Unit 13 Operational Amplifier

UNIT 13
Differential amplifier forms the first
OPERATIONAL
stage of operational amplifier. It
provides two inputs – inverting and
non-inverting – as you will learn in this
AMPLIFIER
unit.

Structure
13.1 Introduction Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)
Expected Learning Outcomes Slew Rate
13.2 Building Blocks of an Operational Amplifier Maximum Output Current
13.3 Technical Details of Op Amp Power Consumption
Symbol Gain-Bandwidth Product
IC Packages Comparison of Ideal Op Amp and 741C
Number Code Equivalent Circuit of an Op Amp
Power Supply 13.5 Summary
Precautions while Handling Op Amp IC 13.6 Terminal Questions
13.4 Characteristics of Op Amp 13.7 Solutions and Answers
Input-Output Relationship
Voltage Transfer Curve
Input Offset Voltage
Output Offset Voltage
Input Impedance
Output Resistance

STUDY GUIDE
In the last block you learnt about the analog circuits used in electronic systems. In this unit you will
learn about a special kind of amplifier with two inputs used for performing mathematical operations like
addition, subtraction, multiplication of analog signals. This is operational amplifier. To understand this
unit well, you should revise Unit 10 on Amplifiers from the last block. You should also revise the
concepts of input-output impedances, gain etc. to appreciate the discussions here.
You should solve the SAQs and Terminal Questions on your own for better understanding of the
content.

“Op amp offers all the advantages of monolithic integrated

Jacob Millman
circuits: small size, high reliability and reduced cost.”

97
Block 4 Operational Amplifier and Instrumentation
13.1 INTRODUCTION
Operational Amplifier (Op Amp) was first designed in 1948 based upon a
single vacuum tube. The primary use of early op amps was in analog
computers. The op amps derived their first name “operational” basically
because at that time they were used in mathematical operations such as
addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and solving differential equations.

The limited accuracy of analog computers up to three significant figures had

limited their use. They were later replaced by digital computers which were
faster, more accurate and versatile.

With the advancement of integrated circuit (IC) technology, several types of IC

based op amps were produced in mid-sixties which were available in the
market. These op amps required much lower power as compared to the
discrete components based amplifiers. They were cheaper and needed much
less space. With such op amps commercially available, the task of designing
circuits became very easy. With one or two op amps and a few resistors or
some other components, very good quality amplifiers, signal generators,
modulators, etc. could be made.

The sophistication in the recent times in the IC technology enabled the

manufacturers to produce special purpose op amps. The dual and quad op
amp packages have two and four op amps respectively on a single chip. They
are commercially available and are quite cheap.

As a user of an op amp it is sufficient to know its basic building blocks on a

schematic diagram. It is not required to know the detailed component level
circuit of the operational amplifier which is grown on a single IC chip. What we
need is the performance characteristics of the op amp available in the data
sheet supplied by the manufacturer. With such characteristics known, we can
use the op amp in various applications.

In Sec. 13.2 you will learn the basic blocks of op amp. In Sec. 13.3 we will
describe the technical details of commercially available op amp ICs.

In Sec. 13.4 we will discuss in details the important characteristics of op amp

that affect its performance. We will also compare the characteristic
parameters of commonly used op amp IC 741C with that of an ideal op amp.

In the next unit you will learn about some important applications of op amp.

Expected Learning Outcomes

After studying this unit, you should be able to:

 draw the block diagram of an op amp;

 describe the concept of inverting and non-inverting inputs of an op amp;

 draw a schematic symbol for an op amp;

 distinguish between the two types of packages of op amp IC;
 draw the pin-out diagram for op amp IC 741C;
98
Unit 13 Operational Amplifier

 interpret the number code printed on the IC;

 explain the power supply requirements for op amps;

 state precautions which have to be taken while working with op amps;

 establish input-output voltage relationship for op amps;

 draw the ideal voltage transfer curve for an op amp;

 define input offset voltage, output offset voltage, input impedance, output
resistance, common mode rejection ratio, maximum output current,
power consumption, slew rate and gain bandwidth product; and

 compare the characteristics of ideal op amp and of IC 741C.

13.2 BUILDING BLOCKS OF AN OPERATIONAL

AMPLIFIER
Operational amplifiers are very special type of amplifiers which are designed
by cascading multiple stages of different types of amplifiers. You have learnt
most of these types in Unit 10 of this course. Fig. 13.1 shows the basic
building blocks of a typical operational amplifier. It comprises many stages.

