was
sent to Europe as Zara-Yaqob’s ambassador in 1450. Emperor Zara-Yaqob sent an Ethiopian
priest, Fikre-Mariam, accompanied by two other individuals, to Alphonso of Aragon (also ruled
as king of Naples and Sicily) to get political and technical assistance. Alphonso wrote a letter to
Zara-Yaqob and informed him that he sent him artisans and masons he requested.

The most authentic pieces of evidence on Ethio-Europe links are the maps of Egyptus Novelo (c.
1454) and Fra Mauro's Mappomondo (1460) which clearly depicted many places and peoples in
the Horn. Venetian Gregorio or Hieronion Bicini visited Ethiopia in 1482. Pedros da Covilhao
(Peter de Covilham) arrived at the court of Eskindir (r. 1478-1494) in 1493. Queen Elleni (the
daughter of the Hadiya garad married to Zara-Yaqob and regent of the under age Lebne-
Dengel), anticipating the threat that would come from the Ottomans who showed a clear interest
to support the Muslim sultanates, sent an Armenian called Mathew to Portugal around 1512. The
Portuguese Embassy led by Rodrigo di Lima, Duwarto Galliba and Francisco Alvarez reached
Ethiopia in 1520 and remained for six years. Its aim was to establish a naval port against the
Turkish power in Red Sea area, but it was not successful.

Learning Activities
> What were the factors for the “restoration” of the “Solomonid” Dynasty?
> Describe the causes of the internal political conflict in the royal court.
> Discuss the dynamics of consolidation, territorial expansion, and unification.
> List main features of administrative and military organization of the Christian kingdom.
> Describe factors for the temporal decline of the kingdom as of late fifteenth century.
> What were the economic bases of the Christian kingdom?
> Elaborate the cooperation and conflict between Christian and Muslim rival power centers.
> List the major avenues for the interaction and integration of peoples and cultures.
> Discuss the nature of Ethiopia's relations with Egypt and Christian Europe.
 UNIT FIVE
POLITICS, ECONOMY, AND SOCIAL PROCESSES FROM THE EARLY
SIXTEENTH TO THE END OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES
(10 HOURS)
5.1. Conflict between the Christian Kingdom and the Sultanate of Adal, and the Aftermath
The first half of the sixteenth century was arguably the most turbulent period in the history of
Ethiopia and the Horn. The principal events which occurred at the time and left lasting imprints
in the socio-political map of Ethiopia were the wars between the Christian Kingdom and the
Sultanate of Adal, the Oromo population movement and the Jesuit interlude.

The chronic conflicts spanning over two centuries, primarily to control the long distance trade
route passing through Zeila and levy tribute, became a war of conquest which attained its climax
between 1529 and 1543. The war between the two rivalling powers assumed a new momentum
with the emergence of new leadership in the Adal Sultanate under Imam Ahmed ibn Ibrahim al-
Ghazi, whose origins are obscure. In most Christian sources, he is called “Gragn” (the left­
handed). He was probably born in Hubat (between Dire Dawa and Jigjiga) in 1506 and was
raised by his devout Muslim kin in one of the oases on the route to Zeila. He began his military
career as a soldier in the service of Garad Abun ibn Adash. Garad Abun competed with Sultan
Abu Bakr ibn Mohammed for more power and influence in Adal politics. Garad Abun was killed
in a fierce battle against Abu Bakr in 1525, after which Imam Ahmed assumed the leadership of
the opposition against the sultan. Under his command, the opposition's influence expanded, and
he formed a formidable army that ultimately overthrew and killed Abu Bakr in 1527.

After the imam's rise to power, the battles were fought not just for control of the long-distance
trade route, but also and mainly to solve environmental pressure on the Afar and Somali
pastoralists, who were pushing towards Harar and into the riches of the highland Christian
Kingdom. Lowland Muslim pastoralists wanted to expand to high plateaus for better and more
pastureland because of increased population and overgrazing. This led to the intensification of
the longstanding conflict between the Christian Kingdom and Muslim principalities while at the
same time resulting in fighting among the pastoralist groups.
 A hallmark of Imam Ahmed’s leadership ability was such that he mobilized the Afar, the Somali,
Argobba, Harla, Harari and many others for a common cause. The imam had the support of
religious leaders in his effort to bring peace among the various fighting groups. He persuaded the
groups not to fight amongst themselves but to unite and expand to the Christian Kingdom and
resolve their pressing material needs and at the same time gain salvation by fighting non­
Muslims. Thus, the war for territorial expansion came to assume a religious character.

After a long and thorough preparation of the army, the imam launched his offensive against the
frontier defenses of the Christian Kingdom in 1527 and controlled Bali, Dawaro, Fatagar,
Sidama, Hadiya, and Kambata. This was partly facilitated by the significant presence there of
Muslim communities, who welcomed the Muslim governors appointed by Imam Ahmed.
Realizing the rising threat, Emperor Lebne-Dengel mobilized a vast force from his domains in
1528 and encamped about fifty kilometers east of what is now Addis Ababa. However, his
numerically superior force was dispersed by Imam Ahmed’s small army at the Battle of Shimbra
Kure in 1529, near present-day Mojo. In addition to logistical problems, the leadership of the
army of the Christian Kingdom failed to adopt a common strategy to defeat Adal’s force. On the
other hand, Imam Ahmed's highly motivated but small-sized army faced no such logistical
challenges. The imam's army had also an excellent leadership characterized by better mobility
and flexible tactics with a unified command.

After the victory, Imam Ahmed's army pressed on farther north to complete the takeover of the
kingdom. Within a span of less than two years, his army successfully gained control over Lasta,
Bagemedir, Dembiya, and Tigray. By 1535, Adal had dominion over a significant portion of the
Christian territory, including strategic regions. As he penetrated deep into the Christian
Kingdom, Imam Ahmed established a civil administrative bureaucracy composed of his own
men and newly recruited personnel from the Christian territories. Mahfuz’s daughter and Imam
Ahmed’s wife, Bati (also known as Batya) Del Wanbara, who had encouraged her husband to
wage the war in order to avenge the death of her father, accompanied her husband throughout his
expeditions as far north as Tigray.

The military setback forced Lebne-Dengel to retreat, finally dying in 1540 as a fugitive. His son
and successor, Gelawdewos (r. 1540-59), continued to face a more intensified war as Imam
Ahmed had received two hundred Muslim Turkish musketeers and ten cannons in 1541. In the

50
meantime, in response to an earlier request made by Lebne-Dengel to King Joao III of Portugal
in 1535, about four hundred Portuguese soldiers led by Christopher da Gama, the son of Vasco
da Gama, and armed with matchlocks arrived in the Christian court in 1541. The Portuguese
governor of India who dispatched the army wanted to rescue what Portugal then considered a
strategic ally in its war in the Red Sea against the Ottoman Empire. However, the Portuguese
were defeated at the battle of Wafla in the present day southern Tigray in August 1542.
Christopher was captured and killed-maybe even beheaded-by Imam Ahmad. The surviving
soldiers finally joined Gelawdewos in Semen in October and continued to fight in his army.

After his victory at Wafla, Imam Ahmed was so confident about his army’s ability to repulse any
future attack by the Christian force that he sent his musketeer allies back home and let his army
camp. In February 1543, a battle occurred between his army and that of Emperor Gelawdewos at
Zantara (Woyna Dega), east of Lake Tana, in which Imam Ahmed was killed. His death marked
the end of the Adal conquest and its territorial control of the Ethiopian Christian Kingdom.

Soon after the battle, Emperor Gelawdewos restored the former Christian kingdom’s territories
in the northern and central plateau in less than two years. Muslim communities in the highlands
submitted to him as he was astoundingly tolerant towards them. He attempted to reorganize the
chewa regiments which he stationed in the frontier regions. Neverthless, his spirited endeavor to
restore the administrative and military stamina of the weakened Christian kingdom met a final
blow in 1559. He was killed in a battle and beheaded by Emir Nur Ibn al-Waazir Mujahid of
Adal, who thus avenged the death of Imam Ahmed.

Although the Adal threat, which cannot survive the death of its able leader Imam Ahmed, was
neutralized, the Christian kingdom was soon challenged by foreign powers in various forms.
Emperor Minas (r. 1559-63) conducted military campaigns against the Turkish-backed Bahre
Negash Yishaq, the most powerful regional lord of the time, and reclaimed territories in the
coast, including Dabarwa. As Minas died in 1563, the challenge from Yishaq and the Turks was
carried over to his successor. Emperor Sartsa-Dengel (r.l563-98), who defeated Turkish forces
in 1587/89, neutralized Bahre negash Yishaq and won back the territories from the Turks.
Although the Turkish threat was overcome militarily, the Portuguese presence brought yet
another crisis, what is known as the Jesuit interlude.
 The consequences of the conflict for both sides were far-reaching. One of the most obvious was
the huge human and material cost. It is also evident that both the Muslim Sultanate and Christian
Kingdom were weakened, thereby paving the way for the success of the Oromo population
movement. On the positive side, linguistic and religious interactions were accompanied by
intermairiages among various cultural groups.

5.2. Foreign Intervention and Religious Controversies

The Portuguese and Ottoman interventions in the affairs of the country reflected their competing
political ambitions around the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean. However, an actual military
alliance between Portugal and the Christian kingdom did not take place since Ethiopia was not a
naval power to give meaningful maritime support to Portugal against the Ottoman Turks. After
the conflict, the EOC as an ideological arm of the state was weakened and sought revival. At the
same time, the monarchy could not count on the traditional political and military apparatus. As a
result, the rulers of the Christian Kingdom may have regarded an alliance with Roman
Catholicism as a tactic to secure sufficient modern weaponry to restore lost territories.

The attempts to establish diplomatic and military relations between Portugal and the “Kingdom
of Prester John,” first under King Manuel I (1495-1521) and later under Joao III (1521-1557),
saw several representatives of the Portuguese power visit the Ethiopian royal court. This was
followed by the arrival of several Jesuit missionaries in Ethiopia in 1557 to expand Catholicism.
The Jesuits taught the Catholic doctrine of two different and therefore separate natures of
Christ—divine and human-which was contrary to the tewahedo theology of the EOC. The EOC
taught that Christ, through union or tewahedo, had a perfect human nature inseparable from the
divine. The leading members of the mission who played key roles in efforts to evangelize the
country included Joao Bermudez, Andreas de Oviedo, Pedro Paez, and Alfonso Mendez.

The Jesuits began their evangelical effort with Emperor Gelawdewos hoping that the rest of the
society would follow suit. Gelawdewos listened and engaged in doctrinal debates with the
missionaries. He defended the teachings of EOC in a document entitled the Confession of Faith.
The Jesuits were not active in the courts of Minas and Sertse-Dengel, who were not only hostile
against their evangelical efforts but also too busy dealing with other internal and external
challenges. The Jesuits, under the mission of Pedro Paez, had relative success with Emperor Za-
Dengel (r. 1603-4), who was said to have been sympathetic to Catholicism. However, he was
overthrown by Yaeqob (r. 1598-1603; 1604-7).

The role of the Jesuits at the Ethiopian court had a serious impact on the reorganization of the
Ethiopian monarchy in the early seventeenth century. Susenyos (r. 1607-32), aiming to
consolidate his power, strengthened the military regiments by introducing new Oromo recruits
from those Oromo groups who had settled across the core and fertile regions of the kingdom.
However, he was challenged by the provincial governors as well as rebellions by the active
fighting Oromo, Bete-Israel, and other groups. Thus, to consolidate his power all over the
kingdom, he sought for an external alliance, which he got through the diplomatic support of
Paez. Susenyos converted to Catholicism in 1612 and announced it to be the state religion in
1622. In the meantime, several anti-Catholic voices emerged following the changes in liturgy
and religious practices. Even worse, with the monarch’s consent, another Spanish Jesuit,
Mendez, ordered reconsecration of the EOC priests and deacons, and rebaptism of the masses.
Besides, he called for the suspension of Old Testament customs such as male circumcision and
the observance of the Sabbath. Additional injunctions included prohibition of preaching in
Ge’ez, fasting on Wednesdays and Fridays, reverence for Ethiopian saints and the Ark of
Covenant. Meanwhile, he ordered eating pork and the adoption of the Latin Mass and the
Gregorian calendar. The reforms led to revolts led by the clergy and the nobility. Even loyal
followers of the emperor, including his own son Fasiledes (r. 1632-67), opposed the changes.

The Jesuits’ success in their mission to convert Ethiopia to Catholicism was short-lived and
met with staunch anti-Catholic resistance, leading the country into a state of civil war and the
threat of political disintegration. In June 1632, a large number of peasants lost their lives in one
day battle alone. Finally, Emperor Susenyos abdicated in favor of his son Fasiledes, who restored
the EOC. Fasiledes took serious measures against the Jesuits, most of them being expelled from
the country. He also punished local converts, including Susenyos’ brother and the most fervent
supporter of Catholicism, Se'ela Kristos, and Azazh Tino, the Oromo Catholic convert, who was
a court intellectual, royal chronicler and councillor of Emperor Susenyos. Fasiledes introduced a
“closed-door” policy, which isolated the country from all Europeans for about a century and a
half until the beginning of the nineteenth century, with the exception of the visits by a French
pharmacist, Charles Jacques Poncet, and a Scottish traveler, James Bruce, in 1700 and 1769,
 respectively. Conversely, he concluded an accord in 1647 with the Ottoman pasha at Suakin and
Massawa to block Europeans from entering the Horn.

Yet, the Jesuit intervention had lasting ramification as it triggered further doctrinal divisions and
controversies within the EOC, which came to be divided into disputant sects and reached its peak
during the Zemene- Mesafint. The tewahedo doctrine teaches hulet lidet (two births) of Christ:
first in eternity as a Divine Being, the eternal birth, and second born again from St. Mary into the
world as a perfect man and perfect divinity united in one nature. It was dominant in Tigray and
Lasta. Qibat (Unction) initially branched off from the hulet lidet doctrine and accepted the
eternal birth as the first birth of Christ, but claimed that at his incarnation, when he was born into
the world, Holy Spirit anointed him. This sect was dominant in Gojjam. Sost Lidet (Three Births)
(Ya Tsega Lij/Son through Grace) taught that Christ was first born in eternity as divine being,
was born again in the womb of St. Mary and anointed by Holy Spirit, when he was born into the
world. This sect was dominant in Gonder and Shewa. The doctrinal divisions, which usually took
on regional forms, persisted until the Council of Boru Meda (1878), when tewahedo was
accepted as the official doctrine of the EOC. Over and above their doctrinal significance, these
controversies had important political implications as regional rulers endorsed rival doctrines in
their bid for dominance.
5.3. Population Movements
Population movements that occurred on varied scales have played important roles in shaping the
history of the Horn. People moved from place to place due to pull and push factors, which can be
summed up as natural and social causes that could be attributed to the region's enduring socio­
political conditions. The medieval population movements had extensive effects including
peoples intermingling resulted in change of the original culture and evolution of new identities.

5.3.1. Population Movements of the Argobba, Afar, and Somali

Although pressure on the environment was generally a major factor in population movements,
the population movement of the Argobba, Afar and Somali was partly caused by the military
conflict between the Christian Kingdom and the Sultanate of Adal in the late fifteenth and early
sixteenth centuries. Their territories lay in the region where the caravan trade routes traversed,
and they were affected by and moved back and forth in response to the ongoing conflict.
Argobba: there are two versions on the origin of the Argobba. The first holds that they
descended from the followers of the Prophet Muhammad who came and settled in Ifat. The
second claims that the Argobba are not Muslim-Arab immigrants as they are one of the ancient
peoples that accepted Islam very early from religious leaders that came from Arabia. They were
major agents of Islamic expansion and state formation in the Horn. For instance, the Makhzumite
and Walasma Dynasties established the Shewan and Ifat sultanates respectively, in which the
Argobba were dominant. The Christian-Muslim rivalry led to dispersion of the Argobba that can
be observed from their fragmented settlements in various areas.

Afar: The Afar lived predominantly in northeastern Ethiopia and northern Djibouti; but some
have inhabited southern Eritrea. The Afar had an indigenous governance system known as
makabanto, which has some democratic features. The Afar are first mentioned by the Arab
geographer Ibn Said (1214-86), who described them as occupying the lowland territory near Bab
el-Mandeb. Drought forced the Afar to move eastwards until they reached the middle Awash by
the sixteenth century. Even though they were actors in the conflict, the Christian-Muslim conflict
forced the Afar to move in different directions. Their pastoral economy helped the Afar survive
the destructive effects of the wars of the sixteenth century.

The Afar have many historically famous cities such as Maduna and Abasa. Following the Adal
Sultanate’s collapse in the sixteenth century, the Afar established sultanates like Awsa, Girrifo,
Tadjourah, Rahaito and Gobad. The Awsa Sultanate succeeded the earlier Awsa Imamate in the
Middle Awash. The latter polity had come into existence in 1577, when Mohammed Jasa moved
his capital from Harar to Awsa. Awsa declined and temporarily ended in conjunction with Imam
Umar Din bin Adam's ascension to the throne in 1672. The Sultanate was subsequently re­
established by Kedafo around 1734 and was thereafter ruled by the Mudaito Dynasty that he
founded. The primary symbol of the sultan was a silver baton. Awsa’s economy mainly
depended on the Bati-Ginda’e trade route. Later it became a center of Islamic learning led by
preachers like Tola Hanfire.

