UNIT-I: Semi-Conductors and Diodes

Introduction
A semiconductor can be considered a material having a conductivity ranging between that of an
insulator and a metal. A crucial property of semiconductors is the band gap; a range of forbidden
energies within the electronic structure of the material. Semiconductors typically have bandgaps
ranging between 1 and 4 eV, while insulators have larger bandgaps, often greater than 5 eV . The
thermal energy available at room temperature, 300 K, is approximately 25 meV and is thus
considerably smaller than the energy required to promote an electron across the bandgap.
Semiconducting materials are very sensitive to impurities in the crystal lattice as these can have a
dramatic effect on the number of mobile charge carriers present. The controlled addition of these
impurities is known as doping and allows the tuning of the electronic properties, an important
requirement for technological applications. The properties of a pure semiconductor are called
'intrinsic', while those resulting from the introduction of dopants are called 'extrinsic'. This
introduction of dopants results in the creation of new, intra-band, energy levels and the
generation of either negative (electrons) or positive (holes) charge carriers.
What Is A Conductor, Semiconductor And Insulator?
Levels of conductivity are the main difference between conductors, semiconductors and
insulators. Conductors display high conductivity, which means they allow energy, such as
electricity, heat or sound, to easily flow through them. Whereas semiconductors allow a
moderate flow and insulators exhibit low conductivity.
While conductivity is the principal difference between conductors, semiconductors and
insulators, there are a number of other differences between the three. These differences may also
need to be considered when thinking about their industrial and commercial uses.
Band Theory
Band theory is one of the main ways of explaining differences in conduction. This uses the
‘band’ of material to explain a number of physical properties of conduction.
Electrons orbit the positive nucleus of an individual atom within permitted levels of energy. In a
lot of atoms, energy levels reorganise into two bands, namely the valence band and the
conduction band. The valence band is the lower level of electrons and the conduction band is the
higher level of electrons.
An energy gap exists between the bands where electrons can’t exist. When conduction occurs
electrons move and for this to happen there has to be spaces in the energy bands for the electrons
to move into.
The Definition of a Conductor
A conductor facilitates the easy flow of an electron from one atom to another atom when the
proper application of voltage. This is because there are no band gaps between the valence and
conduction bands.
In some materials, there is an overlapping of the conductor and valence bands, which means
electrons can move between the two overlapping bands. As there is space for elections to move
into in the conduction band, valence band electron moves into the other band and conduction is
allowed.
Silver is probably the best electrical conductor we encounter in everyday life. Other metals, such
as gold, copper, steel, aluminium and brass also represent good conductors. You’ll find these
materials in everyday electrical equipment, either in the form of wires or etched onto circuit
boards.
Solids are normally the best types of conductors, however, some liquids including liquid metals
such as mercury are also good at permitting the transmission of energy through them.
Some materials are classed as superconductors. At extremely low temperatures these materials
will conduct without resistance.
The Definition Of A Semiconductor
With moderate conductivity, a semiconductor has a conductivity value between that of a
conductor such as silver and an insulator, such as the mica we use in Elmelin’s product range.
The resistance of a semiconductor falls as its temperature rises. Elements like silicon (Si),
germanium (Ge), selenium (Se); compounds like gallium arsenide (GaAs) and indium
antimonide (InSb) are all examples of semiconductor elements. Silicon represents the most
widely used semiconductor.
There is a gap between the valance and conduction bands in a semiconductor, however, it’s small
enough to facilitate the movement of electrons at room temperature, enabling some conduction.
A rise in temperature increases the conductivity of a semiconductor because more electrons will
have enough energy to move into the conduction band.
Ordinarily, gases are poor conductors due to the space between atoms. However, in some
circumstances – such as when it contains a large number of ions – gasses can be fair conductors
and act as semiconductors.
The Definition Of An Insulator
An insulator prevents the flow of energy between two objects. For example, insulators may
prevent the flow of electric, heat or sound.
Thermal insulators, reduce the transfer of heat between two objects of differing temperatures.