Fig. 13.1: Block diagram of an op amp.

In this diagram the first stage is a special type of amplifier which has two
inputs and its output is generated depending upon the difference between
these two inputs. Such amplifiers are called differential amplifiers.

The second stage, called level shifter is required because on the integrated
circuit chips, it is difficult to build capacitors. Hence, the capacitive (ac)
coupling between the two stages of amplifier is not possible, and the dc level
riding on the amplified signal from the differential amplifier output has to be
removed by a special level shifter circuit, which is typically a common collector
amplifier. Usually the output of an op amp is used to drive the loads, which
may require high currents. Hence, the last stage of op amp is a power
boosting stage in the form of a push-pull amplifier.

The differential amplifier is a circuit made of two matched transistors (i.e. their
type, gain, impedances, VBE value etc. are equal). The collector and emitter of
these two transistors are joined together to the supply voltages VCC and
 VEE through equal resistances RC and RE respectively, as shown in
Fig. 13.2a.
99
Block 4 Operational Amplifier and Instrumentation

Fig. 13.2: Differential amplifier: a) basic configuration; b) double ended input

and single ended output.

Due to matching transistor parameters, if the input voltages V1 and V2 are

equal, equal currents flow through both of them and the output V0 is zero. But
if V1 is more positive than V2 , then the polarity of V0 is as shown in the
figure. It is clear that the output signal at the collector of T2 is in the same
phase as V1 (input of T1 ). Hence the input of T1 is called the non-inverting
input. In contrast, the output is 180 out of phase with respect to the input of
T2 . Hence, it is called the inverting input.

At times, the op amp output is taken from the collector of T2 and measured
with respect to ground potential as shown in Fig. 13.2b. This configuration with
double ended input and single ended output is most commonly used in
practice. In this unit will consider this configuration of op amp only.

After getting familiar with the inputs and output of operational amplifier, in the
next section we will look at some technical details of op amp ICs.

13.3 TECHNICAL DETAILS OF OP AMP

Before learning the usage of op amp, you should get familiar with some
general technical details of op amp ICs and associated requirements like
power supplies etc.

13.3.1 Symbol
The symbol used for op amp is shown in Fig. 13.3. It is a triangle pointing to
the signal flow. This symbol also shows the terminal (or pin) numbers for a
general purpose and very popular op amp integrated circuit – IC 741C. All op
amps have at least five terminals – two for inputs, two for power supply and
one for the output. General purpose 741C has some other terminals as well.

The op amp has two input terminals. Pin 2 is the inverting input. When the
input is given to it, the output at pin 6 is available with 180 degree phase
change. Pin 3 is the non-inverting input. The input given to this pin is available
at pin 6 without phase change. The inverting input (pin 2) is often shown with
100
Unit 13 Operational Amplifier
a () sign and non-inverting input (pin 3) with a (+) sign. These two terminals
are known as differential input terminals. The output voltage depends upon
the difference in voltages between them.

Fig. 13.3: Symbol for an op amp.

The op amp requires a dual power supply; means a positive as well as

negative voltage supplies are used. Negative voltage terminal of the dual
power supply is connected to pin 4 and positive voltage terminal is connected
to pin 7. Note that if the polarities of the voltages applied to pins 4 and 7 are
reversed, the op amp shall be damaged and cannot be used any more.

SAQ 1 – Pins of op amp

What are the numbers of input and output pins of IC 741C?

13.3.2 IC Packages
The op amp which is fabricated on a silicon chip is housed in a suitable
package. Op amp 741C is available in two most popular packages (a) metal
can and (b) dual in-line packages (DIP). These packages are shown in
Fig. 13.4a and b respectively. This IC has eight pins (or terminals) to connect
it in the circuit. The metal can IC is round in shape and pin number 8 is
indicated by a tab protruding out from the metal package. The DIP packages
are in plastic casing. Pin number 1 is indicated by circle or dot engraved on
the top of the IC package.

(a) (b)

Fig. 13.4: Op amp packages: a) metal can; b) 8-pin DIP package.

101
Block 4 Operational Amplifier and Instrumentation
The combination of the op amp symbol and package view is quite commonly
used by the manufacturers in their data sheets. These combinations are
shown in Fig. 13.5a and b respectively.

