MECHATRONICS _UNIT 1

Mechatronics, sensors and transducers: Introduction to Mechatronics Systems

– Measurement Systems – Control Systems – Displacement, Potentiometer
LVDT, Encoders, Hall Effect, Capacitive Transducers, Microprocessor based
Controllers - Applications. Sensors and Transducers – Performance
Terminology – Sensors for Displacement, Position and Proximity; Velocity,
Motion, Force, Fluid Pressure, Liquid Flow, Liquid Level, Temperature,
(thermistor, thermocouple) Light Sensors – Selection of Sensors.
 Introduction to Sensors
The widespread use of sensors has led to the creation of smart and interconnected systems, enhancing the
efficiency, safety, and convenience of various aspects of modern life. As technology continues to advance, the
importance of sensors in shaping the future of society is likely to grow even further.

1. Healthcare:
- Medical Monitoring: Heart rate monitors, blood glucose sensors, and wearable devices.
- Diagnostic Tools: X-ray machines, MRI scanners, and ultrasound devices.
2. Environmental Monitoring:
- Climate and Weather: weather forecasting, climate research, and environmental protection.
- Pollution Control: Sensors help in detecting and measuring pollutants in the air, water, and soil.
3. Smart Cities:
- Traffic Management: Sensors in traffic lights, cameras, and on roads help manage traffic flow, optimize signal timings, and
enhance overall transportation efficiency.
- Waste Management: smart waste management, optimizing collection routes and reducing environmental impact.
4. Manufacturing and Industry:
- Quality Control: Sensors are used for quality assurance in manufacturing processes,
detecting defects, measuring dimensions, and ensuring product consistency.
- Predictive Maintenance: Predictive maintenance to reduce downtime and improve
overall efficiency.
5. Information Technology:
- Smartphones and Devices: Accelerometers, gyroscopes, and other sensors in
smartphones enable features such as screen rotation, gesture controls, and fitness tracking.
- Security Systems: Sensors are a crucial component of security systems, including motion
detectors, door/window sensors, and surveillance cameras.
6. Agriculture:
- Precision Farming: Sensors are used in agriculture for soil monitoring, crop health
assessment, and precision irrigation, helping optimize resource usage and improve crop
yields.
7. Transportation:
- Autonomous Vehicles: Sensors, such as lidar, radar, and cameras, are
essential for the development and operation of autonomous vehicles.
- Traffic Safety: Sensors in vehicles and on roads contribute to traffic safety
by providing information on road conditions, detecting obstacles, and assisting
in collision avoidance.
8. Consumer Electronics:
- Gaming and Virtual Reality: Sensors are used in gaming consoles and
virtual reality systems to track movements and gestures, providing a more
immersive experience.
- Smart Home Devices: Sensors are integrated into smart home devices for
functions like motion detection, temperature control, and security monitoring.
UNIT 1
 SENSORS AND TRANSDUCERS
Sensor:
ØA sensor is a device that detects and measures physical properties or
changes in the environment, such as light, temperature, pressure, or motion,
and produce a corresponding readable output.
ØSensors respond to external stimuli and provide data about the surrounding
conditions.

The best example of a sensor is mercury thermometer. The quantity that is being measured
is heat or temperature. The measured temperature is converted to a readable value on the
calibrated glass tube, based on the expansion and contraction of liquid mercury.
Transducer:
A transducer is a broader term that refers to any device that converts one
form of energy into another.
A sensor is not necessarily a transducer. Each transducer includes a sensor as
a component.