The Somali: the Somali practiced pastoral economy and led a nomadic life for centuries,
possibly in search of sufficient pasture. Historically, a council known as shir governed the
society. The decision-making process was highly democratic, with all adult males allowed equal
 participation. These councils at sub-clan, clan and inter-clan level provided a governing structure
that enforced law and administered justice. The council ruled on wide-ranging affairs including
resource allocation, marriage, trade and crime. A component of shir, the guurti (council of
elders), was the highest political council mandated with resolving conflict and crisis.

Ibn Said noted that Merca town located on the southern Somali coast near Shabele River was a
major urban centre that brought large numbers of Somalis together in the thirteenth century AD.
The Somali were a strong force behind the strength of Imam Ahmed. Yet, their movement did
not last for long as they returned to their home base following the Imam’s defeat in 1543.

5.3.2. Gadaa System and Oromo Population Movement (1522-1618)

The Gadaa System
The Gadaa system was an institution, through which the Oromo organized socially, administered
their affairs, defended their territories, and managed their economies. At the beginning of the
sixteenth century, the system was fully functional, which makes it reasonable to think that the
Oromo had practiced the Gadaa system long before. Recent studies based on the Gadaa calendar
suggest that the system evolved from the earlier Cushitic age-set social organization. In the
system, eight years represented one Gadaa period, five Gadaa periods or forty years represented
one generation, and nine generations represented an era. The earliest eras of Gadaa, which still
remains obscure, was that of Bidiri Dhoqqe. Prior to the institution of the prevailing Gadaa
Borana-Barentu at Madda Walabu around 1450 AD, the Oromo passed through eras known as
Teya, Tesa, Munyo, Suftu, Madille, Abroji, Dhittacha and Warden. Gadaa was interrupted and
restored during many eras because of various internal and external factors.

The Gadaa system constituted elements of democracy such as periodic succession every eight
years and power sharing to prevent one-man rule. Other principles of the system included
representation of all lineages, clans and confederacies. It also served as a mechanism for
socialization, education, the maintenance of peace and order, and social cohesion.

The Oromo were organized into ten age-grades and generation sets defining members'
responsibilities. The system provided a framework that institutionalized relationships between
seniors and juniors and egalitarian relations among members of a grade. Sons joined the first
grade as members of the Gadaa class (generation class) forty years after their fathers. A common
version of age grades and roles associated with them are indicated as follows:
 Table 1: Age-grades and their roles
Gadaa-Grade Age Roles
Dabbale birth-8 years Socialization and education
Gamme 9-16
Folle 17-24 training, agriculture etc
Qondala 25-32 military service
Raba-Dori 33-40 candidates for political power
Luba 41-48 leaders of Gadaa government
Yuba I 49-56 senior advisors, educators and ritual
Yuba II 57-64 leaders
Yuba III 65-72
Yuba IV 73-80

The Luba group assumed power for eight years. The head of the government, Abba- Gadaa Fite
(literally “father of the period”), was assisted by several elected representatives. These included
Abba Bokku (father of scepter), Abba Mati (in charge of acZa/culture), Abba Chaffe (head of the
assembly), Abba Dula (war leader), Abba Sera (father of law), Abba Alanga (judge), Abba Sa'a
(father of treasury), etc. The Abba Muda (senior Qallu) played vital roles in power transfer and
legitimizing the ruling Gadaa class. Women formed sisterhood and solidarity groups and
maintained their rights by the Siuqe institution. Women from childhood to old age, i.e. guduru
(pre-pubescent), qarre (adolescent), kalale (wives of Luba and Yuba) and cifire (wives of
Gadaamojji/above 80 years) were believed to have sacred power. They were involved on
occasions like arara (conflict resolution), guma (blood compensation), rakoo (marriage
commitment), etc.

The Oromo Population Movement (1522-1618)

The factors for the Oromo movement are both natural and man-made. Natural factors include
demographic increase and consequent need for extra land to accommodate the growing human
and livestock population. In addition, the Christian-Muslim conflict from the thirteenth to the
sixteenth centuries might have pressurized mainly pastoral Oromo groups to leave the lands they
had inhabited for other areas. As a result, the Oromo organized under the Borana and Barentu
confederacies and began moving northward from their common Gadaa center, Madda-Walabu.

The Oromo movement took place from 1522 to 1618 under twelve successive Butta wars of
successive Gogessa/Gadaa classes. Accordingly, the Melba (1522-30) fought and defeated the
Christian regiment Batra Amora led by Fasil and occupied Bale while the Mudena (1530-8)

57
reached the edge of the Awash River. The Kilole (1538-46) controlled Dawaro after defeating
the Christian regiment, Adal Mabraq, while Bifole (1546-54) advanced to Waj and Erer. The
Michille (1554-62) scored victories over the Christian commander, Dejjazmach Hamalmal at
Dago, and the Jan Amora forces as well as the Adal force led by Emir Nur at Mount Hazalo. The
Hambisa/Harmufa (1562-70) fought Minas’ force at Qacina and Wayyata, occupied Angot,
Ganzyi, Sayint etc. Emperor Sartsa- Dengel’s cavalry led by Azazh Halibo defeated Robale
Gadaa (1570-78) at Woyna Dega in 1574, but Robale recovered and defeated the force of
Azmach Zara’a Yohannis, chief of the Christian dignitaries. The Birmaji (1578-86) controlled
Ar'ine in Waj, crossed Jama to Weleqa and overwhelmed Azmach Deharegot’s army. The
Mul’ata (1586-94) seized Bizamo, Damot, Gafat, Dambiya, etc.

The Dulo (1594-1602), Melba (1603-10) and Mudena (1610-18) expanded to West and Northern
parts of the Horn of Africa while others like the Warday moved to Kenya, and Bur Haqaba and
Majertin in Somalia. The organization of the Oromo under the Gadaa system played a crucial
role in the success of the Oromo population movement.

In due course, Oda Nabee of Tulama, Oda Roba of Sikko-Mando (Arsi), Oda Bultum of Itu-
Anniyya and Qal’o, Oda Bisil of Mecha and Oda Bulluq of Jawwi Mecha became major Gadaa
centers. Other Gadaa centers included Gayo of Sabbo-Gona, Me'e Bokko of Guji, Oda Dogi of
Ilu, Oda Hulle of Jimma, Oda Gerado/Makodi of Wollo, etc. Gadaa leaders such as Dawe
Gobbo of Borana, Anna Sorra of Guji, Changare Korbo of Tulama, Makko-Bili of Mecha, Babbo
Koyye of Jimma and others laid down cardinal laws in their respective areas.
 Map 4: Gadaa Centers

Source- Mohammed Hassen, The Oromo of Ethiopia, p. 15.

5.4. Ethnic and Religious Interaction and Integration

While territorial and religious expansion by the Christian kingdom and the Ethiopian Orthodox
Church diffused Christian tradition from north to the south, the wars of Imam Ahmed and the
population movements of the Argobba, the Afar and the Somali caused the expansion of Islam
into the Christian kingdom.

The Oromo population movement brought far-reaching changes to the socio-political map of
Ethiopia and the Horn. First, it enabled the Oromo to control large territories in the region. Their
advance continued unchecked by the imperial military regiments. Second, it led to the integration
of people of diverse backgrounds into Oromo society and the integration of Oromo society into
other communities. Within the Gadaa system, the Oromo applied two socialization mechanisms:
Guddifacha and Moggasa. Guddifacha was the adoption (fostering) of a child, who would enjoy
equal privileges with a biological child. Likewise, Moggasa was a system of amalgamation of
groups into a clan through an oath of allegiance, with all the rights and obligations that such
membership entailed. Third, the interactions resulted in the exchange of institutions. A number
of people in the neighborhood of the Oromo adopted the Gadaa system and the Oromo language.
Similarly, the Oromo adopted the traditions of the people with whom they came into contact. A
case in point is the adoption of monarchical systems by the Gibe Oromo states, and the
integration of the Oromo into the Christian kingdom’s political system, both at the expense of the
Gadaa system, without abandoning their basic cultural and linguistic markers. It is important to
mention the rise of Oromo political elites, warlords, land-owning nobles (Oromo balabats) and
regional dynasties as a result of integration within the Ethiopian state. These have been outcomes
of long processes of integrating the Oromo by the state, effectively implemented since the reign
of Sertsa-Dengel. Military service, patrimonial, and political alliances were the three major
avenues for Oromo integration into the establishments. The processes continued well into the
Gondarine period, the Zemene- Mesafint, and the making of modern Ethiopia.

5.5. Peoples and States in Eastern, Central, Southern and Western Parts of the Region
As a prelude to the discussion, it is important to emphasize that it is not possible in the space of
a brief teaching module such as this to exhaust all the peoples and states that existed in the
region. Therefore, the section explores the history of some of the peoples and states (as
illustrations) in the period under consideration. Besides, the discussion of these peoples and
states in a separate section does not mean that they had no connection with peoples and polities
in northern half of the country. The various peoples and states of the region maintained relations
through various avenues of contact such as long-distance trade.

5.5.1 Peoples and States in the East

The Emirate of Harar
During the reign of Emir Nur Mujahid, Harar became a walled city. Emir Ali ibn Da’ud (r. 1647­
62) founded a new dynasty that ruled the Emirate for over two centuries and a half. It was later
strengthened by Amirs like Abdul Shakur (1783-94). The Amir’s council, Majlis, supervised the
mosque land called waqf, and assisted the Amirs. The Amirs would gradually extend their
authority over the surrounding Afar, Argobba, Oromo and Somali through trade, inter-marriage,
and Islamic teachings.
5.5.2. Peoples and States in Central and South Central Parts
The Kingdom of Shewa
The kingdom of Shewa was founded by Negasi Kristos (r. 1696-1703), originally from the
district of Gera Meder in Menz. Claiming lineage from Abeto Yaqob, son of Emperor Lebne-
Dengel, he is traditionally considered the founder of the Shewan branch of the “Solomonids.”
After establishing his ascendancy, he presided over the Christian communities that inhabited
districts like Asendabo, Debadebo and Makfud. Negasi also formed alliance with the Argobba
Muslims who lived in the lowlands of Yifat. The second king was Merid Azmatch
Sebestie/Sebastyanos (r. 1703-18). Abuye/Abiyye (r. 1718-45) made Haramba his capital and
tried to subjugate the surrounding Oromo before he was killed by the Karrayu Oromo. However,
it was Amaha lyesus/Amhayyes (r. 1745-75), the great grandson of Negasi, who asserted
effective leadership in the whole districts (Bulga, Efrata, Menz, Tegulet etc.). His capital was at
Doqaqit but later shifted to Ankober. In addition, he made futile attempts to control the Afar and
Abichu Oromo. Asfa-Wosen (r. 1775-1808) conquered Antsokia, Asbo, Gedern, Gishe,
Merhabete, Morat and Shewa Meda. Shewa’s economy was mainly based on agriculture,
supplemented by trade and craft.

Gurage
The Sebat Bet Gurage, classified as the Western Gurage, included Chaha, Muher, Ezha, Gumer,
Inamor, Endegegn/Enner and Gyeto. The other major Gurage group, classified as the Northern
Gurage, is variously known as Kistane, Aymalal or Soddo. Additional groups included Dobbi,
Gadabano, and Masqan. The Gurage had traditional system of governance developed over
centuries: Yajoka Qicha among the Sebat Bet and Gordanna Sera among the Kistane.Yet, there
was no centralized leadership. Power was vested in descent, clan or lineage groups that displayed
corporate rights, obligations, and influence. The Gurage leaders also held the title of abegaz or
azmatch combining political and military authority. The staple crop in Gurage is enset.

Silte
Local traditions confirm the movement of notables like Hajji Aliye from the areas around the
Chercher highlands in eastern Ethiopia with large number of followers chiefly the Silte before
the sixteenth century. These people settled in the south and western parts of Ethiopia during the
conflict between the Christian kingdom and the Adal sultanate as well as the Oromo population
 movement. Thus, it is possible that the ethnogenesis of the Silte had benefited from the inter­
mixing of various peoples due to war and population movements. In the Silte highland areas, the
cultivation of enset was the predominant staple crop while cereals constituted the base for
peasant subsistence in the lowland parts. Khat and berbere (red pepper) remained the two major
cash crops in the area although local merchants were also involved in the buying and selling of
coffee, mainly from the highland parts of Sidama and Shewa as of the nineteenth century.

Hadiya
The origin of the Hadiya state goes back to the thirteenth century. Hadiya’s population became
more heterogeneous after the wars between the Christian Kingdom and Adal, and the Oromo
population movement, chiefly the latter. Among others, descendants of the old Hadiya can be
traced among the Oromo, Sidama, Qabena and Halaba, and the Hadiya proper with its sub­
groups: the Mareko, Lemu, Soro, Shashogo and Badowacho. Hadiya’s political importance was
considerable, thanks to its sizable population and vast territory, from the thirteenth to the
sixteenth centuries. Despite sporadic clashes, Hadiya’s relation with the Christian state was
largely stable, particularly after the marriage of Emperor Zara-Yaqob to the Hadiya princess Ite
Jan Zela, more famously known as Queen Elleni.

Kambata
Four communities of separate origin (the Kambata in the narrow sense, the Dubamo, Donga and
Tembaro) coalesced to form the nucleus of the state of Kambata by about 1550-70. This process
of state formation was further assisted by Omotic and Semitic peoples who moved into the
region at different times. The groups who called themselves Kambata related to one of the seven
dominant clans (Kambata Lamala) at the end of the sixteenth century. The Kambata had a
traditional administrative institution called the Hambericho Council that had seven members,
each representing the seven clans. The council ruled Kambata with a king at the top. The people
were enset cultivators, sharing similar culture and speaking the same language, Kambatissa.

Halaba
The Halaba inhabited the territory between the Bilate River and Lake Hawasa. At the apex of the
indigenous administration was the Woma (king) and below him were clan or village leaders. The
Halabi Ogete, an assembly of village leaders, handled societal matters such as disputes between
clans. The traditional administrative and judicial system functioned based on Sera, which

■Station
constituted the laws and values of the society. The Halaba economy was largely based on
subsistence agriculture and raising of livestock. The main cash crops included red pepper, maize
and teff. Halaba’s principal center, Kolito, was once a principal market place.

5.5.3. Peoples and States in the South

Sidama
The Sidama indigenous system of governance was led by the Mote (king), who exercised
political authority in consultation with the council of elders called Songo. Meanwhile, the Woma
handled ritual matters such as offering sacrifices to spirits, circumcision and marriage. Sidama
society was divided into generation sets called Luwa. It had five grades: Darara, Fullassa,
Hirbora, Wawassa and Mogissa, each lasting eight years. Each class had its own leader named
gaden, who settled disputes and handled the defense of the society. The Sidama sera governed
social life based on the moral code, ha/ale (the ultimate truth), which was used to administer
justice. Halale had no enforcement mechanisms, but people abided by its rules to avoid curse or
ostracization by the society. Enset and coffee are important food and cash crops, respectively.

Gedeo
The dominant tradition traces the ancestry of the Gedeo to Daraso, who was the older brother of
Gujo, the father of the Guji Oromo. The seven major Gedeo clans descended from the seven sons
of Daraso and were grouped in two houses: the shole batte (senior house), consisting of four
clans, and the sase batte (junior house), containing three clans. The Gedeo had a traditional
governance system called balle, which was based on age classes and ranking having seven
grades with a 10-year period each creating a 70-year cycle. Sasserogo was a federation of three
territories: Sobbho, Ributa and Rikuta sharing one Abba Gadaa who leaves office every eight
years to be replaced by a new holder from the next age set. The Gedeo economy was mainly
based on enset cultivation.

Konso
The Konso practiced a balanced, integrated and specialized agricultural technology. They also
adopted soil conservation techniques, notably the construction of terraces, which converted
rugged and hilly areas into permanent cultivation. Furthermore, farmers were adept at selecting
plant varieties that withstood hot and dry climatic conditions. Konso’s economy also depended
on bee-keeping and crafts. The Konso lived in walled villages (paletas) which were further

63
 divided into wards called kanta until the late nineteenth century. Each village was ruled by a
council of elders called hayyota who were selected through the direct participation of the adult
males. Membership to the council was not hereditary but rotated every eighteen years.

5.5.4. Peoples and States in the Southwest

Wolayta
The Wolayta-Malla and the Tigre dynasties successively ruled Wolayta kingdom from the
thirteenth to the late nineteenth centuries. The state flourished in the late eighteenth and early
nineteenth centuries because of the successful wars that the Wolayta fought against their
neighbors, and the material, human and territorial gains thereof. At the apex of the hierarchy was
the kawo (king), assisted by advisors’ council. Wolayta land grew a large variety of crops but the
dominant food crop was enset. Access to land was governed by kinship and political and social
status. Furthermore, the kawo rewarded people with land on the basis of gallant deeds in battle
and other vital contributions to the state. By grants of land or by threats of dispossession, the
reigning monarch ensured loyalty to the state. Except for those who worked on the royal estate,
landholders paid tribute to the king.