(a)

(b)

Fig. 13.5: Pin diagrams for a) metal can; b) 8-pin DIP package of op amp.
(NC means no connection).

The pin count of every IC including op amps is done as follows. Look at the
top view of the IC and note the position of a notch or a dot in case of DIP and
a tab in case of a metal can package. The first pin on the left hand side of the
notch or dot or tab identifies the pin 1. Then other pins are counted counter-
clockwise. If you see the IC in its bottom view, then this counting scheme is
reversed. That is in bottom view, the next pin on the right side of the tab or dot
is Pin 1 and the counting is done from 1 to 8 in clockwise direction.

SAQ 2 – Op amp IC pin identification

What is the way in which the IC pins are counted?

13.3.3 Number Code

On the packages of all the ICs, including op amps, some numbers are printed
with the help of which the IC is identified. On op amp package, say in a typical
IC, CA741C is printed. The first two letters 'CA' identify the manufacture's
code. CA is the code for RCA, AD is for Analog Devices, LM is for National
Semiconductor Corp, A is for Fairchild, etc. The word 741C is the circuit
designator for commercial purpose op amp. This word for any IC could be of
three to seven numbers and letters. In 741C, C identifies the commercial
102
Unit 13 Operational Amplifier
temperature range (0 to 70°C). Other temperature codes are I for industrial
purpose (25 to 85°C) and M for military purposes (55 to 125°C).

SAQ 3 – Identifying op amp IC

Identify the details of the IC with number code LM 741M.

13.3.4 Power Supply

For supplying bias to a general purpose op amp IC (741C), a bipolar or dual
power supply is required. Usually to power the op amp ICs, commercially
available dual power supplies which give voltages 15 V (plus and minus
15 V) or  9 V (plus and minus 9 V) are used. Two separate equal voltage
sources with opposite polarities as shown in the Fig. 13.6 can also be used
with a common terminal at ground (0 V) potential.

Fig. 13.6: Dual power supply.

SAQ 4 – Power supply connections to op amp IC

Name the pins of op amp 741C to which power supply is connected.

13.3.5 Precautions while Handling Op Amp IC

A circuit in which op amp is being used is built either on a breadboard or on a
printed circuit board. There are certain precautions to be taken while
constructing and using the circuit.

 While doing the entire wiring of the circuit keep the power supply off.

 Use wires of appropriate length. Avoid using too long wires.

 All ground connections should meet at a common electrical point.

 While starting the circuit, first of all, power ( V) should be supplied to the
op amp.

 Apply signal to the input pins only after op amp is supplied with power.
103
Block 4 Operational Amplifier and Instrumentation
 Always measure voltages and not currents. The current may be calculated
by finding voltage at two ends of a resistor.
 When the work is over, remove signal first and then switch off the op amp
power supply.
It is necessary here to stress further that never
 reverse the polarity of supply voltages given to IC pins;
 apply input signal voltages greater then + V and less than – V,
 connect any signal to input pins with op amp power supply off.

SAQ 5 – Op amp power supply

What happens if you connect positive terminal of the dual power supply to
pin 4 and negative terminal to pin 7 of op amp 741C?

13.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF OP AMP

An op amp is a special type of amplifier possessing some very peculiar
characteristics. In this section you will learn about some important
characteristics of op amp which influence its performance, and make it a
popular amplifier in various applications.
You must remember here that in the circuits fabricated using discrete or
integrated components, the practical factors like power losses in devices,
stray capacitances, temperature dependent behaviour of device parameters
etc. affect the performance of the circuit. Hence, there is always a deviation in
the parameter values from the ideal values for op amp. For example, an ideal
operational amplifier has infinite voltage gain, infinite input impedance and
zero output impedance. Actual characteristics of an op amp are as a matter of
fact different.
Now we describe these characteristics in details.
13.4.1 Input-Output Relationship
As pointed out earlier, op amp amplifies the difference of voltage present
between the non-inverting and inverting inputs (pins 3 and 2). If the difference
voltage is VD and the gain of the op amp is A, then the output voltage is AVD .
In Fig. 13.7, the voltage at pin 3 is designated to be V1 and at pin 2 it is V2 .
Thus
VD  V1  V2

Fig. 13.7: Output voltage depends on the input difference voltage.