Thermal insulators do this by reflecting thermal energy. The insulative capacity of a material is
the inverse of thermal conductivity (k) and therefore those materials with low thermal
conductivity will have high insulating capability or resistance value. Other important properties
to consider are product density (ρ) and specific heat capacity ©.
A substance that does not conduct electricity is called a dielectric material. These substances can
be polarised by an applied electric field so electric charges do not flow through them as they
would through a conductor. Therefore, the internal electrical field reduces the overall field within
the dielectric.
In insulators, there are larger gaps between the conduction and valence bands. The electrons
cannot move into the conduction band and this means the material cannot conduct.
What Are Conductors, Semiconductors And Insulators Used For?
What Are Conductors?
Conductors can be found in a range of everyday situations, for example:
Thermometres: Mercury has traditionally been used in thermometres to measure body
temperature.
Radiators: central heating systems traditionally rely on radiators made from conductive metals to
quickly transfer the heat of the radiator into the room.
Cooking pans: iron was traditionally used to quickly conduct heat from a flame to the food in the
pan.
What Are Semiconductors?
Semiconductors are all around us but perhaps are less obvious than conductors or insulators.
Semiconductors use include:
Transistors: very large scale integration(VLSI) technology means that tiny transistors are in
almost every gadget we use.
Solar cells: these are made up of p-type and n-type semiconductors, which are used in solar
panels to turn sunlight into electricity.
What Are Insulators?
Insulators have a wide range of applications from everyday use through to specialist and high-
tech industrial applications. Insulators include:
Wall insulation: this normally comes in the form of thermal insulation to regulate the heat flow
between a building and the outside environment.
Furnace insulation: One of Elmelin’s specialities is the use of mica to create thermal and
dielectric barriers in foundry environments.
Sound insulation: this is most obviously applied to sound studios, however, it can also be applied
to regular buildings to prevent disturbances between rooms and properties.
Electrical insulation: this can range from the coating of wire in household circuitry through to the
insulation in capacitors in commercial and consumer goods
Intrinsic Semiconductor and Extrinsic Semiconductor
The semiconductor is divided into two types. One is Intrinsic Semiconductor and other is
an Extrinsic semiconductor. The pure form of the semiconductor is known as the intrinsic
semiconductor and the semiconductor in which intentionally impurities is added for making it
conductive is known as the extrinsic semiconductor.
The conductivity of the intrinsic semiconductor becomes zero at room temperature while the
extrinsic semiconductor is very less conductive at room temperature. The detailed explanation of
the two types of the semiconductor is given below.
Contents:
Intrinsic Semiconductor
Extrinsic Semiconductor
Doping
Intrinsic Semiconductor
An extremely pure semiconductor is called Intrinsic Semiconductor. On the basis of the energy
band phenomenon, an intrinsic semiconductor at absolute zero temperature is shown below:

Its valence band is completely filled and

the conduction band is completely empty. When the temperature is raised and some heat energy
is supplied to it, some of the valence electrons are lifted to conduction band leaving behind holes
in the valence band as shown below:
 The electrons reaching at the
conduction band move randomly. The holes created in the crystal also free to move anywhere.
This behaviour of the semiconductor shows that they have a negative temperature coefficient of
resistance. This means that with the increase in temperature, the resistivity of the material
decreases and the conductivity increases.
Extrinsic Semiconductor:A semiconductor to which an impurity at a controlled rate is added to
make it conductive is known as an extrinsic semiconductor.
An intrinsic semiconductor is capable to conduct a little current even at room temperature, but it
is not useful for the preparation of various electronic devices. Thus, to make it conducive a small
amount of suitable impurity is added to the material.

Doping
The process by which an impurity is added to a semiconductor is known as Doping. The amount
and type of impurity which is to be added to the material have to be closely controlled during the
preparation of extrinsic semiconductor.
Generally, one impurity atom is added to 108 atoms of a semiconductor.
The purpose of adding impurity in the semiconductor crystal is to increase the number of free
electrons or holes to make it conductive. If a Pentavalent impurity, having five valence electrons
is added to a pure semiconductor a large number of free electrons will exist.