Yem
Initially, an indigenous dynasty called Dida or Halmam-Gamma ruled Yem from its tunta
(palace) in Dudarkema (Zimarma) near Oya. Its last amno (king), Oyokam/Ammo Dasha was
ousted from power in the fourteenth century. This was followed by the establishment of a new
dynasty called Mowa (Howa), with its center at Angari. Besides being at the top of the political
ladder, the amno acted as a chief priest with attributes of divinity. The amno had a council of
twelve advisors called astessor. Below them were the erasho and the gagna, provincial and
district governors, respectively. The Yem had traditions of digging bero (ditches) for protection.
They erected nearly fifty-meter wooden or iron pillars at the state center, Brisi Bita, from where
their soldiers patrolled surroundings. Yem’s economy combined agriculture, trade and crafts.

Dawuro
Dawuro was inhabited by three major clans: Malla, Dogolla, and Amara. The Kawuka dynasty
created a big state from a great number of petty chieftainships on the territory between the Gojeb
and Omo rivers in the north, east and south and the Kafa high mountains in the west by about
 1700. Kati Irashu and Kati Halala were famous Kawuka rulers. Dawuro is known for defensive
stone fortifications. The livelihood of the Dawuro was based on mixed agriculture.

Picture 4: Dawuro stone walls (source- Photo of Dawuro fortress - Search Images (bing.com)

Gamo
The Gamo inhabited the area stretching from Lakes Chamo and Abaya to the Gughe Mountain
and beyond. A set of interrelated indigenous laws called woga defined land use. The cultivation
of enset was central in geze (highlands) while maize and sweet potato were staple food crops in
bazo (lowlands). Pottery, tanning and metalworking were additional subsistence modes. From
the sixteenth to the nineteenth centuries, the scattered Gamo settlements were organized in
politically autonomous villages called dere sharing essential features: 1) kawo (hereditary ruler),
who also offered sacrifices and symbolized the people’s unity; 2) initiates called halaqa-, and 3)
assembly site called dubusha, where communal matters were discussed and disputes resolved.
Through initiation or election, the dulata (assembly) elected married men as leaders called
huduga/maga while baira was based on genealogical seniority according to primogeniture.

Ari
The Ari society was organized into ten independent clans headed by a hereditary chief known as
babi, who was assisted by godimis (religious leaders), zis (village heads) and tsoikis (intelligence
agents). The chief exercised both political and ritual power over his respective domain.

65
 Kafa
The kingdom of Kafa emerged in the fourteenth century but became prominent after the middle
of the seventeenth century under the Minjo dynasty that had close contact with Enarya, from
where the royal title, tato (king), and Christianity were introduced. The tato was assisted by a
council of seven advisors called the Mikrecho. The council moderated the power of the king and
had a role in royal succession. The kingdom developed a highly organized structure with several
tributary dependencies. The political center of the kingdom was Andaracha. Kafa’s economy was
based on the cultivation of enset. The major trade items from Kafa were ivory, gold, slaves,
coffee, honey-wax and civet musk. Kafa had a tradition of digging deep trenches (erio) as
defensive barrier.

5.5.5. Peoples and States in the West

Anywa

The Anywa predominantly inhabited along Pibor, Sobat, Gila, Akobo, Agwei, Oboth, Baro and
Alwero Rivers in and around Gambella. Local traditions attribute the origin of the southern
Anywa state to a certain founding father called Oshoda. The other Anywa had a governance
system whereby each village lived under a chief called kuaari, who with the assistance of the
nobles (nyiye) managed the distribution of farm and grazing fields and settled disputes.

Majang
Linguistic evidence traces the Majang’s origin to the Boma plateau in South Sudan. Gradually,
their settlement extended to areas near Dembi-Dollo in the north. The Majang practiced shifting
cultivation, animal husbandry, beekeeping, hunting and fishing.

Nuer
The Nuer lived in areas that extended across the savannas and marshes of the Bahr el-Ghazal and
the Upper Nile of the Sudan. They had been largely settled in the plains of Gambella along the
Sobat and Baro Rivers, and in a large area of the Sudan since the nineteenth century. The Nuer
had an age-set system combining social and political functions. Nuer boys had to pass through a
rigorous test and a series of rites connected with it before they were initiated into adulthood.

66
Berta and Gumuz
The Berta and Gumuz inhabited the area around the lower course of the Abbay and had a long­
standing trade contacts with northern Sudan that resulted in strong Islamic influence. Gold
deposits of these areas had attracted others for long.

Kunama
The Kunama, also called the Baza, are one of the ancient inhabitants of western Eritrea on the
Gash, and Tekkeze Rivers and northwestern and western Tigray. The Kunama had a customary
institution called sanga-anene entrusted with the administration of the society, granting asylum
to newcomers and performing rituals as part of reconciliation process in cases of homicide. Its
office was held by male members and transmitted hereditarily from the eldest brother to the next
born through matrilineal line. Agriculture is based on the use of hoe, spades, sickles and ox
(camel)-drawn plough. The staple crop of the Kunama is kina (sorghum). Other crops are borta
or beca (millet), pulses and afokina (maize). The Kunama also keep livestock, mainly goats,
sheep, oxen and camels.

5.6. The Gondarine Period and Zemene- Mesafint

5.6.1. The Gondarine Period (1630-1780s)
Political Developments
The Gondarine period, which lasted for some 130 years, can be sub-divided into three periods,
based on political and cultural criteria. These are foundation and glory (1630-1706), insecurity
(1706-1720), and revival and steady decline (1720-1780s). The foundation of Gondar as a
permanent royal capital followed the movement of the royal court to the Lake Tana region.
Emperor Sartsa-Dengel established his royal capital at Enfraz in 1571. Emperor Susenyos also
tried to establish his capital near Gondar at places like Qoga, Gorgora, Danqaz and Azazo.
Finally, Gondar was founded as a permanent capital in 1636 by Emperor Fasiledes. The emperor
selected Gondar as his royal capital for the purpose of directly supervising the collection of
customs on the Red Sea- Lake Tana- Enarya route. It was also near the main caravan route from
Mettema to Lake Tana, joining the route from Enarya to the Red Sea. The mountains that formed
a semi-circle around the town also afforded protection. Its location was also at considerable
distance from the malaria in the lower regions of Lake Tana.
 Gondar achieved its glory during the reigns of Fasiledes (r.1632-67), and lyasu I (r.1682-1706
with the throne name of Adyam Saggad), also known as lyasu the Great. Fasiledes established
the royal capital, restored the Alexandrian faith, and expelled the Jesuits. However, Gondar’s
remarkable period of glory was that of lyasu I. He managed to restore the state’s control over a
large territory. He obtained the vassalage of Musa, the Naib of Massawa, and he was the last
emperor based at Gondar to reach as far as Enarya in the Gibe region in 1704. He also stretched
the symbolic presence of the state in Tigre and Shewa. He also introduced customs, and
undertook tax and land reforms. As such, he is considered as the last powerful emperor before
the rise of Tewodros II in the modern period.

A period of insecurity commenced in 1706, when lyasu the Great was assassinated by a faction
spearheaded by his own son, Tekle-Haymanot. With this assassination, a period of instability
began, characterized by intrigues and poisoning of reigning monarchs. Tekle-Haymanot was
crowned in 1706 before the death of his father and was in turn assassinated by Tewoflos in 1708.
Tewoflos was again killed in 1711 by Yostos, who was also poisoned in 1717 and replaced by
Dawit III, who himself was poisoned and replaced by Bakkafa in 1721. All these events
transpired within the context of factionalism, regionalism and religious controversies.

The Gondarine period showed signs of revival with the ascendancy of Bakkafa in 1721. He tried
to restore stability by strengthening the army units, most of which were recruited from among the
Oromo units. He also benefited from the political wisdom of his escort, Etege Mentewab, also
known as Berhan Mogasa, who became leader of the dominant political faction after he was
incapacitated after 1728.

However, Gondarine politics witnessed a period of decline after 1730. Three regionally based
political factions emerged, all aiming to control the power of the ras bitwedded (effectively the
king-maker). These were the qwaregnoch, headed by Etege Mintewab and her kins from Qwara,
the Oromo faction from Wollo led by lyoas’s maternal uncles, and the Tigray faction led by Ras
Mikael Sehul. In a way, Etege Mentewab was the architect of all these factions. Everything
started when she arranged a political marriage between Wubit, a woman born to an Oromo
family in Wollo, with her son lyasu II (1730-1755). lyoas, the outcome of the marriage, took
power in 1755 and invited his maternal uncles to the royal court, which they began to dominate.
To counterbalance the dominance of the Oromo faction, Mintewab invited Ras Mikael Sehul
from Tigray to Gondar. The powerful Tigrean lord killed lyoas and enthroned Yohannes II,
marking the trimph of regional lords over the monarchy. It should be noted that ethnic identity
wielded minimal sway over the political upheavals in Gondar, with regional identity assuming
greater significance. The primary contenders were engaged in a power struggle to dictate to the
emperor and attain the prestigious designation of ras bitwedded (“king maker”).

Cultural Achievements of the Gondarine Period

Despite the enduring and notorious political turbulence, Gondar has bequeathed to history a
multifarious and illustrious legacy. It was a center of state administration, learning, commerce,
education, art and crafts for more than two centuries. Gondar set the cultural ethos of the region
and witnessed several cultural developments. The cultural achievements led some writers to
describe the period as the Ethiopian Renaissance.

Architecture: Gondarine kings built impressive secular buildings like castles, bridges,
residences, bath, library, towers and fortifications. Many churches with different shapes were
also built. In the city’s most impressive compound, known as Fasil Gebbi, there were several
palaces built by Emperor Fasiledes, Yohannes I, lyasu I, Dawit III, Bakkafa and Queen
Mentewab. Gondarine architecture could be said to have started during the reign of Emperor
Sartsa-Dengel, who built his castle at Guzara, near the town of Enfraz at about 1586. Although
Bahir Gimb Mikael was constructed during the reign of Lebne Dengel, the distinctive pointed
oval dome situated over the center of the church is credited to Sartsa-Dengel.

Both castle and bridge construction predates the reign of Fasiledas. Emperor Sartsa-Dengel built
a very fine bridge near his palace at Guzara, over the Gamo (Arno) River. Emperor Susenyos
likewise erected a bridge over the Blue Nile at Alata. As a result of these achievments, a distinct
Gondarine architectural style emerged, which continued from the second half of the sixteenth
century to the political decline of Gondar in the middle of the eighteenth century.
 Picture 5: Fasiledes' Castle in Gondar

Source: https://www.britannica.eom/place/Gondar#/media/l/238349/l 1150

Painting: the period also saw a wealth of religious paintings on manuscripts and on wood,
ornaments, weapons and other accessories. The churches built by Queen Mentwab were notable
for their beautiful paintings, cross and art works. The distinctive style of Gondarine art has been
given special recognition by Ethiopian art historians.

Literature: the imperial and provincial scriptoria produced a great number of manuscripts.
Besides the Gospels, the Miracles of Mary, the Lives of Ethiopian Saints and the Litanies, many
other kinds of illuminated manuscripts were also produced. There was a rich tradition of book­
making. Gondar is also known for its music and poetry.

Trade and Urbanization: Gondar also has the distinction of establishing the first daily market
in Ethiopia. The city became the residence of diverse foreign communities: Iberian (Portuguese
and Spanish), Indian, Greek and Armenian. It had an estimated population of 60,000-70,000. It
served as religious center of Christians, Muslims and the Bete Israel. Besides, it served as the
center of Ethiopian Orthodox Church (residence of the abun and echege) until the middle of the
nineteenth century. Many churches served as education centers, which comprised three levels:
Nebab Bet (Reading school), Qedasse Bet (Liturgy school) and higher schools, namely Zema Bet
(Music school), Qene Bet (Poetry school), and Metsehaf Bet (interpretation of holy books). Its
churches were also centres of excellence in teaching aqwaqwam and liturgical chants.
5.6.2. The Zemene- Mesafint (Era of Princes, 1786-1853)
The Zemene- Mesafint was a period of political decentralization, i.e. the increase of power of
regional lords, following a period of political and cultural prosperity. This period is often dated
between 1786 (the ascent to power of Ras Ali I, the founder of the Yajju Dynasty), and 1853 (the
defeat of the last of the Yajju princes, Ras Ali II, at the Battle of Ayshal by Dajjach Kasa Haylu
(the future Emperor Tewodros II). The process of the erosion of royal power was initiated by Ras
Mika’el, who deposed King lyoas in 1769. He then started taking strong measures against the
nobility, which made him highly unpopular because of which coalitions of lords of Gojjam,
Amhara, Lasta and Wollo defeated him at the battle of Sarbakussa in 1771. Then, several
influential war lords evolved over the main political regions: Tigray, Semen, Dembiya,
Begemedir, Lasta, Yejju, Wollo, Damot, Mecha and Gojjam.

Among these, the most powerful group was the Yejju (Warraseh) dynasty from Yejju. From its
base at Debre Tabor, it controlled the emperors in Gondar for some seven decades. Yejju rule
reached its zenith under Gugsa Marso (r. 1803-1825) who made incessant struggle against Ras
Walde-Silassie of Enderta and Dejjazmatch Sabagadis Woldu of Agame. His son Yimam
(r. 1825-8) defeated Hayle-Mariam Gebre of Simen in 1826. Marye, another son of Gugsa (1828­
1831) and Sabagadis fought at the Battle of May Aslamay (Dabra Abay) in 1831; both of them
were killed even if it was the Yajju who got the final victory.

Major features of Zemene- Mesafint include:

• changes in the interregional balance of power from central authority to a decentralized or
multi-centered political structure;
• reduction of the emperor’s office to that of a puppet king who reigned but did not rule;
• conflicts among regional rulers and warlords over the control of the emperor in Gondar;
• Christological factions resulting in the divison of the Church;
• decay of “classical” Gondarine culture like Ge’ez literature, painting, architecture etc.
• the decline of the military regimental system, the emperor thereby being forced to rely on
his lords for military support;
• peaceful consolidation of some areas as independent princedoms such as Shewa;
• growing contacts of regional lords with different foreign powers and making and
unmaking of fragile coalitions and allainces to advance political interests.
On the other hand, the Zemene- Mesafint also witnessed other developments. These include-
• The emperor remained a symbol of political unity and source of legitimacy;
• The Yejju elites were keen to preserve the unity and territorial integrity of the kingdom;
• Despite their strength, the regional lords only vied to be king-makers, and did not try to
ascend the throne themselves, keeping alive the myth of “Solomonid” dynasty in Gondar;
• Diversification of powers and political centres resulted in the multiplication of courtly
culture which was previously limited to the royal court;
• The influence of different regional and ethnic cultures broadened the cultural diversity of
Ethiopia, fuelling cultural change;
• The internal struggle of the period contributed to the ermegence of independent kingdoms
which later spearheaded the unification of Ethiopia.

Learning Activities
> Why was Imam Ahmed’s force successful at the battle of Shimbra Kure?
> Why did Portugal and Ottoman Turkey involve in the Horn’s domestic affairs?
> What were the major effects of the Christian-Muslim conflicts?
> Discuss the process and outcome of the Jesuits’ evangelical activities in Ethiopia.
> Why do you think Susenyos adopted Catholicism as a state religion?
> What was the ‘closed door policy’ and how did it affect Ethiopia’s relations with Europe?
> Discuss the causes of population movements in the sixteenth century.
> Explain contributions of the Oromo, Argobba, Afar and Somali population movements?
> What was the purpose of the butta ceremony and how did it function?
> What is the Gadaa system and how did it function in Oromo society?
> Which values of the Gadaa system contributed to social integration?
> Discuss the similarities and differences between Gadaa, Luwa and Baalle systems.
> Discuss the evolution and political administration of the Kambata, Wolayta. Harar...
> Briefly describe major achievements of the Gondarine period.
> Discuss the circumstances that gave rise to the Zemene- Mesafint.
> List the major features of the Zemene- Mesafint and analyze how it affected society.
> Explain the key developments during the period of the Yejju dynasty.
 UNIT SIX
INTERNAL DEVELOPMENTS AND EXTERNAL RELATIONS IN
ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN, 1800-1941 (10 HOURS)
6.1. Nature of Interactions among the Peoples and States of Ethiopia and the Horn

6.1.1. Peoples and States in South-Central, Southwestern, and Western Ethiopia

Qabena: with elements of Hadiya-Gurage coalition, it emerged as a strong political entity in the
south central Ethiopia in the second half of the nineteenth century. It became a center of Muslim
revivalist movement in the northeast of the Gibe River. Stirred by Muslim refugees from Wollo
and with possible connections even with Mahdist Sudan, the movement swept across a large part
of the region and was attended by the fast spread of Islam.