104
Unit 13 Operational Amplifier

and the output voltage is

VO  A (V1  V2 )  AVD

This gives the voltage gain

V
A O (13.1)
VD

The voltage gain A in this equation is referred to by several names – large

signal voltage gain (LSVG), open loop gain ( AOL ) or differential voltage gain
( AD ).

Remember that the difference voltage, VD , has been calculated as follows:

(VD ) = voltage at non-inverting terminal, pin 3 (V1 ) 

voltage at inverting terminal, pin 2 (V2 )

Both (V1 ) and (V2 ) are measured with respect to the ground. Note that the
gain of the ideal operational amplifier is infinite, while in practice, say for
A 741C, the gain is 200,000. Thus theoretically, the output voltage should be
200,000 times (VD ) . But we cannot obtain from any amplifier a voltage which
is greater than the bias voltage supplied by the power supply. Therefore, the
output voltage gets saturated, which is limited by the supply voltage. Actually,
the op amp consists of several transistors across which certain voltages are
dropped in order to maintain their proper functioning. This limits the output
voltage below the supply voltage. The upper limit of the output voltage VO is
the positive saturation voltage,  VSAT and the lower limit is the negative
saturation voltage,  VSAT . In the case of the general purpose op amp biased
with 15 V power supply the  VSAT and  VSAT are +14 V and 13 V
respectively restricting the peak-to-peak symmetrical swing to 13 V. You
should remember that if the input to pin 3 is greater than that to pin 2, then VD
is positive and the output is  VSAT . Now if the input to pin 2 is greater than
that to pin 3, then VD is negative and the output is  VSAT .

SAQ 6 – Differential input voltages

How do you calculate input difference voltage of an op amp?

13.4.2 Voltage Transfer Curve

Fig. 13.8 shows a plot drawn (not to the scale), between the difference input
voltage, VD , and the output voltage, VO . The curve in the plot is known as
voltage transfer curve. If VD is positive, VO reaches  VSAT and if it is
negative then VO is  VSAT . Thus output voltage cannot be greater than
 VSAT and lesser than  VSAT . If the plot is drawn to the scale, then the
curve will be a vertical straight line for an ideal op amp. 105
Block 4 Operational Amplifier and Instrumentation

Fig. 13.8: Ideal voltage transfer curve.

13.4.3 Input Offset Voltage

Ideally the output of an op amp should be zero, when equal voltage is applied
at both the inputs. However, in practical op amp, a small voltage difference is
required between the two inputs to get 0 V output. Input offset voltage is the
voltage which is necessary to be applied between pins 2 and 3 so as to get
zero output at pin 6. If the dc input voltages applied to pins 3 and 2 are V1 and
V2 as shown in Fig. 13.9, then the input offset voltage is VIO  V1  V2 for
getting zero output voltage. The value of VIO can be positive or negative. The
smaller is the value of VIO , better is the matching of the input terminals. For
741C, the maximum value of VIO is 6 mV.

Fig. 13.9: Measuring input offset voltage.

SAQ 7 – Input offset voltage

If you wish to amplify an input differential voltage of 5 mV, can IC 741C be a

good choice of op amp?

13.4.4 Output Offset Voltage

Output voltage of an op amp should be ideally zero when both the inputs are
106 at the same potential, zero or grounded. However, in practice some output
Unit 13 Operational Amplifier
voltage may be available with both the inputs grounded. This voltage is known
as output offset voltage and it should be made zero, otherwise, the results
will be inaccurate.

To reduce the output offset voltage to zero in IC 741C, a carbon potentiometer

of high resistance, say 22 k, is connected between the pins 1 and 5, and the
wiper is connected to pin 4 ( VEE V) as shown in Fig. 13.10. Adjust the
position of the wiper so that output offset voltage is reduced to zero.

Fig. 13.10: Adjusting output offset voltage.

SAQ 8 – Output offset voltage

What is the output offset voltage? Why is it necessary to be reduced to zero?

13.4.5 Input Impedance

Input impedance or differential input resistance, RI of an op amp is the
equivalent resistance which can be measured at either of the inputs –
inverting or non-inverting – with the other terminal grounded. Ideally this
resistance is infinite. But in case of 741C, RI is about 2 M.

In many op amps the transistors T1 and T2 are field effect transistors (FETs)
rather than bipolar junction transistors (BJTs). Advantage of using FET is that
there is no base current required to operate this circuit. Hence it can provide a
high input impedance to op amp avoiding any loading of the signal source.