Example- A public addressing system

 SENSOR TRANSDUCER
A sensor is a device that detects a change in a physical A transducer is a device that converts one form of energy
environment into another.
A sensor is not necessarily a transducer Each transducer includes a sensor as a component
A sensor is itself a component The transducer is composed of a sensor and a signal
A sensor is a simple device conditioning circuit and has a complex electrical circuit.
The sensor converts physical quantities or energy into non- A transducer converts physical quantity or energy into an
electrical signals electrical signal
A sensor requires additional circuitry to process its output A transducer does not require any processing circuitry. Its
signal output is directly interfaced with a device or display
The output of a sensor is analog in nature A transducer can generate an analog and digital output
The output of one sensor can not be directly applied to any The output of a transducer can be connected directly to
other system another system
A sensor requires no external power to operate A passive transducer requires an external power source to
operate
A sensor can not be bidirectional, i.e. it only converts A transducer is bi-directional. It can also convert electrical
physical quantities into readable form signal into physical quantities called inverse transducer
Examples of sensors are thermometer, pressure sensor, Examples of transducers are pressure transducers,
ultrasonic sensor, light sensor, etc. thermistor , potentiometer, piezoelectric transducer, Hall
effect transducer, etc.
Characteristics of a Sensor or Transducer
ü Accuracy
ü Precision
ü Sensitivity
ü Linearity
ü Range and Span
ü Stability
ü Repeatability
ü Reproducibility
ü Response Time
ü Ruggedness
ü Drift
ü Hysteresis
ü Resolution and Threshold
Accuracy
• Defined as the difference between measured value
and true value.

Xt is calculated by taking mean of infinite number of measurements.

 Precision

• Precision - Closeness among a set of values. It is different from accuracy.

• Let Xt be the true value of the variable X and a random experiment measures X1, X2, …. Xi as
the value of X. We will say our measurements X1, X2,… Xi are precise when they are very near
to each other but not necessarily close to true value Xt.

• However, if we say X1, X2,… Xi are accurate, it means that they are close to true value Xt and
hence they are also close to each other. Hence accurate measurements are always precise.
Which shooter is more accurate?

Which shooter is more precise?

Full-scale output (FSO)
• Algebraic difference between the electrical output signals measured
with maximum input stimulus and the lowest input stimulus applied.
• The upper limit of output over the measurand range is called the full
scale (FS)
Sensitivity
• Ratio of change in output to change of the sensor relative to a
unit change in the input (the measured quantity.).

• If Y be the output quantity in response to input X, then sensitivity

S can be expressed as

• slope of the calibration curve y=f(x).

• Pressure of 2 bar produces a deflection of 10 degrees in a

pressure transducer. Then
• sensitivity of the instrument is (10/2) = 5 degrees/bar (assuming that the
deflection is zero with zero pressure applied)
Static Characteristics
Linearity
• Linearity is determined by the
calibration curve.

• Desirable that the output reading

o f a n i n st r u m e nt i s l i n e a r l y
proportional to the quantity
being measured.

• Static calibration curve plots the

output amplitude versus the
input amplitude under static
conditions.

• Closeness of the calibration curve

to a specified straight line
Range
• Minimum and Maximum value of physical variable that the sensor
can sense or measure.
Span
• Difference between the maximum and minimum values of
input.
Repeatability & Reproducibility

- Closeness of output readings (ability of sensor to produce the same

output every time )when the same input is applied repetitively over a
short period of time, with the same measurement conditions, same
instrument and observer, same location and same conditions of use
maintained throughout.

• Repeatability Closeness of output readings if the measurement

conditions are constant and as reproducibility if the measurement
conditions vary.

• Both terms thus describe the spread of output readings for the same
input
Drift
• Deviation from a specific reading of the sensor when the
sensor is kept at that value for a prolonged period of time

Effects of disturbance: (a) zero drift; (b) sensitivity drift; (c) zero drift plus
sensitivity drift.
Drift
• zero drift
whole calibration gradually shifts due to slippage, permanent set, or due to undue
warming up of electronic tube circuits.

• span drift / sensitivity drift

If there is proportional change in the indication all along the upward scale, the drifts.

Reasons - changes in ambient pressure, humidity, temperature etc., or due to

changes in the constituents of the sensor itself, such as aging, wear etc.
Hysteresis

• Difference between two output values that

correspond to the same input depending on
the trajectory followed by the sensor (i.e.,
magnetization in ferromagnetic materials).

• e.g. you get one curve on increasing pressure

and another on decreasing.

• An example can be a nut that is screwed a

number of turns on a threaded rod. When
turned back the same number of turns the
nut will not be in the exact the same position
as at the start.
Dead space
• Defined as the range of
different input values over
which there is no change in
output value.

• Any instrument that exhibits

hysteresis also displays dead
space.