Five Gibe States: monarchical states emerged among the Mecha Oromo in the southwest at the
expense of the Gadaa system in the early nineteenth century. The war leaders (Abba-Dula/Motf)
and powerful individuals accumulated wealth by controlling and taxing long distance trade, and
used the opportunity to establish hereditary leadership. These states were:
I. Limmu-Enarya: the Abba Dulas of Limmu like Tesso had fought and defeated the Enarya
rulers like Badancho, Gu’amcho and Banaro at different times. Yet, it was Bofo/Abba Gomol
(r. 1800-1825), who established the Limmu-Enarya state. Bofo abdicated in favor of his son,
Ibsa/Abba Bogibo (r.1825-61), under whom the kingdom reached its zenith, incorporating
areas like Hagalo, Badi-Folla, etc. Ibsa was succeeded by Abba Bulgu (r. 1861-1883).
II. Guma: Jilcha Abba Bal’o of Chira killed Sarbaroda of the Dagoye clan and began the
formation of the state. He was succeeded by his son Oncho (1810-1830), who completed the
state formation. He was in turn succeeded by Jawwe (r. 1840-1854).
III. Gomma: formed by Abba Boke (1800-1829), who was succeeded by his son Abba Mano
(1829-1840). The latter conquered Qattu and enhanced the activities of Muslim scholars/
ulama, who converted the masses of Gomma to Islam much earlier than other Gibe states.
IV. Jimma: an influential woman, Makahore, emerged at Oda Hulle in eighteenth century, but it
was Ose Kobi (Abba Faro), who became the first monarch. He was succeeded by Dangila
(Abba Magal). The state formation was completed by Sanna/Abba Jifar I (r. 1830-55), who
left a consolidated state to his successors like Abba Rebu (r. 1855-59), Abba Boqa (r.1859-
 1861), Abba Gomol (r.1861-75), and the most famous monarch, Abba Jifar II (r.1875-1934).
The kingdom had iron mining and smelting centers at Dakkano and Kitto, respectively.
V. Gera: the process of state formation was completed during the reign of Tullu Gunji (r.1835-
38). Abba Rago I (r.1838-48) succeeded Tullu.

The monarch’s officials in almost all the Gibe states included Abba Gurmu (next to the king),
Abba Mizan (treasurer and foreign affair minister), Abba Dango (immigration chief), Lammi
(envoy), Abba Qoro (district governor), Abba Ganda (village chief), Abba Busi (tax head), Abba
Jiga (murder case judge), and Abba-Qawe (body-guard). Contrary to Gadaa values that did not
levy any tax, under monarchical system, farmers were forced to pay taxes on each crop measured
by traditional instruments called buchano (15 kilograms) and later guboo (25 kilograms).

The Leqa States

I. Leqa-Naqamte: was founded by Bakare Godana in 1840, and reached its height under Kumsa
Moroda (later Dejjazmach Gebre-Egzi'abiher), who promoted handcraft work, gold washing,
coffee planting and game reserves.
II. Leqa-Qellam: was founded by Tullu and became powerful under his son, Jote, with its center
at Gidami and controlling the surrounding areas, including Seyyo-Dambi Dollo.

Ilu: the Tume clan leader Chali Shono (also known as Abba Bor) established a well-consolidated
and prosperous state in the early nineteenth century.

Nilotic Sheikdoms: a number of Sheikdoms were established through parallel imposition of

Arabic-speaking Sudanese merchants over the indigenous Berta. The merger came to be known
as ‘Watawit’. Among these Watawit sheikhdoms, Asosa or Aqoldi gained preeminence under
Sheikh Khojale al-Hasan. Bela/Beni-Shangul became famous under Abd al Rahman Khojale,
while Khomosha reached its zenith under Khojale Muhammad Wad Mahmud. Similarly, Guba
was established north of the Abbay River along the Ethio-Sudanese border. Economically, the
sheikdoms depended on agriculture, gold mining, and frontier trade. The rich gold of the area
also attracted foreign powers like the Mahdists and Egyptians, who attempted to control the
sheikdoms at different times.
 Map 5: Peoples and States of Ethiopia and the Horn, c. 1800

MASSAWA
CICO
KASALA

Saraye „ , „
Akala Guzay
T E G R
^ AKSUM *ADWA

^ SEMEN
ANTALC
GALLABAT MATAMMA BAGEMDER
AWSA
~ • GONDAR
WALLO
TAJUHA
LALIBALA

□ABRA TABOR
GOJJAM zeila
WAR RA ILLU
BERBERA
w BELA.
5 SHANGUL HARAR
LEGA ANKOBAH
o AQOLDI LECHE ,
5 LEQA NAQAMTE
QELLAM
SHAWA HARAR
LI MU ENNARYA

GURAGE
GERA g HADIYA
KAFA KAMBATA
GAMO WALAYTA
GOFA
KONSO

GOJJAM Principality

Dambya District

ANKOBAR Town

Source: Bahru Zewde, A History of Modern Ethiopia, p. 17.

6.1.2. Trade and Trade Routes

The main trade routes linking various territories of the Horn attained prominence during the
nineteenth century, partly because of the revival of external trade in the Red Sea region. One
route linked peoples and states of southwestern Ethiopia with the northern part of the region. The
main market centers along this line were Bonga (the capital of Kafa Kingdom), Hirmata (in
Jimma), Saqa (in Limmu), Billo (in Leqa-Naqamte), Asendabo (in Guduru), Basso-Yajube (in
Gojjam), Yifag and Darita (in Begemider) and Gondar. From Gondar, one line bifurcated
westward through Chilga to Matamma-Qallabat (Gallabat). The other route passed through
Adwa, Asmara and entered Massawa. Another split occurred at Basso, to move via Ancharro and
Dawwe in Wollo and Awusa in Afar to Tajura, Obbok and Rahe’ita in Djibouti. The second
major route also began from Bonga and passed through Hirmata to Agabja-Andode-Toli-Soddo
in southwest Shewa and Rogge near Yerer. Then, the line passed through Aliyu Amba or Abdul
Rasul in northern Shewa and crossed eastward to Harar. From Harar, the route branched into
Zeila and Berbera. Ethiopian products were mostly sold in the Middle East.

Map 6: Trade Routes of Ethiopia and the Horn in the nineteenth century

Source: Bahru Zewede, A History of Modern Ethiopia, p. 23.

The main items exported from the southwest included civet musk, honey wax, coffee, various
spices and slaves. Imported products included mirrors and ironware. The major mediums of
exchange were salt bars (amole), cowrie shells, pieces of cotton cloth (abujadi') and Maria
Theresa Thalers (MTT). Amole was mined from the Taltal plains in Afar bordering Eastern
Tigray. The town of Mekelle prospered as the salt was cut into smaller pieces and distributed to
the highlands under the supervision of the governor of Enderta. He assumed the title of balgada
and collected the tributes as tax judge. MTT was a silver coin introduced from Austria to the
Horn at the end of the eighteenth century. It bore the image of Maria Theresa, the Austrian
queen; hence the name.
At each market center, local peoples were active traders. However, Muslims were the most
important carriers of long distance trade, traveling from the interior to the coast. Among these
were the Muslim Oromo merchants of the southwestern area known as Afqala, northern Muslim
merchants (Jabarti), and the Sudanese merchants called Jallaba. Similarly, the Argobba from the
Shewa Kingdom were active merchants who traded via Harar up to the Northern Somali coast.

6.2. The Making of the Modern Ethiopian State

Process of Territorial Unification
The man who ended the Zemene- Mesafint was Kasa Hailu of Qwara. He started his career as an
assistant to his half-brother, Dejjazmach Kinfu of Dambeya, who died in 1839. Ras Ali II then
gave Qwara to his mother, Etege (Empress) Manan. Kasa was annoyed by this and became a
shifta (bandit). Kasa’s fame soon spread and he became a major concern to the Yejju ruling
house, who decided to pacify him. Kasa was married to Tewabech, the daughter of Ras Ali, and
he was appointed the governor of Qwara. However, Kasa still felt that he was not well treated by
Ali II and Menen, and resumed his shiftnet. A series of battles then followed. First, Kasa
defeated Dejjach Goshu Zewde of Gojjam at Gur Amba on November 27, 1852. Kasa defeated
the four dejjazmachs sent by Ali II (Birru Aligaz, Aben, Yazew and Belew), at Taqusa (Gorgora
Bichign) on April 12, 1853. This was followed by his victory over Ras Ali II at Ayshal on June
29, 1853, and Dejjach Wube of Simen and Tigray at Deresge on February 8, 1855. Then, he was
crowned by Abune Salama, the Coptic bishop at Deresge Mariam, on 9 February 1855, taking the
throne name Tewodros II (r. 1855-1868).

Tewodros II then pursued his victory by marching to Wollo and then to Shewa. He wanted to
create a strong central government by appointing individuals who would be accountable to him.
However, he faced resistance from Tadla Gwalu of Gojjam, Agaw Niguse and Tassama
Waldamicha'el of Simen, Tasew Gobaze of Walqayit, Amade Bashir of Wallo, Seifu and
Abboyye of Shewa. His imprisonment of Europeans, who happened to be in Ethiopia, provoked
the British to send a huge military expedition. His army was defeated at the Battle of Maqdela,
on April 13, 1868. He committed suicide rather than be captured by the British. Despite his
tragic death, Tewodros II holds a distinctive position in the annals of national unity and pride. A
product of the Zemene- Mesafint, he proved to be its anti-thesis. While his reforms look
impulsive and uncoordinated, they established the groundwork for his successors to advance
 these pivotal national endeavors. Having lived in the full light of native and foreign writers, he
stands as one of the most known historical figures in historical records and literary compositions.

Wagshum Gobaze Gabramadhin of Lasta, Bezbez Kasa Mircha of Tigray and Menilek of Shewa
then emerged as contenders to the throne. Gobeze immediately assumed the throne as Emperor
Tekle-Giorgis II (1868-71). Although he made attempts to create a smooth relation with Kasa
Mircha, the quest for state power put them in enmity and it culminated in the Battle of Assam (in
Adwa) in July 1871, in which the latter became victorious. Kasa, who was crowned as Emperor
Yohannes IV in January 1872, embarked on a state building project with an approach that
differed from that of Tewodros II. Yohannes IV (r. 1872-89) attempted to introduce a
decentralized system of administration, permitting regional rulers to exercise considerable
autonomy. A good example of this was his recognition of Menilek as negus of Shewa by the
Liche agreement in 1878. Similarly, Yohannes designated Ras Adal Tesema of Gojjam as negus
Tekle-Haymanot of Gojjam and Kafa in 1881.

Emperor Yohannes IV sought to end the religious controversy within the EOC and to bring about
religious unity in the country as a whole. In this regard, he presided over the Council of Boru
Meda (1878), where tewahedo was declared the only doctrine of the EOC. This was followed by
a campaign to convert Muslims and adherents of other religions into Orthodox Christianity.
Accordingly, the leading Wollo leaders such as Mohammed Ali and Amede Liben heeded the
emperor’s call, rather reluctantly, converting to Christianity and changing their names to Ras
Michael and Dejjach Hayle-Mariam, respectively. Others accepted the emperor’s demands
outwardly but remained Muslims, becoming "Christians by day and Muslims by night." Still
others resisted and fled to Arsi, Gurage, Jimma and the Sudan or revolted under the leadership of
Sheikh Tolla (Talha) Jafar that provoked harsh retributive measures by the emperor.

Although the emperor had designated Mengesha Yohannes as his successor before his death at
the Battle of Metemma on March 9, 1889, rivalry over power split the monarch's camp and thus,
Mengesha was unable to make a viable bid for the imperial throne. As a result, and thanks to the
resouces he had amassed in the course of his territorial expansion, the throne was assumed by
Negus Menilek of Shewa, who became Emperor Menilek II (r. 1889-1913). Mengesha refused to
submit. The tension was resolved after Menilek led a campaign to force Mengesha's submission

78
 in 1889. Ras Mengesha was appointed as governor of Tigray after a temporary arrangement in
which Ras Mekonnen Wolde Mikael ruled the area for about a year.

Territorial Expansion
Although successive emperors and regional lords made territorial expansion their mission in the
nineteenth century, the most successful was Menilek of Shewa because of his access to modern
firearms, his control of resource-rich areas that enabled him to build his military muscle, and the
dedication of his generals. The process of territorial expansion by Menilek can be divided into
three phases: when he was king of Shewa (1865-89), from his coronation to the Battle of Adwa
(1889-96) and the Adwa aftermath (1896-1900).

Menilek had already incorporated the Tulama and Eastern Mecha Oromo territories before the
1870s after controlling local leaders, notably Ashe Rufo of Salale, Dula Ara’e of Gullale, Tufa
Muna of Gimbichu, Ture Galate of Soddo and others. Some Oromo leaders such as Ras Gobana
Dache, Fitawrari Habte-Giorgis Dinagde, Dejjach Balcha Safo (Abba Nefso) and others helped
Menilek in this process of expansion.

The northern Gurage, the Kistane, peacefully submitted to Menilek from 1875-76 because of
their religious affinity and geographical proximity to the Kingdom of Shewa, as well as fear of
the surrounding Oromo. On the other hand, the western Gurage, led by Hasan Enjamo of
Qabena, strongly resisted Menilek's force until Ras Gobana broke their resistance in 1888.

In the areas south of the Abay River, particularly in Horro Guduru, Ras Adal Tesema of Gojjam
had already established his control since the mid-1870s. Although the Gojjam force was crushed
by Moti (King) Abishe Garba’s Horro force at Chomman, Adal’s force ambushed Abishe and his
entourage at a place called Kokor. Thus, the Gojjam force controlled the area until June 6, 1882,
when it was defeated at the Battle of Embabo by the Shewan force. Thereafter, Leqa-Naqamte,
Leqa-Qellem and Jimma Abba Jifar peacefully submitted to Menilek, who promised them
recognition of their autonomy. Meanwhile, Garbi Jilo (of Leqa-Billo), Tucho Dano (Leqa-
Horda), Ligdi Bakare (Leqa-Naqamte), Genda Busan (Sibu-Sire), Mardasa Konche (Nonno
Migira) and Turi Jagan (Nonno Rogge) formed a coalition and defeated Menilek's army led by
the Nadew brothers (Dasta, Dilinesaw and Tesemma) at the Battle of Gara Dobbi. Similarly, in
 the west of the Didessa River, an alliance of Wachu Dabalo of Sibu, Jorgo Dagago of Noole
Kabba and others fought Menilek's local allies like Moroda and Amante Bakare at Sambo Darro.

In the Gibe area, Firissa of Guma fought Menilek's army from 1889 to 1901. Similar resistance
was posed by Abba Bosso of Gomma, although he was defeated by Ras Demisew Nesibu in
early 1900. Also, Ras Tesemma Nadew’s force incorporated Ilu Abba Bor into the imperial state
after series of fightings with Fatansa at places like Qersa Gogila.

Of all the campaigns Menilek conducted before he became emperor, perhaps, the most sustained
and bloody were those against the Arsi Oromo. There were altogether six campaigns from 1882­
1886. Menilek encountered fierce resistance from the Arsi led by notables like Sufa Kuso, Damu
Usu, Lenjiso Diga, Gosa Dilamo and Roba Butta. Initially, the Arsi defeated Menilek's force at
Dodota and Qal’ata. Yet, with the intelligence supplied by local supporters, Ras Darge Sahile-
Selassie's force defeated the Arsi at the battle of Azule on 6 September 1886. This was followed
by what is known as the Anole incident of 1887, which inflicted heavy retribution on the Arsi.
[There is disagreement among historians on the veracity of the incident and on whether there is a
need to highlight it, as the campaigns of territorial expansion were often attended by atrocities as
was the case for instance in Kafa and Wolayta].

In the east, Menilek's commander, Dejjach Wolde-Gabr'el, fought against the Ittu in 1886 and
incorporated Chercher. A year later, Dejjach Mekonnen’s army marched into Harar. The
resisting forces of Emir Abdullahi (r. 1885-1887) of the Harari and Bakar Ware of the Eastern
Oromo were defeated in the final engagement at Chalanqo on 6 January 1887. This was followed
by the appointment of Dejjach (later Ras) Makonnen as governor of the province.

The Great Famine or Kifu Qen of 1888-92 also contributed to Menilek's territorial expansion to
parts of southern Ethiopia. Accordingly, Menilek's army occupied Dawuro-Konta and Kambata
in 1889 and 1890, respectively. From the early 1890s to 1894, Menilek's army-controlled Bale,
Sidama, Gamo Gofa and Wolayta. In the campaign to Wolayta, Emperor Menilek and many
notables such as Ras Mikael, Fitawrari Gebeyehu Gurmu, Liqe Mekwas Abate Buayalew,
Dejjach Balcha Safo, Ras Wolde-Giorgis Abboye and Abba Jifar II participated. Wolayta's
resistance led by Kawo (King) Tona against Menilek's force was defeated in 1894 in which large
number of people lost their lives. This was followed by the conquest of Gedeo, Borana and
 Konso. The incorporation of Kafa paralleled the Wolayta experience in terms of human cost. The
king of Kafa, Tato Gaki Sherocho, fought and lost to Menilek's army led by Ras Wolde Giorgis
in 1897. Beni Shangul-Gumuz was incorporated after the Battle of Fadogno in 1897/98. This was
followed by the occupation ofMaji in 1898/99. TesemaNadew also controlled Baro (Sobat) and
Nasir in Gambella around this time.

After Menilek, the process of centralization and establishing a unitary state continued by
abolishing regional autonomies in the early decades of the twentieth century. In due course, the
following regions were reduced to mere provinces by Teferi-Mekonnen (later Emperor Haile-
Selassie I): Wollo (after the Battle of Segele in 1916 when Nigus Mika’el was defeated),
Begemedir (after the Battle of Anchim in 1930 at which Ras Gugsa Wole was defeated), Gojjam
in 1932 (after the detention of Ras Hailu) and Jimma in 1933.