If a trivalent impurity having three valence electrons is added, a large number of holes will exist
in the semiconductor.
Depending upon the type of impurity added the extrinsic semiconductor may be classified as n
type semiconductor and p type semiconductor.
Mobility:
As the name implies it describes a movement or mobile property. How quickly an electron or
hole moves through a metal or semiconductor in the presence of an electric field.
The capability of movement is connected with a parameter called drift velocity. When an
external electric field is applied across a piece of semiconductor, free electrons and holes are
accelerated by the electric field and acquire a velocity component (superimposed on their
thermal motion) called drift velocity. Drift velocity (V) is directly proportional to the electric
field (E).
V=uE
where u = quantitative parameter called mobility and units are cm2/(V.s)
Mobility depends upon temperature, electric field (E), impurity concentration, defect
concentration, electron and hole concentration
Electrons are faster particles than holes for Si un=1500 up=475
At higher temperatures, mobility decreases because collisions are inelastic, due to this average
energy decreases, speed decreases and the number of carriers increases due to ionization
Mobility increases as electric field intensity decrease u=V/E
Higher mobility leads to better performance in electronic devices
Conductivity:
A property of charge carriers describing its capacity of conduction.
Doping or impurity concentration enhances the number of charge carriers and hence, the
electrical conductivity of semiconductors.
It is similar to the conductivity of metals. But conductivity for semiconductors depends upon
entirely different parameters. The conductivity of semiconductors is directly proportional to the
following factors
Charge carriers (q)
The concentration of carriers (n)
Mobility of carriers (u)
Conductivity σ = qnu
Problem: Why Si is preferred over Ge?
Solution: There are 2 main reasons for Si being the preferred Semiconductor over Ge:
SiO2 is an insulator which becomes an important part of fabrication during isolation.
In Si, the outermost electrons are in 3 rd shell whereas in Ge they are in 4 th shell so Si is more
stable at room temperature.
Some other differences between Si and Ge are:
Power handling capability of Si is higher than Ge
Si is easily available on earth
In Si, the operating temperature range is -60 to 1750C but for Ge it is -60 to 750C.
Leakage current is of the order of nA for Si while it is of the order of mA for Ge.
Conductivity of Si is more temperature sensitive than Ge.
Problem: Why LED gives light but not normal PN junction diode?
Solution: As in LED the energy is released in the form of light but in case of PN Junction diode,
it is released in the form of heat it just depends on the type of material used & even depend on
direct band gap & indirect band gap.
LED has direct band-gap and so it gives light
PN Junction has indirect band gap and it releases energy in heat form.
Diode junction capacitance
In a p-n junction diode, two types of capacitance take place. They are,
Transition capacitance (CT)
Diffusion capacitance (CD)
Transition capacitance (CT)
We know that capacitors store electric charge in the form of electric field. This charge storage is
done by using two electrically conducting plates (placed close to each other) separated by an
insulating material called dielectric.
The conducting plates or electrodes of the capacitor are good conductors of electricity.
Therefore, they easily allow electric current through them. On the other hand, dielectric material
or medium is poor conductor of electricity. Therefore, it does not allow electric current through
it. However, it efficiently allows electric field.
When voltage is applied to the capacitor, charge carriers starts flowing through the conducting
wire. When these charge carriers reach the electrodes of the capacitor, they experience a strong
opposition from the dielectric or insulating material. As a result, a large number of charge
carriers are trapped at the electrodes of the capacitor. These charge carriers cannot move between
the plates. However, they exerts electric field between the plates. The charge carriers which are
trapped near the dielectric material will stores electric charge. The ability of the material to store
electric charge is called capacitance.
In a basic capacitor, the capacitance is directly proportional to the size of electrodes or plates and
inversely proportional to the distance between two plates.
Just like the capacitors, a reverse biased p-n junction diode also stores electric charge at
the depletion region. The depletion region is made of immobile positive and negative ions.