• Some instruments that do not

suffer from any significant
hysteresis can still exhibit a
dead space.
Choosing a Sensor
 Sensor Characteristics
ØStatic Characteristics
üAttributes associated with static measurements
üThe measurands are constants or vary very slowly with time.
üExample: Measurement of EMF of a cell or resistance of a resistor at constant
temperature
ØDynamic Characteristics
• The time response of the sensor system to variable input.
• Sensor response to a variable input is different from that exhibited when the input
signals are constant (the latter is described by the static characteristics). As in case of
sensors in control system cannot react to a sudden change in measured variable
immediately.
• The dynamic/transient response in the instruments is on account of the presence of
energy storage elements in the system, such as, electrical inductance and capacitance,
mass, fluid and thermal capacitances etc. The systems exhibit a characteristic of
sluggishness on account of presence of these elements.
• The dynamic characteristics of any measurement system are:
Moving parts of instruments have mass and thus possess inertia. When an input is
applied to instruments, the pointer does not immediately come to rest at its steady state
(or final deflected) position but goes beyond it or in other words �overshoots� its
steady position.
 Speed of Response and Response Time

Speed of Response is defined as the rapidity with which an instrument or measurement

system responds to changes in measured quantity.
Response Time is the time required by instrument or system to settle to its final steady
position after the application of the input.

üFor a step input function, the response time may be defined as the time taken by the
instrument to settle to a specified percentage of the quantity being measured, after the
application of the input.
üThis percentage may be 90 to 99 percent depending upon the instrument.
üFor portable instruments it is the time taken by the pointer to come to rest within 0.3
percent of final scale length
üFor switch board (panel) type of instruments it is the time taken by the pointer to come to
rest within 1 percent of its final scale length.
 Measuring Lag
üThe retardation or delay in the response of a measurement system to changes in the
measured quantity.
üThis lag is usually quite small, but this small lag becomes highly important when high
speed measurements are required.
üIn the high speed measurement systems, as in dynamic measurements, it becomes
essential that the time lag be reduced to minimum.

i) Retardation type: In this type of measuring lag the response begins immediately after
a change in measured quantity has occurred.
ii) Time delay: In this type of measuring lag the response of the measurement system
begins after a dead zone after the application of the input.
 Dynamic Error

üThe dynamic error is the difference between the true value of the quantity
changing with time and the value indicated by the instrument if no static
error is assumed.

üThe total dynamic error of the instrument is the combination of its fidelity
and the time lag or phase difference between input and output of the
system.
 Fidelity

üFidelity of a system is defined as the ability of the system to reproduce the

output in the same form as the input.
üIt is the degree to which a measurement system indicates changes in the
measured quantity without any dynamic error.
üIf a linearly varying quantity is applied to a system and if the output is also a
linearly varying quantity the system is said to have 100 percent fidelity.
Ideally a system should have 100 percent fidelity and the output should
appear in the same form as that of input.
üIn the definition of fidelity any time lag or phase difference between output
and input is not included.
 Types of Input/Standared Test Signals
These signals are used to know the performance of the control systems using
time response of the output.
PIEZO-ELECTRIC TRANSDUCER
üShaft encoders are digital transducers
that are used for measuring angular
displacements and angular velocities.
üA light beam is intercepted by a
moving disk that has a pattern of
transparent windows. The light that
passes through, as detected by a
photosensor, provides the transducer
output.
Main Features of Construction
ü The transformer consists of a primary winding P and two secondary
windings S1 and S2 wound on a cylindrical former (which is hollow in nature
and contains the core).
ü Both the secondary windings have an equal number of turns, and we place
them on either side of primary winding
ü The primary winding is connected to an AC source which produces a flux in
the air gap and voltages are induced in secondary windings.
ü A movable soft iron core is placed inside the former and displacement to be
measured is connected to the iron core.
ü The iron core is generally of high permeability which helps in maintaining
high sensitivity of LVDT.
ü The LVDT is placed inside a stainless steel housing because it will provide
electrostatic and electromagnetic shielding.
ü The both the secondary windings are connected in such a way that resulted
output is the difference between the voltages of two windings.
Advantages of LVDT
High Range – The LVDTs have a very high range for measurement of displacement.they can used
for measurement of displacements ranging from 1.25 mm to 250 mm
No Frictional Losses – As the core moves inside a hollow former so there is no loss of
displacement input as frictional loss so it makes LVDT as very accurate device.
High Sensitivity – The output of LVDT is so high that it doesn’t need any amplification. The
transducer posseses a high sensitivity which is typically about 40V/mm.
Low Hysteresis – LVDTs show a low hysteresis and hence repeatability is excellent under all
conditions
Low Power Consumption – The power is about 1W which is very low as compared to other
transducers.
Direct Conversion to Electrical Signals – They convert the linear displacement to electrical
voltage which are easy to process
Disadvantages of LVDT
- LVDT is sensitive to stray magnetic fields so it always
requires a setup to protect them from stray magnetic fields.