6.3. Modernization Attempts

Tewodros II had better information about western governance and technology than his
predecessors and he took some important measures in this regard. He introduced military titles
like Yasr Alaqa (corporal), Yamsa Alaqa (sergeant), Yashi Alaqa (major) etc. He strived to
replace the regional armies of the Zemene- Mesafint with a salaried national army. He tried to
manufacture firearms with the help of European missionaries and Ethiopian artisans at his
workshop in Gafat (near Debre Tabor). About 35 cannons were produced, of which the biggest
one was “Sebastopol." He attempted to build a small navy on Lake Tana.

Moreover, Tewodros II began the construction of Ethiopia’s first embryonic road network
linking Debre Tabor with Gondar, Gojjam and Maqdela. Other measures included land reform
and banning polygamy. The use of Amharic writing became more developed, and a library was
established at Maqdela, all of which contributed to the development of literary Amharic. He
wrote letters to different foreign powers in Amharic. He endeavored to reduce the amount of land
held by the church as well as the number of priests and deacons serving every church. This
brought him into conflict with the EOC, precipitating his downfall. His reforms were not fully
realized owing to internal and external challenges.

Emperor Yohannes IV was the first Ethiopian monarch to appoint a foreign consul to serve as his
representative in London. He hired a French Mechanic (Rene), a Hungarian gunsmith (Andre),
 an Italian builder (Giacommo Naretti) and a Greek physician (Nicholas Parisis). He was also the
first to introduce modern smallpox vaccine, replacing traditional inoculation. His reign also
witnessed extensive treatment of syphilis in several towns.

The post-Adwa period was marked by the establishment by Emperor Menilek II of a postal
service and telecommunications/telephone-telegraph, the construction of the railway line from
Djibouti to Addis Ababa, the opening of the Bank of Abyssinia in 1905 and the introduction of
his own silver coin to replace the MTT. His reign also witnessed the foundation of Itege Hotel
(now Taytu Hotel) in 1907, Menilek II School in 1908, the Russian Red Cross hospital in 1906
and Russian-run Menilek II Hospital in 1910. The emperor also introduced European style
ministerial system in 1907. Accordingly, he appointed Afe-Nigus Nesibu Meskelo (Minister of
Justice), Azazh Metaferia Melke-Tsadiq (Minister of Imperial Court), Bejirond MulugetaYigezu
(Minister of Finance), Fitawnrari Habte-Giorgis Dinagde (Minister of War), Negadras
Hailegiorgis Weldemikael (Minister of Commerce and Foreign Relations) and Tsehafe-Tizaz
Gebre-Selase Welde Aregay (Minister of Pen). After he was incapacitated through illness,
Menilek designated Lij lyasu as heir to the throne and Ras Tesemma Nadew as regent in 1908.

Lij lyasu (r. 1913-16) banned the quragna system that involved chaining the plaintiff and
defendant until justice was settled. He tried to reform the leba shay system, a quirky method of
detecting criminals. He set up municipal police called Tirnbulle for Addis Ababa. He initiated
auditing of government accounts. He tried to integrate Ethiopian Muslims into the administration
structure. His rule also witnessed introduction of flour-mill, sawmill, tannery, soap-factory etc.

The two rulers of the diarchy (dual rule) of Empress Zewditu and Ras Teferi (r. 1916-1930) had
different views of Western culture. Teferi had keen interest to boost the country’s image on the
global stage through modernization. A number of reforms based on European model were taken
following his coronation as Emperor Haile-Selassie I in 1930. Some of these were the
promulgation of Ethiopia’s first constitution in 1931, the establishment of Kebur Zebegna
(Imperial Body Guard) with the help of Belgian military mission in 1930, and the opening of
Ethiopia’s first Military Academy at Holeta with the help of a Swedish military mission in 1934.
6.4. Socio-Economic Developments
6.4.1. Agriculture and Land Tenure
The nineteenth and early twentieth centuries witnessed an increasing demand for farming and
grazing land. The role of agriculture in the the politics of the period could be understood from
the competition to control surplus-producing areas. The quest for land was one factor for
territorial expansion by Menilek. Land was required, among others, to settle and feed the
warriors and their families. Hence, the incorporation of the southern half of the country into the
imperial state resulted in the redefinition of access to resources in these areas. The state
institutionalized different forms of surplus expropriation and mechanisms to ensure political
control in the areas that had peacefully submitted and those that resisted. The former relatively
enjoyed self-administration but were subjected to pay qurt gibir (fixed tax). The latter were
placed under the naftegna-gabbar system, whereby local peoples were made tribute payers to the
naftegna. Literally, naftegna means man-at-arms. In this context, naftegna refers to northern
soldiers stationed in the southern territories under the imperial banner.

The major force of change was the exploitative nature of the system that altered both settlement
patterns and agricultural systems. One effect of the naftegna-gabbar system was the creation of
classes like ballabat (landlords), gabbar and tenants. The landholders were largely government
agents while the local population was reduced into gabbar and later tenants. One major factor
that brought change to agricultural practices was the beginning of the qalad system (land
measurement) in the 1890s, by which certain social classes gained access to land while athe local
peasantry in parts of the south was dispossessed. Later, land was categorized into lam
(cultivated), lam-taf (partly-cultivated) and /^(uncultivated) to facilitate taxation.

6.4.2. Slavery and Slave Trade

Slave trade expanded in the Horn due to increased demand for slaves in foreign markets,
particularly in the Middle East, during the nineteenth century. Slaves were sold to Egypt, Arabia,
Ottoman Turkey, Persia, and India through the Sudan, the Red Sea, and the Gulf of Aden ports.
Slaves were required for agricultural works, in the army and as sources of revenue. Thus, several
regional and local rulers acquired slaves through raiding, kidnapping, war captivity, debt
bondage and purchase from open markets. Major sources of slaves were the southern and
southwestern parts. To cite just a few examples, slave raiders captured Bilile from Guma in 1837

ideation
 and sold her to a German prince, Herman Pickier Muskau, in Cairo, who changed her name to
Mahbuba and made her his mistress. Similarly, Hika (later Onesimos Nasib) was kidnapped in
Hurumu in 1869 when he was four years old. He was sold at Massawa, and was later freed by a
Swedish mission, after which he translated the Holy Bible into Afan Oromo at Menkulu (near
Massawa). Aster Gano was also sold from Limmu, but she was emancipated in 1886 and assisted
Onesimos in the translation of the Holy Bible.

Successive Ethiopian emperors tried to stop the slave trade although not slavery itself as of the
mid-nineteenth century.Atfs Teferi banned the slave trade in 1923 and issued a decree in 1924 to
emancipate slaves. The Office for the Abolition of Slavery was set up in 1932. Freed slaves were
kept under the supervision of Hakim Warqineh Eshete. The Italians proclaimed the abolition of
slavery immediately after their occupation. After liberation, the emperor issued another decree in
1942 abolishing any form of slavery and the institution of slavery.

6.4.3. Manufacturing
The opening of legations in the post-Adwa period was followed by the coming of many
expatriates, who either came with skills or became agents of the introduction of modern
manufacturing. Armenians, Greeks, Italians and Indians brought entrepreneurial capacity to
develop local manufacturing industries. Among these, the Holeta Grain Mill and Massawa Salt
Processing were set up in 1896 and 1904, respectively. About 25 factories were established in
Addis Ababa, Dire Dawa, Asmara and Massawa up to 1927. These included cement factories,
wood and clay workshops, tanneries, soap and edible oil plants, ammunition factories, breweries,
tobacco processing plants and grain mills. Artistic Printing Press and Ambo Mineral Water Plant
were established before the Italian occupation. More than 10 manufacturing industries were set
up after 1928, including during the short-lived Italian occupation.

6.4.4. Urbanization
The expansion of both local and long-distance trade since the early nineteenth century had
transformed old markets into towns. In addition, the railway linking Djibouti and Addis Ababa
began operation in 1917, followed by the evolution of several fast-growing towns, including
Dire-Dawa, Adama, Mojo, Bishoftu and others. On the other hand, many centers that once
served as "royal camps" evolved into towns. Conversely, many towns declined when "royal
 camps" shifted to other centers. One of the towns that grew through such process was Addis
Ababa. Empress Taytu Betul chose the place for its hot springs, Fel-Wuha/ Hora Finfinne, in
1886. Similarly, in southern Ethiopia, a number of towns emerged as of the late nineteenth
century when Menilek's generals established katamas (garrison towns), including Gobba, Ticho,
Gore and Arjo, in order to maintain control of the occupied provinces.

6.5. External Relations

6.5.1. Agreements and Treaties
As of 1804, regional rulers had made independent foreign contacts and signed treaties. The
agents of these relations were mainly travelers who came to the Horn with the motives of
adventure and scientific research. They were also sometimes involved in fostering friendship and
trade relation on behalf of their governments. Some of them, however, came with the covert
mission of colonialism. Meanwhile, various rulers of the region had also dispatched their own
delegations to various countries of the world. One of the earliest private travelers was Henry
Salt, who reached the court of Ras Wolde-Selassie of Tigray on August 28, 1805. He came for
scientific reasons, but he claimed that his mission was to establish friendship between Great
Britain and Ethiopia. He returned in 1809 after concluding an agreement with the ras. Other
travelers, including Christian Kugler, also arrived in the 1830s. Captain W.C. Harris, leading an
official British mission, visited Shewa and signed a treaty with Negus Sahle -Selassie (1813­
1847) in 1841. The French Rochet d’Hericourt also claimed to have signed a treaty with Sahle
Selassie in 1843 but was subsequently found to have been forged. John Bell and Walter Plowden
came in the 1840s and the latter signed treaty with Ras Ali II in 1849. Travelers from Germany
like Eduard Ruppell arrived in 1846. The Italian Geographic Society arrived in 1869.

Furthermore, other regional lords had connections with religious centers in the Middle East. For
instance, when Egyptians threatened the Ethiopian religious community settlement at Deir Al-
Sultan in Jerusalem, lords like Ali II and Wube sent letters to Queen Victoria of England in the
early 1850s to request support against the Egyptians.

Tewodros II seemed more oriented towards obtaining Western military support to avert foreign
aggression. Yohannes IV tried to create strong relations with Europeans so as to regain lost
territories, delimit boundaries, defend the sovereignty of the state, and solve external challenges
more through negotiation than war. Yohannes and the British Rear Admiral William Hewett on

85
 behalf of Egypt signed a treaty at Adwa on 3 June 1884 to safely evacuate the Egyptian troops
trapped by the Mahdists troops along the Ethio-Sudanese border through Ethiopia. In return,
Bogos was to be restored to Ethiopia and the latter was to use Massawa as a free port for the
transit of goods. On the basis of this agreement, Emperor Yohannes facilitated the withdrawal of
the Egyptian troops and Britain restored Bogos to Ethiopia. Yet, Britain secretly transferred
Massawa from Egypt to Italy in February 1885. Yohannes incurred the lasting enmity of the
Mahdists by helping the trapped Egyptians.

While he was king of Shewa, Menilek established commercial relations with Italy that helped
him to acquire arms. Menelik’s relations with Italy reached its climax with the signing of the
Treaty of Wuchale (in Wollo) on May 2, 1889. The treaty was drafted by Count Pietro Antonelli,
the Italian envoy. The treaty had twenty articles and had both Amharic and Italian versions.
Moreover, when Ras Makonnen visited Italy in October 1889, the Italians made him sign an
additional Naples convention, which introduced the phrase “effective occupation” to legitimize
the territories that the Italians had come to occupy after the treaty. Accordingly, the Italian
government formally declared Eritrea as its colony in January 1890.

The most controversial element of the Wuchale Treaty was Article XVII. The Italian text said
that Ethiopia “consents to use” Italian support for conducting foreign affairs, while the Amharic
text said that she “may use” that support. Based on the Italian version, Italy announced that all
foreign powers had to deal with Ethiopia only through Italy. European powers except Russia
gave recognition to this Italain claim. The Italian effort to colonize Ethiopia through a
combination of tricky treaties, persuasion and subversive methods failed. Menilek publicly
abrogated the treaty in February 1893. Tigrian lords including Ras Mangasha Yohannes, Ras
Sebhat Aragawi and Dejjach Hagos Teferi, whom the Italians had hoped to enlist to their side,
joined the Ethiopian camp. Italian determination to occupy Ethiopia and Ethiopian resistance
against colonialism led to the Battle of Adwa (1 March 1896).

After Adwa, different foreign countries opened their legations in Addis Ababa. Furthermore,
Emperor Menilek made boundary agreements with the neighboring colonial territories like
French-Somaliland (Djibouti) on March 20, 1897; British-Somaliland (now Somaliland) on June
4, 1897; the Italian colony of Eritrea on July 10, 1900; Anglo-Egyptian Sudan on May 15, 1902;
British East Africa (Kenya) in 1907 and Italian-Somaliland in 1908. Lij lyasu showed a tendency

86
to side with the Central Powers (Germany, Austro-Hungary, and Ottoman Empire) during the
First World War (1914-18) believing that the defeat of the Allied powers (France and Britain)
would allow Ethiopia to push Italy out of Eritrea and Somalia. He also befriended the Somali
nationalist leader, Sayyid Mohammed Abdille Hassan (1864-1920). One of the successes of
Ethiopia’s foreign relations in the early twentieth century was her admission to the League of
Nations in 1923. A year later, Teferi made his grand European tour.

6. 5. 2. Major Battles Fought Against Foreign Aggressors and Patriotism

Wad Kaltabu (1837): Kasa and Kinfu Hailu defeated the Egyptians in eastern Sudan.
Dabarki (1848): was fought between Kasa Hailu and Egyptian forces. Although they showed
extraordinary courage, Kasa’s forces lost the battle owing to the Egyptians’ superior military
organization, better training and arms. Yet, the deadly effect of the artillery and the discipline of
Egyptian troops gave Kasa a lesson to modernize his military force.
Maqdala (1868): in 1862, Tewodros II sent a letter to Queen Victoria through Consul Cameron
requesting assistance. Yet Capitain Cameron came back to Ethiopia via Egypt without bringing
any response. Suspecting him of plotting with Egypt, Tewodros imprisoned him along with other
Europeans. Consequently, Queen Victoria sent a letter through Hormuzd Rassam, which did not
satisfy Tewodros II. After some unsuccessful negotiations, the British parliament decided to take
military action. Subsequently, 32,000 troops led by Sir Robert Napier were sent through
Massawa and reached Maqdala. Up to 8, 000 of Tewodros’ soldiers, led by his general Gebriye,
were defeated by the British at the battle of Aroge on April 10, 1868. Tewodros committed
suicide at Maqdela on April 13, 1868. The British troops followed it up by burning his fortress
and looting hundreds of manuscripts, religious and secular artifacts, including his crown.
Gundet and Gura: Egyptians showed a strong interest to occupy Northeast Africa with the
ambition of controlling the source of the Nile in the nineteenth century. Following their
occupation of the Sudan in 1821, they moved to occupy Ethiopia on several occasions. For
instance, Khedive Ismail Pasha sent his troops to invade Ethiopia in three directions in 1875.
Mohammed Rauf Pasha led the Zeila front and the result was the occupation of the Harar
Emirate between 1875 and 1885. Werner Munzinger, the architect of Ismail’s scheme, led about
500 Egyptian troops through Tajura, but he and his troops were all killed by the Afar at Odduma.
Colonel Arendrup and Arakel Bey led 2, 000 well-armed troops through Massawa. Emperor
Yohannes IV and his famous general and right-hand man, Ras Alula Engida, mobilized about 20,
 000 troops, and severely defeated the Egyptian troops at Gundet on November 16, 1875.
Notwithstanding this setback, Egyptians reorganized their forces and sent their army led by
Muhammed Ratib Pasha, Hassan Isma’il, and the American Confederate generals General
William Loring, General Charles Stone and Colonel William Dye. However, the Ethiopian
forces again defeated them at Gura (March 7-9, 1876). It is important to stress that some
Europeans and Americans were in the service of the Egyptians. For instance, Munzinger was a
Swiss born adventurer and former French Consul at Massawa. Arendrup was a Danish Citizen
while Loring, Dye and Charles Stone were Americans.

Dogali: With the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, the Red Sea region acquired great strategic
significance. Italy’s interest in the Horn began when an Italian private shipping company
(Rubatino) bought the port of Assab from the local chiefs in 1869. Assab was transferred to the
Italian government in 1882. Massawa was also transferred by Britain from Egypt to Italy in
1885. Subsequently, the Italian forces occupied Sa’ati, Aylet and Wia in what was then known as
Mereb Milash. However, Ras Alula decisively defeated them at Dogali on 26 January 1887.
Then, Italy signed a Treaty of Neutrality with Menilek in October 1887 to isolate Yohannes IV.
Metemma: in reaction to the Hewett/Adwa Treaty, the Mahdists opened attacks on Ethiopia.
The first clash was at Kufit between Ras Alula and Uthman Digna in September 1885. Yohannes
ordered Nigus Tekle-Haymanot to repulse the Mahdists in January 1887, but the Mahdists led by
Abu Anja defeated Tekle-Haimanofs troops at Sar-Wuha in Dembia a year later. Meanwhile, the
Mahdists were defeated at Gute Dilli (in Najjo-Wallagga) by Menilek's commander Ras Gobena
on October 14, 1888. Yet, Menilek and Tekle-Haimanot conspired against the emperor, who first
devastated Gojjam and, postponing his campaign to Shewa, marched to Metemma where he died
fighting the Mahdists on March 9, 1889.