In a reverse biased p-n junction diode, the p-type and n-type regions have low resistance. Hence,
p-type and n-type regions act like the electrodes or conducting plates of the capacitor. The
depletion region of the p-n junction diode has high resistance. Hence, the depletion region acts
like the dielectric or insulating material. Thus, p-n junction diode can be considered as a parallel
plate capacitor.
In depletion region, the electric charges (positive and negative ions) do not move from one place
to another place. However, they exert electric field or electric force. Therefore, charge is stored
at the depletion region in the form of electric field. The ability of a material to store electric
charge is called capacitance. Thus, there exists a capacitance at the depletion region.
The capacitance at the depletion region changes with the change in applied voltage. When
reverse bias voltage applied to the p-n junction diode is increased, a large number
of holes (majority carriers) from p-side and electrons (majority carriers) from n-side are moved
away from the p-n junction. As a result, the width of depletion region increases whereas the size
of p-type and n-type regions (plates) decreases.
We know that capacitance means the ability to store electric charge. The p-n junction diode with
narrow depletion width and large p-type and n-type regions will store large amount of electric
charge whereas the p-n junction diode with wide depletion width and small p-type and n-type
regions will store only a small amount of electric charge. Therefore, the capacitance of the
reverse bias p-n junction diode decreases when voltage increases.
In a forward biased diode, the transition capacitance exist. However, the transition capacitance is
very small compared to the diffusion capacitance. Hence, transition capacitance is neglected in
forward biased diode.
The amount of capacitance changed with increase in voltage is called transition capacitance. The
transition capacitance is also known as depletion region capacitance, junction capacitance or
barrier capacitance. Transition capacitance is denoted as CT.
The change of capacitance at the depletion region can be defined as the change in electric charge
per change in voltage.
CT = dQ / dV
Where,
CT = Transition capacitance
dQ = Change in electric charge
dV = Change in voltage
The transition capacitance can be mathematically written as,
CT = ε A / W
Where,
ε = Permittivity of the semiconductor
A = Area of plates or p-type and n-type regions
W = Width of depletion region
Diffusion capacitance (CD)
Diffusion capacitance occurs in a forward biased p-n junction diode. Diffusion capacitance is
also sometimes referred as storage capacitance. It is denoted as CD.
In a forward biased diode, diffusion capacitance is much larger than the transition capacitance.
Hence, diffusion capacitance is considered in forward biased diode.
The diffusion capacitance occurs due to stored charge of minority electrons and minority holes
near the depletion region.
When forward bias voltage is applied to the p-n junction diode, electrons (majority carriers) in
the n-region will move into the p-region and recombines with the holes. In the similar way, holes
in the p-region will move into the n-region and recombines with electrons. As a result, the width
of depletion region decreases.
The electrons (majority carriers) which cross the depletion region and enter into the p-region will
become minority carriers of the p-region similarly; the holes (majority carriers) which cross the
depletion region and enter into the n-region will become minority carriers of the n-region.
A large number of charge carriers, which try to move into another region will be accumulated
near the depletion region before they recombine with the majority carriers. As a result, a large
amount of charge is stored at both sides of the depletion region.

The accumulation of holes in the n-region and electrons in the p-region is separated by a very
thin depletion region or depletion layer. This depletion region acts like dielectric or insulator of
the capacitor and charge stored at both sides of the depletion layer acts like conducting plates of
the capacitor.
Diffusion capacitance is directly proportional to the electric current or applied voltage. If large
electric current flows through the diode, a large amount of charge is accumulated near the
depletion layer. As a result, large diffusion capacitance occurs.
In the similar way, if small electric current flows through the diode, only a small amount of
charge is accumulated near the depletion layer. As a result, small diffusion capacitance occurs.
When the width of depletion region decreases, the diffusion capacitance increases. The diffusion
capacitance value will be in the range of nano farads (nF) to micro farads (μF).
The formula for diffusion capacitance is
CD = dQ / dV
Where,
CD = Diffusion capacitance
dQ = Change in number of minority carriers stored outside the depletion region
dV = Change in voltage applied across diode