- LVDT gets affected by vibrations and temperature.

Applications of LVDT

• LVDT can be used for the applications where displacements to be measured are
ranging from a fraction of mm to few cms.
• The LVDT can also act as a secondary transducer. E.g. the Bourbon tube which
acts as a primary transducer and it converts pressure into linear displacement and
then LVDT coverts this displacement into an electrical signal which after
calibration gives the readings of the pressure of fluid.
vwhen you heat up a piece of metal, the electrons in the metal want to
move around more and will tend to move through the metal away
from the heat.

vBecause electrons are negatively charged, the colder end of the piece
of metal will have a negative charge compared to the hotter end.
ü If the two wires of the thermocouple were made up of the same type of metal,
electrons in both wires would move away from the heat at roughly the same rate, so
you couldn’t really measure the difference in the charge of the two wires.

ü But if you recall, thermocouples are made up of two different types of metal wire…

vWhen exposed to heat, the electrons from one of the wires will want to move
around at a certain rate. The electrons from the other wire will want to move
around at a different rate.
vThe wire that has the electrons that move more ends up being more negatively
charged at the cold junction… and will therefore be called the negative wire lead.
vThe wire with the slower electrons won’t build up as much of a charge, so it’s
called the positive wire lead.
vThat difference in charge between the positive and negative wire leads can be
measured and used to calculate the heat at the hot junction.
v When the thermistor is cool or cold the LED should not light because of the high
resistance.
v However, warm up the thermistor by blowing warm air from a hair drier across it.
This should warm it sufficiently that in a few seconds the resistance will drop and
the LED will light.
1. Analyze the concept of repeatability and reproducibility in
measurement systems. How are these statistical measures used to
assess the precision of measuring instruments and processes?
(5M)

3. Draw the labelled diagram of a movable-core, fixed winding

inductive-type displacement transducer and explain its working.
Describe how the magnitude and direction of the displacement
are detected. (10M)
Operating principle of a bimetallic strip thermometer
Bimetallic strip wrapped into a coil
 • The disadvantage of a coiled bimetallic strip is that,
-the dial and the temperature sensor are not separated from each
other. The entire bimetal thermometer must therefore be located
directly in the medium whose temperature is to be measured.
-Such thermometers are used, for example, in refrigerators or
freezers or to determine the room temperature.
Helical type bimetallic thermometer

In many cases it is necessary to spatially separate the indicator (pointer) from the
sensor (bimetallic coil).
For example, if the water temperature is to be measured in a heating pipe, as is usual
in heating systems. The temperature sensor must then be located inside the pipe,
while the display for the temperature must be outside the pipe. Or in the food industry
it is also necessary to separate the display from the sensor if, for example, the
temperature inside the food has to be measured (“piercing thermometer”).
 T h e h e l i ca l b i m eta l i s f i r m l y
connected at one end to the
inside of a measuring tube.

A rotatable metal rod is guided

through this helical coil, which is
connected to it at the loose end.

A pointer is attached to the upper

end of the metal rod.

If the measuring tube is now

heated, the helical bimetal winds
up and rotates the metal rod.

On a calibrated scale the

corresponding temperature can
be read off.

Operating principle of a bimetal thermometer (helical type)

FLOW MEASUREMENT
ORIFICE PLATE
Ø If the flow is continuous, then the quantity of fluid Qv passing through BD must
be equal to FH,
Qv∝√(Pd )