The Battle of Adwa and Its Aftermath

The disagreement on the Wuchale Treaty led to war between Ethiopia and Italy. Not content with
the occupation of Eritrea, the Italians crossed the Mereb River to conquer Ethiopia. Following
Menilek's proclamation for general mobilization, about 100,000 troops gathered at Wara-Illu in
South Wollo. The force led by Fitawrari Gebeyehu routed the Italians at Amba Alage and forced
them to retreat to Mekelle. The Italians were besieged there and denied access to a water well,
 which they had used from 7-21 January 1896, by a stratagem developed by Empress Taytu. After
some negotiations, the besieged Italian troops were set free and joined their compatriots.

Ethiopian forces decisively defeated the Italian columns led by Generals Oreste Baratieri,
Vittorio Dabormida, Guiseppe Arimond, Matteo Albertone and Elena at Adwa on 1st March
1896. About 8, 000 Italians were killed, 1,500 wounded and 3,000 were captured; 4, 000-6, 000
Ethiopians are said to have been killed. Italy was forced to recognize the independence of
Ethiopia by the treaty of Addis Ababa signed on October 26, 1896. A number of powers also
recognized the independence of Ethiopia. The Battle of Adwa has become a source of pride not
only for Ethiopians but also for Africans and the black race in general. The victory of black
people over white colonizers inspired Africans to fight against colonialism. The well-known
Pan-Africanist, Marcus Garvey, inspired his followers in his “Back to Africa” movement. He
used phrases like “Ethiopia thou land of our fathers.”

6. 5. 3. The Italian Occupation (1936-41) and the Patriotic Resistance

Background
The Fascists led by Benito Mussolini came to power in Italy in 1922, and were determined to
restore the power and glory of ancient Roman Empire by erasing the shameful scar of Adwa.
Their policy of subversion aimed at sowing dissatisfaction in Tigray, Begemedir, Gojjam and
Wollo. Beside their legation in Addis Ababa, the Italians had consulates in provincial towns such
as Adwa, Gondar, Debre Markos and Dessie that played a significant role in propagating
discontent, and gathering vital military and political intelligence. This responsibility was
entrusted to Corrado Zoli, Italian governor of Eritrea (1928-1930). The Italian legation in Addis
Ababa, headed by Guiliano Cora, led the policy of ‘rapprochement’, a pseudo reconciliation
tactic, which was trying to persuade the Ethiopian government to establish cordial relations. For
instance, the signing of the twenty-year Italo-Ethiopian Treaty of Peace and Friendship inl928
was a manifestation of the success of the rapprochement policy.

Mussolini, who had made all the necessary preparations to launch the invasion of Ethiopia, was
only searching for a pretext. He found it in the Walwal incident. The Walwal Incident
(December 5, 1934) was the result of lack of boundary demarcation and effective administrative
control in the frontiers. Taking advantage of this porous border, the Italians occupied Walwal.
 When the Ethiopians protested, they refused to give back Walwal and even attacked the
Ethiopian soldiers who were stationed nearby. Although the number of Ethiopians who died
during this border clash was three times as high as that of the Italians, it was Italy which
demanded apology and reparation from Ethiopia. Ethiopia took the matter to the League of
Nations and a period of diplomatic wrangling followed.

The 1935 Invasion and its Aftermath

The war was started on the northern front when the Italians crossed the Mereb River on October
3, 1935 and launched a three-pronged invasion across Adigrat, Enticho and Adwa. The Ethiopian
counter offensive was led by Ras Emiru Haile-Selassie on the western front, Ras Kasa Hailu
(also commander of the entire northern front) and Ras Seyoum Mengesha on the central front,
and Ras Mulugeta Yigezu (the War Minister) on the eastern front. The Ethiopian army launched
a major offensive against the Italians on January 20, 1936, intending to isolate Mekelle, but
failed due to lack of coordination among the above-mentioned commanders. The Ethiopian force
lost to the Italians at the first Battle in Temben on January 24. Then, the Italians advanced to the
impregnable natural fortress of Amba-Aradom, to the south of Mekelle, where Ethiopian forces
were stationed, and scored yet another decisive victory in which Ras Mulugeta Yigezu lost his
life. Moreover, the forces of Ras Kasa and Ras Seyoum were outnumbered by the Italian troops
and were defeated at the Second Battle of Temben (February 27-29, 1936). Ras Kasa and Ras
Seyoum narrowly escaped and joined the Emperor at Korem.

On the western front, the Ethiopian army under Ras Emeru put strong resistance against the
advancing Italian force. Thanks to Ras Emeru’s better leadership quality, the number of deaths of
Ethiopian soldiers was less than those on the other fronts. The series of battles between the
Ethiopian and the Italian forces culminated in Maychew on March 31, 1936. Although the
Ethiopian army under the command of the emperor (especially members of the Kebur Zebegna}
put strong resistance, they were not able to achieve victory. Many Ethiopian soldiers lost their
lives from the Italian ground and air bombardment. Then, the Italian forces controlled Dessie and
Addis Ababa on 4 April and May 5, 1936, respectively.

The Ethiopian army on the Southern Front was better equipped and well led by Ras Desta
Damtew (in the south) and Dejjazmach Nesibu Zamanuel (in the southeast). The Ethiopian army
lost to the Italians at Qorahe (November 1935) and Genale Dorya (January 12-14, 1936). In the

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 ensuing battles, the askari (Eritrean recruits) deserted the Italians and joined the Ethiopian force
which boosted the moral of the troops of Ras Desta, who continued to challenge the Italians until
he was captured and executed at Goggeti in Gurage in early 1937. The number of Italian soldiers
lost on the southern front was larger than that of the north, which slowed the Italian advance to
the center; Badoglio entered Addis Ababa before Graziani even occupied Harar.

Between Haile Selassie’s fleeing the country on May 2, 1936 and the Italian entry, Addis Ababa
was subjected to the burning of buildings, looting, and random shooting. The major targets were
the imperial palace, the rich and foreigners, many of whom saved their lives by taking refuge in
foreign legations. The Italians deliberately delayed their entry so that the people of the city
would consider them as ‘angels’ of peace, and accept their rule. After their control of the capital,
Marshal Badoglio immediately reported the situation to Mussolini, who announced to the Italians
and the world about their control of Ethiopia with the phrase “Ethiopia is Italian!”

The Italians immediately merged Ethiopia with their colonies of Italian Somaliland and Eritrea
and named the combination Italian East Africa (IEA) or Africa Orientate Italiana (AOI). It had
six regions: Eritrea (including Tigray) with its capital at Asmara; Amhara (including Begemidr,
Gojjam, Wollo and Northern Shewa), with its capital at Gondar; Oromo and Sidama (including
the southern and southwestern provinces), with its capital at Jimma; Eastern Ethiopia with its
capital at Harar; Somalia (including Ogaden), with its capital at Mogadishu; Addis Ababa (later
changed to Shewa), the capital of the entire IEA. The governors of IEA were: Marshal Badoglio
(till the end of May 1936), Marshal Graziani (till February 1937) and finally Amadeo Umberto,
the Duke of Aosta. A top-heavy bureaucracy and corruption characterized the IEA
administration. For instance, Badoglio reportedly pocketed about 1,700,000 MTT confiscated
from the Bank of Ethiopia. 50% of Amadeo Umberto’s administration was characterized as inept
and 25% as thieves. The Italians destroyed non-Italian foreign firms, such as Mohammedaly and
A. Besse, and replaced them with governmental enterprises that controlled the industry, trade and
agriculture. They were relatively successful in the sectors of trade and industry as compared to
the agricultural. For instance, they planned to settle Italian farmers in selected areas like Wegera,
Chercher and Jimma, but they only accomplished 10% of their target.

The Italian administrative control and legacy were largely confined to urban areas as follows:
 • Architecture, where the Italians left an indelible mark in towns such as Addis Ababa,
Jimma, Adwa, Gondar, Desse, Harar, Asmara, Mogadishu and others.
» Introducing urban facilities like clean water and electricity;
• Social legacies (expansion of prostitution, adoption of European habits-including eating
and dressing styles, and adoption of Italian words);
• The consolidation of cash economy;
• Road construction and development of motor transport;
• The sense of division: deliberately fostering ethnic and religious tension.
The Patriotic Resistance Movement
The first phase of resistance was waged by commanders of the Southern Front: Ras Desta
Damtew, Dejjach Beyene Merid and Dejjach Gebre Maryam Gari. A five-pronged assault on the
capital involving Asfawesen and Aberra Kasa, Dejjach Balcha Safo, Balambaras (later Ras)
Abebe Aregay and Dejjach Fikre-Mariam Yinnnadu was also made in the summer of 1936, but it
failed for lack of coordination. Abune Petros, who was the spirit behind the offensive, was
executed and became a martyr. Abreha Deboch and Moges Asgedom hurled a bomb at Graziani
in Genete-Le’ul palace compound at Sidist Kilo on February 19, 1937, wounding him seriously
and killing some others. The Italian Black Shirts reacted by chopping heads, burning down
houses with their inhabitants and disemboweling thousands in Addis Ababa. About 30,000
Ethiopians were reportedly killed in three days. Special targets were educated Ethiopians
(including members of the Black Lion Organization) and the EOC. 297 monks were executed in
Debre Libanos monastery on May 21, 1937.

This reign of terror marked the transition from conventional resistance to guerrilla warfare (2nd
phase). There arose women who led their own army like Lekyelesh Beyan, who was captured
after an Italian air bombardment in January 1941. Kebedech Seyoum, the wife of Dejjach Abera
Kasa, maintained peace and order in Salale as well as leading the Resistance. The patriots also
included Dejjach Umar Samatar, Colonel Abdisa Aga, Dejjach Gebrehiwot Meshesha, Dejjach
Abbai Kahsay, Woizero Shewareged Gedle, Zeray Dires, Colonel Jagama Kello, Woizero Sinidu
Gebru, Ras Amoraw Wubneh, Lij Haile Mariam Mamo, Dejjach Habte Mariam, Colonel Belay
Haileab, Major Matias Gemeda, Captain Kifle Nesibu, Dejjach Geresu Duki, Dejjach Bekele
Woya, Dejjach Belay Zeleqe, Dejjach Mengesha Jembere, Dejjach Negash Bezabih, Lij Haylu
Belew and many others.
Yet, the resistance was handicapped by the Ethiopian collaborators called the banda. Moreover,
there was no one national organization to coordinate the activities of the many patriotic groups
dispersed in many parts of the country with no unified command structure. Relations between
guerrilla groups were characterized by parochialism and jealousy. Some guerrilla groups spent
more time fighting one another than attacking the declared enemy.

Things began to change when the patriots suddenly received external support from Britain when
Italy entered World War II on June 10, 1940 on the side of Germany against France and Britain.
London recognized Emperor Haile-Selassie as a full ally on July 12, 1940. The British brought
the emperor to the Sudan to serve as a rallying point for the Resistance. They then launched a
three-pronged attack on the Italians. In the north, General William Platt led the forces that
attacked the Italians in Eritrea. Colonel Sandford and Major Wingate accompanied the Emperor
from the Sudan into Gojjam at the head of British and Ethiopian troops called the Gideon force
in January 1941. General Cunningham led the attack from Kenya and entered Addis Ababa on
March 6, 1936. Emperor Haile-Selassie returned to Addis Ababa on May 5, 1941.

Learning Activities
> Discuss the circumstances that gave rise to the Gibe monarchies.
> Elaborate the role of local and long-distance trade in the interactions between peoples and
states of Ethiopia and the Horn.
> Did the nineteenth century territorial expansion contribute to the interaction and
integration of peoples in Ethiopia and the Horn? If yes, how? If not, why not?
> Elucidate Tewodros’ administrative policies, military reforms and their outcomes.
> Explicate internal and external circumstances that led Menilek ITs expansion to south.
> Assess the divergent paths Emperors Tewodros II, Yohannes IV and Menilek II pursued
in their administration of the empire.
> Explain the circumstances that led to the foundation of Addis Ababa as Ethiopia’s capital.
> Describe Lij lyasu’s efforts to reform the country’s justice system and police force.
> What was the enduring interest of Ethiopian monarchs and regional leaders in
establishing contacts with the outside world? What major obstacles did they encounter?
> Discuss the activities of the patriots focusing on their achievements and weaknesses.
 UNIT SEVEN
INTERNAL DEVELOPMENTS AND EXTERNAL RELATIONS, 1941-1995
(7 HOURS)
7.1. Post-1941 Imperial Period

7.1.1. External Relations

Ethiopia and Britain
Britain recognized Ethiopia’s sovereign status with mutual diplomatic accreditation, but it
continued to exercise the upper hand because of its role in the liberation of Ethiopia from Fascist
occupation. The British considered Ethiopia Occupied Enemy Territory Administration (OETA).
The 1942 Anglo-Ethiopian agreement gave Britain final authority over Ethiopia’s foreign affairs,
territorial integrity, administration, finances, the military and the police. British citizens held key
posts in the Ethiopian government such as advisors and judges. The emperor had to obtain
approval from the Commander-in-Chief of the British Forces in East Africa, Sir Philip Mitchell,
to implement sovereign matters such as the declaration of war or declaration of a state of
emergency. The British assumed control over currency, foreign exchange and foreign trade.

The Emperor resented such restrictions to his powers and opened a diplomatic offensive to
remove them. As a result, Britain relaxed the restrictions imposed upon Ethiopian government.
Accordingly, the second Anglo-Ethiopian agreement (signed in 1944) lifted the priority accorded
to the British minster over all other foreign diplomats in Ethiopia. The Ethiopian government
could now employ non-British foreign personnel and it regained control over a section of the
Addis Ababa-Djibouti railwy. The British also agreed to evacuate their army from the region
once they had equipped Ethiopia’s military force, a task mandated to the British Military Mission
to Ethiopia (BMME) that assisted in organizing and training of Ethiopian army until 1951. Haile-
Selassie I Harar Military Academy, which was established in 1958, was modeled after the British
Military Academy at Sandhurst.

Nevertheless, Britain did not yield to Ethiopia’s territorial demands. Britain insisted that the
Ogaden should be merged with the former Italian Somaliland and British Somaliland to form
what they called “Greater Somalia.” Similarly, the western and northern lowlands of Eritrea were
considered to be part of the Sudan. Furthermore, it wanted to integrate the Tigrigna speaking
highlands of Eritrea with Tigray to form a separate state. Therefore, Ethiopia’s claims to Eritrea
and Ogaden were rejected at the London Conference of the Allied powers in September 1945.

The territorial issues were resolved only after a decade. The British left parts of Ogaden in 1948
and completely withdrew from the region in 1954. In Eritrea, people who wanted union with
Ethiopia rallied behind the Unionists while the Liberal Progressive Party and later the Muslim
League campaigned for separation and independence. In 1948, the question of Eritrea was
referred to the UN, which appointed a commission of five from Burma, Guatemala, Norway,
Pakistan and South Africa to find out the actual wishes of Eritreans. After a period of
investigation, Guatemala and Pakistan recommended granting Eritrea independence. While
South Africa and Burma recommended Federation, Norway recommended union with Ethiopia.
On December 2, 1950, UN decided by Resolution 390V to federate Eritrea with Ethiopia, which
came into effect in 1952. However, this arrangement satisfied neither the unionists nor the
independence bloc and nor the Emperor. The Eritrean Parliament, under pressure from the
emperor and the unionists, dissolved the Federation on November 14, 1962.

Ethiopia and the United States

American interest in the region began to grow chiefly after the US acquired an Italian
communication base in Asmara known as Radio Marina, later renamed Qagnew after the
Ethiopian force that fought on the side of the Americans in the Korean War (1950-3). The
Ethiopian vice Minister of Finance, Yilma Deressa, visited the US in 1943 to request expertise to
assist Ethiopia’s development. In response, USA extended the Lend-Lease Agreement to
Ethiopia and sent a technical mission in May 1944. At the beginning of 1945, the emperor and
the US President Franklin D. Roosevelt met in Egypt and discussed, among other things,
recognition of the American Sinclair Company’s prospecting for oil in the Ogaden.

The Point Four Agreement and the Ethio-US Treaty were signed in 1952 and 1953, respectively.
The first enabled subsequent US assistance in the military, agriculture, education and public
health, while the second extended the use of the Qagnew base by the US in return for military
assistance. Following the 1953 treaty, the US launched the American Military Assistance
Advisory Group (MAAG) to equip Ethiopia’s armed forces. For example, over 2, 500 Ethiopians
received various forms of military training in the US between 1953 and 1968. The US also
 supplied anti-tank and anti-aircraft weapons, naval craft, and weapons for the infantry. Sixty
percent of US military aid to Africa had been directed to Ethiopia by 1970.