13.4.6 Output Resistance

Output resistance, RO is the equivalent resistance measured between the
output pin 6 and the ground. Ideally the value of RO is zero, but for 741C it is
75.

13.4.7 Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)

There may be situations when the op amp is being used in an electrically
noisy environment. The pins 2 and 3 may pick up same noise voltage. The op
107
Block 4 Operational Amplifier and Instrumentation
amp amplifies the difference in voltages at the two inputs, therefore with the
same voltage present at the two inputs the output voltage due to noise should
be ideally zero thus cancelling unwanted noise singles. To assess whether
both the inputs are properly matched for this purpose a term known as
common mode rejection ratio (CMRR) is used. It is defined as the ratio of
the open loop voltage gain, AOL , to the common mode voltage gain, ACM .

AOL
CMRR  (13.2)
ACM
The common mode voltage gain, ACM , is measured using the circuit shown in
Fig. 13.11.

Fig. 13.11: Common mode connections.

Both the inputs are connected to each other and given the same common
mode voltage, VCM and the common mode output voltage VOCM is noted.
Then the common mode voltage gain is

V
ACM  OCM
VCM

Then CMRR can be calculated using Eq. (13.2). Ideally, CMRR should be
infinite, since open loop gain ( AOL ) is infinite. However, in practice for IC
741C, AOL is 200,000 and its CMRR is 90 dB.

SAQ 9 – CMRR

Is it preferable to use an op amp with low CMRR? Why?

13.4.8 Slew Rate

Slew rate indicates how rapidly the output of an op amp changes with the
change in the input signal. It is defined as the maximum rate of change of
output voltage (in volts) per unit time (in micro seconds). Thus
dVO
SR  Vs1
dt max

Slew rate is normally specified by the manufacturer at the unity closed loop
gain (+1). Ideally the slew rate should be infinite. For IC 741C, the slew rate is
0.5 Vs1 which limits its use at higher frequencies. For use at higher
frequencies special purpose op amp like LM 318 is used. It has a slew rate of
108 70 Vs1 .
Unit 13 Operational Amplifier

XAMPLE 13.1: THE SLEW RATE

The slew rate of an op amp is 1 Vs1 . If a triangular wave of  5V is to be

obtained at the output of the op amp, what is the maximum frequency of
the signal that can be applied at the input?

SOLUTION  The triangular wave signal of  5V is shown in Fig. 13.12.

The signal travels from – 5V to + 5V and back to – 5V in one cycle of the
signal.

Fig. 13.12: Triangular wave of  5V amplitude.

Hence the total voltage traversed by the output of an op amp will be 20 V

(Rising edge from – 5V to + 5V and falling edge from + 5V to – 5V).

The slew rate of op amp is 1 Vs1 . Hence to traverse 20 V (i.e. to

complete one cycle), it will take 20 s. This is the shortest period of the
signal wave that can be handled. We can obtain the frequency of this
signal.

1 1
fmax    50 kHz
Time period 20 s

Hence, the maximum frequency of the signal that can be faithfully

obtained, without any distortion at the output will be 50 kHz.

From this example, you must have understood how the frequency of signal
handled by the op amp is limited by the slew rate.

13.4.9 Maximum Output Current

Maximum output current for ideal op amp is infinite. This current flows from
the op amp IC when the output terminal is shorted to the ground. But this will
damage the practical op amp. To avoid this damage all op amps of 741 family
have built-in protection circuitry and are protected up to 25 mA of current.
Therefore, its maximum output short circuit current is 25 mA.

13.4.10 Power Consumption

The amount of power that is consumed by an op amp to operate properly (with
zero input voltage) is defined as the power consumption of the op amp. For
741C, it is 85 mW. This op amp also draws a current of 2.8 mA from the
power supply.
109
Block 4 Operational Amplifier and Instrumentation
13.4.11 Gain-Bandwidth Product
Ideally the operational amplifier has infinite bandwidth, but as the closed loop
gain is increased the bandwidth decreases. Normally it is defined as the
bandwidth of the op amp when its closed loop gain is 1. For 741C, the gain
bandwidth product (GB) is approximately 10 6. Hence under unity gain, the
bandwidth is 1 MHz.
13.4.12 Comparison of Ideal Op Amp and 741C
In Table 13.1 we summarize the comparison of ideal values of various op amp
characteristic parameters with IC 741C.
Table 13.1: Comparison of Ideal Op Amp Parameters with IC 741C