Civil aviation, telecommunication, road transport, and education were other spheres in which the
Americans took active part. Ethiopia concluded an agreement with the Transcontinental and
Western World Airline (TWA) to establish Ethiopian Air Lines (EAL) in 1945. The Imperial
Board of Telecommunication was established with the help of the International Telephone and
Telegraph (ITT) organization between 1950 and 1952. With a financial loan from the
International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), the Imperial High Way
Authority (IHA) was set up in January 1951. Ethiopianization of such organizations took some
time due to shortage of Ethiopian personnel. For example, the IHA was run by the Americans
until 962; key management and executive posts of the Ethiopian Airlines were seized by the
Americans until 1971. In the field of education, the US offered scholarship opportunities for
many Ethiopians to attend in the United States for their second and third degrees. Meanwhile,
many American volunteers taught in Ethiopian schools under the Peace Corps Program.

7.1.2. Socio-Economic Developments

In the post-1941 period, agriculture provided employment for about 90% of the population,
generating about 70% of the GDP and supplying almost 100% of the country’s income from
export trade. More than 66% of northern peasants cultivated less than 0.5 ha in the 1970s. The
government granted land to many of its supporters in southern Ethiopia. The tenant population as
percentage of total rural population in the newly incorporated regions varied from 37% in
Sidama Governorate General to a staggering 73% in Ilu Abba Bor and 75% in Hararghe, whereas
tenancy in the northern provinces averaged 11%, consisting mainly of religious minorities and
occupational castes. Tenants surrendered up to 60 % of their produce to landlords who mostly
lived in towns or the capital. In addition to formal tributes, smallholder and landless farmers
were obliged to make varied payments and to render labor services to the lords. Sharecrop
tenancy arrangements were so heavy that increasing production only increased the exploitation
of peasants. Such conditions discouraged peasants from maximizing their production beyond
subsistence levels.

The deteriorating economy, coupled with external pressure from donors, induced the government
to establish a Land Reform Committee in 1961. This later became the Land Reform and
 Development Authority, later renamed the Ministry of Land Reform and Administration. The
condition of the farming population further worsened with the expansion of commercial farming
(mechanization of farming) in the 1960s and 970s that caused the eviction of tenants. The
government attempted to enhance the productivity of small farmers by launching comprehensive
agricultural package programs such as the Chilalo Agricultural Development Unit (CADU) and
the Wolayta Agricultural Development Unit (WADU).

Meanwhile, overall domestic output increased nearly three and a half times after 1950 and better
progress was registered in manufacturing. The number of industrial enterprises grew to over 400
and the industrial working force increased to nearly 60,000. The infrastructure expanded
considerably. Moreover, public revenue and expenditure both grew nine and tenfold respectively.
Banking facilities expanded with the State Bank of Ethiopia being formed in 1942. Also, a
private bank, Addis Ababa Bank, was established in 1963. There was relatively high level of
modernization that was reflected in music, sports, cuisine, and dress styles. However, much of
Ethiopia remained traditional with a low living standard; Ethiopia was one of the least developed
countries. While the manufacturing sector, producing only light consumer goods, contributed
less than 5 % of the national income, industrialization was limited to the capital and its vicinity,
Asmara and Dire Dawa. Industrial investment was also primarily of foreign origin.

7.1.3. Consolidation of Autocracy

Emperor Haile-Selassie embarked on consolidating his power through the bureaucratization of
government, the building of a national army and a centralized fiscal system. In order to staff the
expanding bureaucracy, education was promoted at both school and college levels. The two most
popular and prestigious secondary schools, Haile-Selassie I Secondary School and General
Wingate School, were opened in 1943 and 1946 respectively. The University College of Addis
Ababa (UCAA) was inaugurated in 1950. This was followed by the Engineering and Building
College in Addis Ababa, the College of Agriculture in Alemaya (Haramaya in Hararghe) and the
Public Health College in Gondar. These were brought together in 1961 to form Haile-Selassie I
University, which was renamed Addis Ababa University after 1974.

Another major preoccupation of the imperial regime was the strengthening of the military and
security apparatus. Thus, the ministries of Defense and Interior consistently received the highest
budgetary allocations.
 The traditional aristocracy, although well off economically, had lost most of its political
privileges. Based on the traditional shum shir, the emperor appointed and demoted his ministers.
The emperor appointed eleven ministers in 1943, but their subservience to the monarch was
stated in explicit terms. The prime minster was allowed to select his cabinet members for
approval by the emperor only in 1966. The most powerful of the ministers in the post-1941
political order was Tsehafe-Tizaz Wolde-Giorgis Wolde-Yohannis, who headed the Ministry of
Pen from 1941 to 1955, and held the portfolios of Justice and Interior ministries on various
occasions. In reality, he was the de facto prime minister. His access to the emperor and the
latter’s trust in him made him very powerful. The royal family, leading members of the nobility,
and the abun were members of the crown council, which was an advisory body to the emperor.

The 1931 constitution was revised in 1955. It clearly stated that the emperor’s “personality was
sacred, his dignity inviolable and his power indisputable”. However, the constitution introduced
universal adult suffrage and an elected chamber of deputies with a four-year term, and a senate
serving for six years and appointed by the emperor with certain property qualification. Yet, the
emperor was the head of the three branches of government: the executive, the legislative and the
judiciary. As the years progressed, the emperor started to dedicate his attention to foreign affairs.
He played a significant role in the Non-Aligned Movement and the drive for African unity.

7.1.4. Oppositions and the Downfall of the Monarchical Regime

Plots and Conspiracies
Some patriots were opposed to the restoration of the emperor to the throne because he hdad fled
the country when it needed him most. This feeling of resentment was exacerbated by the
privileges and rewards accorded to exiles and bandas (collaborators). One such critic was
Dejjazmach Belay Zeleke, to whom the emperor had offered governorship of one of the southern
Ethiopian provinces to remove him from his base in Bichena District of Gojjam. Balay rejected
the offer, and forces from Dabra Marqos and Addis Ababa invaded Balay’s district in February
1943. After three months of fighting, Balay surrendered and was detained in Fitche, from where
he escaped a few months later but was caught on his way to Gojjam with his brother Ejjigu,
taken back to the capital and publicly hanged.
 Another dissident, Bitweded Negash Bezabih, plotted to assassinate the emperor and proclaim a
republic in 1951. Negash and his accomplices like Beqele Anasimos were arrested during one of
their clandestine meetings and sentenced to various terms of imprisonment.

The most fierce and sustained opposition came from Blatta Takele Wolde-Hawaryat, who first
hatched a plot with Yohannes lyasu as front and with the support of some contingents of the
army. Nonetheless, the plot was uncovered and he was detained. Released in 1945, he was
involved in another plot in 1946 and was detained up to 1954. He tried to assassinate the emperor
on November 17, 1969 but failed. He then barricaded himself in his house and engaged in a
shoot-out with the police in which he was killed.

The most serious challenge came in the form of a coup attempt by the Neway brothers, Brigadier
General Mengistu and Germame. As governor of Wolayta, Germaine monitored police activities,
introduced a settlement program in which he distributed government holdings to landless
peasants and ordered written tenancy agreements. He was then summoned back to Addis Ababa
for explanation. Yet, unable to condemn Germame’s intentions, Haile Selassie sent him to Jigjiga
where he continued his radical reforms. While the emperor was on state visit in Brazil, the two
brothers started detaining ministers and other members of the nobility. They also took over the
radio station and spoke about the backwardness of the country. Crown Prince Asfawosen was
declared to be a salaried constitutional monarch and delivered a speech on Radio Addis
explaining the rationale of the coup and promising the establishment of new factories, schools
etc. On December 14, 1960, a new government to be headed by Ras Emiru Haile-Selassie was
declared. Major General Mulugeta Buli was chosen as chief of staff of the armed forces.

However, the army and the air force refused to side with the rebels, and with the support of the
Americans and the patriarch, the loyalists, led by General Merid Mengesha and Ras Asrate
Kassa, crushed the coup and hunted fleeing brothers. They were spotted near Zuquala Mountain
and, in the following shootout, Germame died while Mengistu was wounded, captured, tried and
hanged. In the meantime, the emperor had triumphantly entered the capital. The regime made
some concessions, but did not address the root causes that triggered the coup. Thus, opposition
only grew more overt and began to gain mass support.

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 Peasant Rebellions
The First Woyane Rebellion of 1942-43
The inequities of the system, corruption and greed of the beherawi tor (Territorial Army) unit
stationed there and general administrative inefficiency led to the peasant protests. The 1942 land
decree also forced peasants to pay tax arrears whose collection was problematic. The nobility
took advantage of the popular discontent thanks to the able leadership of Blatta Haile-Mariam
Reda. Finally, the government’s retribution against the Raya-Azebo on allegation of cattle raids
on the Afar territory sparked general rebellion. The first confrontation took place on January 11,
1942, when the imperial force was defeated and humiliated by the peasants. The rebels further
scored an astounding victory in Addi Awuna on May 22, 1943. Soon small towns around
Mekelle like Qwiha and Enda-Iyyasus fell to the rebels’ hands on October 14, 1943. The
imperial army, supported by the British Royal Air Force, crushed the rebellion in October 1943.
The emperor ordered reprisals against peasants suspected of supporting the Woyane.

The Yejju Rebellion

Yejju peasants rose in 1948 after their appeal against land alienation was ignored by the
government. Led by Qegnazmach Melaku Taye and Unda Mohammed, peasants stormed and
freed inmates held in Woldiya prison. The nech lebash (settler militia) quelled the unrest and
eventually the leaders were caught and publicly flogged. Throughout the 1950s, localized
skirmishes expanded to Qobbo, Hormat, Tumuga, Karra-Qore, etc. led by notables like Ali
Dullatti (Abba Jabbi). Peasants revolted in 1970 against the introduction of mechanized
agriculture that encroached on pastureland, and killed Qegnazmach Abate Haylu, a member of
the local nobility and the main beneficiary of the process. Finally, the rising was suppressed by
the local militia.

The Gojjam Peasant Rebellion

Dejjach Kebede Tesema, governor of Gojjam appointed by the central government, initiated land
assessment and classification to determine taxation and raised tax rate from what it had been
prior to 1935. A revolt broke out in Mota, Qolla-Daga Damot and Mecha districts led by people
like Dejjach Abere Yimam in 1950. As a result, the tax rate was reduced by 1/3 and Kebede was
removed and replaced by Haylu Belew, a hereditary ruler of Gojjam.
 Haylu’s successor, Dejjazmach Tsehayu Enqu-Selassie, again appointed by the central
government, imposed contributions to build the emperor’s statue in Debra Marqos. In addition,
peasants were ordered to pay tax arrears and register their arms with penalty fees. Meanwhile,
peasants were victimized by the ravages of the nech lebash under the pretext of eradicating
banditry. Above all, an attempt was made to introduce agricultural income tax, which the
parliament adopted in November 1967 and this sparked the 1968 uprising led by veterans of the
anti-Fascist resistance, who had taken titles for themselves such as leul and fitawrari. The
government was forced to transfer Dejjach Tsehayu to Kafa, declare amnesty, abandon the new
tax and cancel all tax arrears going back to 1950. Despite these concessions, the rebellion spread
throughout most of Gojjam, except Agaw-Midir and Metekel. Finally, the rebellion was crushed
by the combined forces of the army, police and nech lebash at the end of 1968.

The Gumuz Rebellion

The 1952/3 Gumuz rebellion is named after its famous leader, Abba Tone, who served the
regime as Abba Qoro (sub-district chief) responsible for tax collection, maintenance of law and
order as well as community mobilization for public works in time of peace and for war during
conflicts. The people were discontented with the unjust system in general and heavy taxation and
mal-administration in particular. Although Abba Tone reported the peasants’ complaints to
higher authorities in Najjo and Gimbi, they were unable to resolve the problem. Meanwhile, the
Gumuz were determined not to pay taxes unless the government addressed their concerns. An
open clash broke out when tax collectors, with the backing of the police, attempted to force the
people to pay land taxes. In the fighting, Abba Tone and his followers were outgunned and
outnumbered by the police. Abba Tone was captured, detained and later released on pardon.

The Gedeo Peasant Rebellion

The Gedeo witnessed the denigration of their culture and an unprecedented level of land
expropriation by members of the northern nobility who were vying for coffee farms in the 1960s.
The major contender was the emperor’s daughter, Princess Tenagneworq. Petitions to higher
authorities to curb the continued land alienation proved futile. Then peasants refused to pay erbo
(1/4 of agricultural produce payable to the landlords), armed themselves with traditional
weapons like spears, swords and arrows, and clashed with the imperial army at Michille in 1960.
Over a hundred peasants lost their lives while much of their property was destroyed and the

101
 rebellion was suppressed. Finally, Afe Nigus Eshete Geda fined the hayicha (elders) accused of
supporting the revolt.

The Bale Peasant Rebellion

The causes of this rebellion included the introduction of the qalad and the accompanying land
measurement in 1951, high taxation, religious and ethnic subjugation (imposition of the Christian
settlers’ culture on Muslims) that reached to unprecedented level after the appointment of Warqu
Enqu-Selassie as governor in 1963. Further, the Somali government extended material and moral
support as part of its strategy of realizing “Greater Somalia”. The revolt broke out in El Kerre
led, by notables like Kahin Abdi. Initially, rebel groups conducted isolated hit-and-run raids
against military garrisons and police stations. Soon, however, they began to coordinate their
activities under an umbrella organization, the Western Somali Liberation Front (WSLF),
engaging in conventional war.

Haile Selassie tried to win the population by developing alliances with notable Oromo leaders
and he was able to recruit some members of local ruling houses, but he failed to contain the
popular revolt, which quickly spread to Wabe, Dallo and Ganale Awrajas (sub-provinces). In
Gola-Abbadi forest, the rebels even attacked government aircraft. Further, the rebels killed
Girazmach Beqele Haragu of Adaba and Fitawrari Wolde-Mika’el Bu’i of Dodola in 1965 and
1966, respectively. The government put Bale under the martial rule of Wolde-Selassie Baraka,
the head of the Fourth Division Army, in December 1966. The army, police, Territorial Army,
nech lebash and wedo zemach (volunteers) launched massive operations in 1967. Meanwhile, the
rebels lost support from Somalia after Mohammed Siad Barre took power in 1969 and the
rebellion ended in the early 1970s after some of its leaders, including the self-styled General
Waqo Gutu, surrendered to the governmet forces.

Movements of Nations and Nationalities

The Mecha-Tulama Welfare Association (MTWA) was formed in January 1963 to expand
educational, communication and health facilities in Oromo land. Founding members of the
association included Colonel Alemu Qitessa, Qedida Guremessa, Lieutenant Mamo Mezemir and
Haile-Mariam Gemeda. In the next two years, the association attracted large number of members
of the elite, including such high-ranking military officers as Brigadier General Taddese Birru
(the Commander of the Fetno Derash/Rapid Deployment Force). It organized successful rallies
 in Gindeberet, Dandi, Arsi (Dera and Iteyya). Starting with development programs like building
schools and clinics, the association began to raise contentious issues including that of land.
Leaders of the association even went further and plotted to assassinate the emperor on the
anniversary of his coronation in November 1966, but the plot was foiled by security forces. A
bombing incident in one of the cinemas at the capital in which the association was implicated
finally led the regime to ban the association in 1967 followed by the imprisonment and killing of
its prominent leaders. Taddese was captured while retreating to the bush and sentenced to death,
which was subsequently commuted to life imprisonment and he was exiled to Gelemso, where he
remained until the outbreak of the 1974 revolution. The Derg executed Taddese for allegedly
instigating armed struggle in 1975.

The biggest challenge to the imperial regime came from Eritrea. Following the abrogation of the
federation, Eritrean exiles founded the Eritrean Liberation Movement (ELM) in Cairo in 1958;
this later evolved into Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF, or Jabaha in Arabic) in 1961. Splinter
groups such as Popular Liberation Forces (PLF) and Salfi Natsenet Eritrea (Front for Eritrean
Independence) split fi-om the ELF in June 1970, eventually leading to the founding of the
Eritrean People’s Liberation Front (EPLF, or Sha'abiya in Arabic) in early 1972.

The Ethiopian Student Movement (ESM)

Students at the University College of Addis Abab (UCAA) formed the University College Union
(UCU) to coordinate their activities in the late 1950s. The National Union of Ethiopian
University Students (NUEUS) was established in 1963 to coordinate the activities of university
students throughout the country. The parliament’s rejection of the 1964 tenancy reform bill
triggered student protest in the following year, when students came out demanding “Land to the
Tiller.” Factors that contributed to sharpening the students’ ideology included: increased
awareness of the country’s backward conditions vis a vis other African countries which they
learned from politically more conscious scholarship students from different parts of Africa, and
the Ethiopian University Service (EUS), launched in 1964. The emergence in 1964 of a radical
group with Marxist-Leninist leanings known as “the Crocodiles” marked an increase in
militancy. The Main Campus Student Union (MCSU) and the University Students Union of
Addis Ababa (USUAA) with its paper Tagel (Struggle) were established in 1965 and 1966,
respectively. Outside the country, students were organized under the Ethiopian Students Union in

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North America (ESUNA), with its paper called Challenge, and the Ethiopian Students Union in
Europe (ESUE), with its paper Tateq (gird yourself).