Sl. Parameter Ideal Op 741C

No. amp

1. Open loop voltage gain

( AOL , AD ). Infinite 200,000

2. Input impedance (RI ) Infinite 2 M

3. Output resistance (RO ) Zero 75 

4. Output offset voltage Zero 6 mV

5. Common mode rejection ratio (CMRR) Infinite 90 dB

6. Slew rate Infinite 0.5 Vs1

7. Bandwidth (BW) Infinite 1 MHz.

13.4.13 Equivalent Circuit of an Op Amp

The equivalent circuit of an op amp is shown in Fig. 13.13. In the circuit RI
and RO are input and output resistances of the op amp and AVD is the
equivalent Thevenin voltage source. The value of A, RI and RO are available
from the manufacturer's data sheet.

Fig. 13.13: Equivalent circuit of an op amp.

110
Unit 13 Operational Amplifier
Let us now summarise the points discussed in this unit.

13.5 SUMMARY

Concept Description

Building blocks  Op amp has two inputs and single output. Differential amplifier is the first
of op amp stage of op amp whereas push pull power amplifier is the last stage.

Op amp IC  The name of the manufacturer, the op amp and temperature range can be
number codes found out by reading the number code printed on the top of the IC package.

Power supply  A dual power supply is needed to operate the op amp. We connect positive
requirement voltage to pin 7 and negative voltage to pin 4.

Ideal op amp  The ideal operational amplifier has infinite voltage gain, input resistance,
characteristics CMRR and slew rate. It has zero output resistance and output offset voltage.

13.6 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. Draw the pin-out diagram of bottom view of op amp 741C in dual in-line
pack.

2. Why is it necessary to provide the power supply to the op amp before

applying the signal to an op amp circuit?

3. What will be the lowest value of load resistance that can be handled by IC
741C op amp if the output voltage is + 10V?

13.7 SOLUTIONS AND ANSWERS

Self-Assessment Questions
1. Inverting input pin 2, non-inverting input pin 3 and the output pin 6.

2. See the top view of the IC. Look for the notch or dot on the body of the IC.
The pin on the left of the notch or dot is pin 1. Then start counting pins in
counter-clockwise direction.

3. For the IC with number LM741M, the letters LM identify the name of the
manufacturer, National Semiconductor Corp. The letters 741 indicate op
amp. The letter M indicates the temperature range for the Military
Standards, i.e. 55 to 125C. Thus, LM 741M means that it is an op amp
manufactured by National Semiconductor Corp, for military purpose to be
used in the temperature range of 55 to 125C.

4. Pins 4 and 7. Negative voltage is connected to pin 4 and positive voltage

is connected to pin 7.

5. It will permanently damage the op amp.

111
Block 4 Operational Amplifier and Instrumentation
6. Input difference voltage to an op amp VD is calculated as follows:

VD = voltage at pin 3 (V1)  voltage at pin 2 (V2 )

where the voltages at pins 2 and 3 are measured separately with respect
to the ground potential (0 V).

7. No. The input offset voltage of IC 741C is 6 mV. Hence the differential
voltage of smaller than 6 mV cannot be amplified faithfully, unless an
additional VIO for this IC is applied at the inputs alongwith the input signal.

8. It is the voltage available at the output pin 6 even when both the input pins
2 and 3 are grounded. If it is not reduced to zero, then any reading taken
at the output pin will always have this excess dc voltage riding on the real
output voltage; and we will get faulty results.

9. No. Higher is the CMRR, better is the matching of input terminals and
immunity against noise common on both inputs.

Terminal Questions
1. Refer to Fig. 13.14.

Fig. 13.14: Bottom view pin out diagram of IC 741C DIP.

2. When op amp is connected in a circuit, it is always necessary to bring it

first into operation by applying it the supply voltage. Once it stabilizes, then
the input signal should be provided. When the supply voltages are not
provided to the op amp IC, the internal components like transistors are not
properly biased. In such situation if the signal is given to the input pins,
that can damage the internal components and make the IC non-functional.

3. The maximum output current supplied by IC 741C is 25 mA. When output

voltage = 10 V, the minimum load resistance that can be connected to the
output

10 V
  400 .
25 mA

Hence loads larger than 400  can be used for 10 V output voltage. Note
that, if the output voltage is larger, the required value of load resistor will
also be larger.

112