Throughout the 1960s, a rallying cry of student demonstrations was “Land to the Tiller,” but
other local and global issues were also raised. With the students’ demands for the respect of the
rights of nations and nationalities, the government was alarmed and started taking measures
against leaders of the movement ranging from press campaigns to detentions and killings.
Furthennore, the regime deported a large number of students to the torrid Gibe River Valley in
1972. Meanwhile, students’ opposition was elevated to hijacking of aircrafts.

7.2. The Derg Regime (1974-1991)

7.2.1. Rise and Consolidation of the Derg
Soldiers and Non-Commissioned Officers (NCOs) stationed at Negele-Borana mutinied from
January 8 to 15, 1974, protesting against their bad living conditions. They detained the
commander of the ground forces who had been sent to pacify the situation. Meanwhile, soldiers
of the Second Division in Asmara, the Fourth Division in Addis Ababa and the Air Force in
Bishoftu (Debre-Zeyt) mutinied demanding salary increments, and other reforms.

Teachers throughout the country protested against the implementation of an education reform
program known as Sector Review, which they deemed disadvantageous for and biased against
the poor. The Ethiopian Teachers’ Association (ETA) had coordinated demonstrations against
the program in December 1973. It called a general strike demanding a number of other social
reforms on February 18, 1974. On the same day, taxi drivers went on strike demanding 50%
increase in transport fees due to rise of petrol prices that followed the Arab-Israeli Yom Kippur
war of 1973. Students, workers and the unemployed youth joined the protests, during which
vehicles, particularly buses and luxury private automobiles, were attacked.

The government responded by suspending the Sector Review, reducing petrol prices and raising
the salaries of soldiers. The cabinet of Prime Minister Aklilu Habte Wold was replaced by that of
Endalkachew Mekonnen on February 28. The Confederation of Ethiopian Labor Unions (CELU)
successfully staged a general strike on March 8. Then, 100,000 Muslim residents of the capital
and their Christian sympathizers came out demanding religious equality on April 20.

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 Meanwhile, the soldiers and NCOs’ Coordinating Committee set up in February was joined by
officers like Colonel Alem Zewd Tessema of the Airborne Brigade, who then became its leader.
The Committee arrested Aklilu and hundreds of high-ranking officials in April. The Defense
Minister, Lt. General Abiy Abebe, set up the National Security Commission to restore order and
respect for the government authority. The Derg, which eventually seized political power, was
officially formed on June 28, 1974 when it held its first meeting at the headquarters of the Fourth
Division. “Derg”, a Ge’ez word for “committee”, was the Coordinating Committee of the Armed
Forces, the Police and the Territorial Army. Yet, officers above the rank of major, suspected of
supporting the old regime, were not included. Thus, Major Mengistu Haile-Mariam of the Third
Division of Hararghe and Major Atnafu Abate of the Fourth Division became chairman and vice­
chairman, respectively. The Derg also declared the motto, “Ethiopia Tikdem” (“Ethiopia First”),
“Yaleminim Dem” (“Without any bloodshed”) and exercised power parallel with Endalkachew’s
cabinet for some time. The emperor was caught in the middle, trying to keep a balance between
the two. However, Endalkachew was imprisoned and replaced by Lej Mikael Emiru on August 1.
Then, Anbessa Bus Company and St. George Brewery, in which the emperor and the imperial
family held more than 50% stakes, were nationalized. Moreover, a British documentary film that
revealed the hidden horrors of the Wollo famine was exploited by the Derg to discredit the
emperor. Finally, Emperor Haile-Selassie I was deposed and detained at the Fourth Division
headquarters on September 12.

The Derg then proclaimed itself the Provisional Military Administrative Council (PMAC). Soon,
civilian revolutionaries, who had started calling for the establishment of a provisional people’s
government, started gathering around the Confederation of Ethiopian Labor Unions (CELU), the
university teachers’ group known as Forum, and the students. The Army Engineers Corps, the
First Division (the former Bodyguard) and the Army Aviation also opposed the prospect of a
military government. However, the Derg imprisoned the leaders of CELU and the Forum. The
militant Army Engineering Corps was also violently crushed on October 7. Lieutenant General
Aman Mikael Andom, chairman of the PMAC, was shot dead on November 23 after a
disagreement within the Derg over the issue of Eritrea. Aman believed in peaceful approach to
resolve the Eritrean prolem, while some radical members of the Derg, chiefly the First Vice­
Chairman Mengistu Haile-Mariam, advocated a military solution. At the same time, the Derg
announced the execution of some 52 prominent members of the old regime who had been

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 detained and half a dozen other leaders of the military units, who had opposed the Derg, as a
“political decision.”

7.2.2. Attempts at Socio-Economic Reform

The Derg took a series of measures that aimed at fundamentally transforming the country. Edget
Behibiret Zemecha (Development through Co-operation Campaign) was inaugurated in
December 1974. In this campaign, all high school and university students and their teachers were
to be sent to the countryside to help transform the life of peasants through programs such as
literacy campaigns and the implementation of the impending land reform proclamation.
However, the campaign was opposed by most of the civilian left as a mechanism that the Derg
designed to remove its main opponents from the center. To appease the opposition, the Derg
changed its slogan of “Ethiopia First” to “Ethiopian Socialism.”

Banks and insurance companies were nationalized following a series of proclamations in

February 1975. Over seventy private commercial and industrial companies were then
nationalized. On March 4, 1975, the Derg made a radical land reform proclamation, which
abolished all private land ownership and set the upper limit on family holdings at ten hectares.
Another proclamation nationalized all urban lands and extra houses on July 26, 1975. The
campaigns showed Derg's belief in mass mobilization. There was the “Green Campaign” of
1978 aimed at bringing about rapid economic development, the literacy campaign of 1979 aimed
at eradicating illiteracy, and the “Red Star Campaign” of 1982 that aimed at solving the Eritrean
problem once and for all. However, of these campaigns, only the literacy campaign registered
some degree of success. The land reform proclamation ended landlord exploitation, but failed to
make the peasant master of his land because the state ended up being the ultimate owner. On the
other hand, nationalization killed private initiative and introduced a highly bureaucratized
management of resources. The state, with its enhanced role and growing proportion, gained
tremendous capacity to reward or penalize. The Derg used peasant associations and cooperatives
with monopolistic government enterprises such as Ersha Sebil Gebeya Dirijit (Agricultural
Marketing Corporation) to control the countryside, and the kebele (urban dwellers’ associations)
to control the towns.

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7.2.3. Political Movements and Opposition
Initially, the leftist opposition to the Derg came from two rival Marxist-Leninist political
organizations: the Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Party/EPRP (formed in Berlin in 1972) and
the All-Ethiopian Socialist Movement (MEISON in its Amharic acronym), founded in 1968. In
the meantime, the Derg, pushed by the dominant leftist political discourse, gradually abandoned
“Ethiopian Socialism” and embraced Marxism-Leninism. With the setting up of the the
Provisional Office for Mass Organizational Affairs (POMOA) in April 1976, the Derg
proclaimed the National Democratic Revolution Program, which was the Chinese model for
socialist revolution, and identified feudalism, imperialism and bureaucratic capitalism as the
main enemies of the people. The Derg's leftist organization known as Abyotawi Seded
(Revolutionary Flame) was launched a few months later. In 1977, Emaledeh (Union of Ethiopian
Marxist-Leninist Organizations/UEMLO), composed of Marxist-Leninist Revolutionary
Organization/MLRO (Malerid in its Amharic acronym), Meison, Seded, Wezlig (Workers
League) and Ech ’at (Ethiopian Oppressed Masses Revolutionary Struggle) was established.

Meanwhile, the struggle between the EPRP and the Derg had created a civil war scenario since
September 1976, when the Derg started executing EPRP militants while the EPRP squads
assassinated the Derg members and supporters. The EPRP also tried to kill Mengistu himself in
mid-September. Then the Derg carried out massive search, arrest and destruction campaigns
against the EPRP and its sympathizers. The Derg and its civilian allies unleashed the “Red
Terror”, initially targeting the EPRP, which was said to have declared “White Terror,” and later
including others like Meison, EPLF and Tigray People’s Liberation Front (TPLF).

The Derg itself was beset by internal struggles in late 1976. Mengistu had eliminated his
potential rivals, Major Sisay Habte and Major Kiros Alemayehu. Many other key members of the
Derg were accused of being EPRP members or sympathizers. On their part, members of the
Derg such as Lieutenant Alemayehu Hayle and Captain Moges Wolde-Mikael resented the
growing dictatorial power of Mengistu and his alliance with Meison and other pro-Derg leftist
organizations. Assisted by the chairperson, Brigadier General Teferi Benti, they adeptly
restructured the hierarchy of the Derg, resulting in the marginalization of Mengistu. Yet,
Mengistu struck first by executing Teferi and other dissenting members within the Derg on 3
February 1977. Subsequently, Mengistu reasserted his leadership of the Derg, assuming the roles

107
 of both chairman and commander-in-chief of the armed forces. He subsequently appointed his
loyalists to key positions.

In the meantime, the Somali National Army had crossed the border into Ethiopia and carried out
military operations in Degahbour, Kebridehar, Warder and Gode, taking control of Jigjiga and
large pockets of land in the summer of 1977. Within a couple of months, the cities of Harar and
Dire Dawa were endangered. Yet, the government mobilized a force of about 100,000 peasant
militia and other forces that were trained at Angetu, Didessa, Hurso, Tateq and Tolay in a short
time. Finally, with the help of 17,000 Cuban troops and forces from Southern Yemen
Democratic Republic, the Somali Army was defeated at Kara-Mara near Jigjiga on March 4,
1978. The Derg had also severed relations with the USA in early 1977, when the American
cultural and military institutions ended their operations in the country. After a month, Mengistu
concluded agreements with Moscow for economic, cultural and military cooperation.

In the north, Eritrean insurgents encircled Asmara while a pro-monarchy organization, the
Ethiopian Democratic Union (EDU) marched inroads from the Sudan. However, the Eritrean
insurgents were pushed back by the end of 1978 and EDU was crushed near the Ethio-Sudan
borderland in places like Metema, Abder Raffi and Satit-Humera.

The Emaledeh began falling apart with the defection of Meison in 1977. The other competing
member organizations, Ech ’at, Wezlig and Malerid, were successively expelled from Emaledeh,
and their leaders and members were either executed or detained as they tried to retreat to the
countryside. Only Seded remained as the authentic Marxist-Leninist organization in the country.
The Commission for Organizing the Party of the Working People of Ethiopia (COPWE) was set
up in December 1979. The Workers’ Party of Ethiopia/WPE was inaugurated in September
1984, during the celebration of the tenth anniversary of the coming of the Derg to power.

In the interim, CELU was replaced on January 6, 1977 by the All Ethiopia Trade Union (AETU),
which was later re-named Ethiopian Trade Union (ETU). Similarly, the All Ethiopia Peasants’
Association (AEPA) was formed on April 22, 1978 and was later renamed Ethiopian Peasants’
Association (EPA). The Revolutionary Ethiopian Women’s Association (REWA) and
Revolutionary Ethiopian Youth Association (REYA) were established in 1980. After an election
which was predictably won by WPE, the Beherawi Shengo (National Assembly) proclaimed the
People’s Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (PDRE) in 1987, officially replacing the Derg. A
typically Communist constitution was put in place; Colonel Mengistu became President of
PDRE, secretary general of WPE and Commander in chief of the armed forces, with Fisseha
Desta as Vice President and Fiqre-Sellassie Wegderes as Prime Minister with five deputies.

In the meantime, the government responded to the 1984/5 famine by massive resettlement of the
affected peasants, mostly of Tigray and Wollo provinces, in Southwestern Ethiopia. The
villagization program that followed further alienated the majority of peasants. Moreover, Mikhail
Gorbachev’s policy of perestroika (restructuring) and glasnost (openness) in 1985 was a blow to
Mengistu’s agenda. He reluctantly declared a mixed economy, which was too little too late, in
March 1990.

On the other hand, the EPLF scored a major victory in March 1988 at Afabet, north of Asmara,
from its stronghold in Naqfa-Raza. It followed this significant victoy with the capture of the port
town of Massawa in 1990. Moreover, the TPLF (which grew out of Mahber Gesgesti Bihere
D'gray/Association of Progressives of the Tigray Nation or Tigrayan National Organization/
TNO, established on 17 September 1974) scored its most decisive victory at Enda-Selassie,
Western Tigray, in February 1989.

Meanwhile, disgruntled commanders of almost all military units coordinated and led a coup
against Mengistu when he left the country on a state visit to the German Democratic Republic in
May 1989. However, the coup was so poorly organized that loyal palace troops encircled the
leaders before they could even announce their intentions to the public. Mengistu returned
triumphantly to take his revenge. The coup leaders were all imprisoned or executed.

The TPLF, after liberating Tigray, continued to move forward and made organizational
adjustments to form a broader front known as the Ethiopian Peoples’ Revolutionary Democratic
Front (EPRDF). The member organizations were TPLF, the Ethiopian People’s Democratic
Movement (EPDM), the Oromo People’s Democratic Organization (OPDO) and the Ethiopian
Democratic Officers’ Revolutionary Movement (EDORM). The EPRDF forces drove the Derg
out of Gondar, Gojjam and Wollo, and parts of Wallaga and Shewa, approaching the capital from
the north and west in a series of stunning campaigns in 1990 and 1991. Other liberation fronts,
including the Oromo Liberation Front (OLF), the Islamic Front for Liberation of Oromia, the

109
 Afar Liberation Front, the Sidama Liberation Front, the Beni-Shangul Liberation Front and the
Gambella Liberation Front, also became active. OLF forces dismantled the Derg’s 131st Brigade
in battle that liberated Asosa and Bambasi in the then Wallaga Province in 1990. In the
meantime, negotiations for a peaceful end to the conflict were undertaken between the
government, the EPLF, and the TPLF in Atlanta, Nairobi and Rome.

Mengistu fled the country first to Nairobi and then to Harare (Zimbabwe) on May 21, 1991. The
PDRE Vice President, Lt. General Tesfaye Gebre-Kidan, appealed for an end to the civil war on
May 23, 1991. Prime Minister Tesfaye Dinqa left for the London peace conference mediated by
the US Assistant Secretary of State for African Affairs, Mr. Herman Cohen, on May 27, 1991.
EPRDF forces triumphantly entered Addis Ababa in the early hours of May 28, 1991.

7.3. Transitional Government

A handful of organizations, many of which were organized along ethnic lines, assembled to
review the draft Charter prepared by the EPRDF and the OLF on 1 July 1991. The gathering was
called the Peace and Democracy Transitional Conference of Ethiopia. The USA was at the
forefront in providing the necessary diplomatic backing for the Conference. The Conference was
attended by delegates from the UN, the OAU, the G7 Group, the US, the USSR, the Sudan,
Kenya, Djibouti and Eritrea. The Conference debated and approved the Transitional Charter on
the basis of which the Transitional Government of Ethiopia was created. Representatives of 27
organizations formed a Council of Representatives (COR), which acted as a legislative body
(‘Parliament’). This transitional parliament had 87 seats of which 32 were taken by the EPRDF
and the remaining 55 seats were divided among the 23 non-EPRDF organizations. At the same
time, a Council of Ministers was formed as an executive branch, with Meles Zenawi serving as
the President of the Transitional Government of Ethiopia (TGE). Meles then appointed a Prime
Minister (Tamirat Layne) and a seventeen-member Council of Ministers. Key posts were given
to EPRDF and the OLF members.

The constitution of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE) was ratified In
December 1994, and it took effect following federal elections in mid-1995. The constitution
stipulates that the country would have federated states based on ethno-linguistic, identity and
settlement patterns. The federal arrangement sought to devolve power to the regional states by
accommodating the country’s ethno-linguistic groups. After the election, Meles assumed the
premiership while Dr. Negasso Gidada, representing OPDO, became president (head of state).

Meanwhile, the EPLF set up a Provisional Government of Eritrea in 1991. This was followed by
a referendum to decide the fate of Eritrea, in which the majority of the population voted for
secession from Ethiopia. The Government of Eritrea was formed with Isayas Afwerki becoming
the first president of the country after independence in May 1993.

Learning Activities
> Discuss important manifestations of the British and the Americans’ dominance in
Ethiopia’s domestic and foreign affairs in the 1940s and 1950s respectively.
> Assess Eritreans’ reactions about the future fate of their country in the 1940s and 1950s.
> What administrative and economic measures did Emperor Haile-Selassie take after his
reinstatement to the throne and how did those measures help to consolidate his power?
> Discuss the major socio-economic and political developments in post-1941 Ethiopia.
> What was the context that led to the promulgation of the Revised 1955 Constitution?
> Explain the domestic challenges to the power of Emperor Haile-Selassie I immediately
after the expulsion of the Italians. Describe the nature of the plots.
> Explain the causes, course and consequences of the 1960 coup attempt.
> Discuss the causes for and the consequences of the Woyane, the Gojjam and the Bale
peasant rebellions, relating to the downfall of the imperial regime.
> Discuss the origin and development of the Ethiopian Student Movement, identifying the
domestic and international causes of the movement.
> Account for the causes, course and consequences of the 1974 Ethiopian Revolution.
> Identify and discuss major socio-economic reforms of the Derg.
> Explain the main factors for the downfall of the Derg.
> Explain essential features of the EPRDF-led government with reference to its measures.
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