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Ballast Railroad Design: SMART-UOW
Approach
Ballast Railroad Design:
SMART-UOW Approach
Buddhima Indraratna
Centre for Geomechanics and Railway Engineering,
University of Wollongong, Australia
Trung Ngo
Centre for Geomechanics and Railway Engineering,
University of Wollongong, Australia
Cover illustrations: Courtesy of Dr Fernanda Ferreira (Research Associate),
Alan Grant (Technical Staff) and Dr Navaratnarajah (former PhD student)
CRC Press/Balkema is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa

business
© 2018 Taylor & Francis Group, London, UK
Typeset by Apex CoVantage, LLC
All rights reserved. No part of this publication or the information contained
herein may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any
form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, by photocopying, recording or
otherwise, without written prior permission from the publishers.
Although all care is taken to ensure integrity and the quality of this
publication and the information herein, no responsibility is assumed by
the publishers nor the author for any damage to the property or persons
as a result of operation or use of this publication and/or the information
contained herein.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Indraratna, Buddhima, author. | Ngo, Trung, author.
Title: Ballast railroad design : SMART-UOW approach / Buddhima Indraratna,
Centre for Geomechanics and Railway Engineering, University of
Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia, Trung Ngo, Centre for Geomechanics
and Railway Engineering, University of Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia.
Description: First edition. | Boca Raton : CRC Press/Balkema, [2018] |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2018011009 (print) | LCCN 2018014998 (ebook) | ISBN
9780429504242 (ebook) | ISBN 9781138587038 (hardcover : alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Ballast (Railroads)
Classification: LCC TF250 (ebook) | LCC TF250 .I535 2018 (print) | DDC
625.1/41—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018011009
Published by: CRC Press/Balkema
Schipholweg 107c, 2316 XC Leiden, The Netherlands
e-mail: [email protected]
www.crcpress.com – www.taylorandfrancis.com
ISBN: 978-1-138-58703-8 (Hbk)
ISBN: 978-0-429-50424-2 (eBook)
Contents
Prefacex
Forewordxi
About the authorsxii
Acknowledgementsxiv
1 Introduction 1
1.1 General background 1
1.2 Limitations of current track design practices 2
1.3 New developments in SMART-UOW approach 2
1.4 Scope 4
2 Parameters for track design 5

2.1 General background 5
2.2 Typical ballasted track problems 5
2.3 Typical input parameters for track design 8
2.4 Substructure of ballasted tracks 8
2.5 Ballast 9
2.5.1 Ballast characteristics 9
2.6 Sub-ballast, subgrade/formation soils 11
2.6.1 Sub-ballast/filtration layer 12
2.6.2 Subgrade 12
2.7 Geosynthetics 13
2.8 Design criteria 14
2.9 Traffic conditions 15
2.10 Rail and sleeper properties 16
3 Bearing capacity of ballasted tracks 17

3.1 Introduction 17
3.2 Calculation of design wheel load (P)17
3.2.1 AREA (1974) method 17
3.2.2 Eisenmann (1972) method 18
3.2.3 ORE (1969) method 19
vi Contents
3.3 Calculation of maximum rail seat load 19

3.3.1 AREA (1974) method 19
3.3.2 ORE (1969) method 20
3.3.3 Raymond (1977) method 20
3.4 Calculation of ballast/sleeper contact pressure 21
3.4.1 AREA (1974) method 21
3.5 Bearing capacity of ballast 21
4 Thickness of granular layer 23

4.1 Introduction 23
4.2 Procedure to determine the thickness of ballast and capping
layer23
4.2.1 Design procedure 23
4.3 Equivalent modulus and strain analysis 26
4.4 Determination of track modulus 29
4.4.1 Introduction 29
4.5 Determining the resilient modulus of ballast, MR32
4.5.1 Empirical relationship to determine resilient modulus 32
4.5.2 Measured field values of dynamic track modulus 34
5 Effect of confining pressure and frequency on

ballast breakage 37
5.1 Introduction 37
5.2 Determination of ballast breakage 37
5.3 Influence of confining pressure on ballast breakage 39
5.3.1 Prototype testing and experimental simulations 39
5.3.2 Laboratory study on the effect of confining pressure on ballast
degradation41
5.3.3 Prediction of axial strains and ballast breakage 42
5.3.4 Resilient modulus of ballast 44
5.4 Influence of frequency on ballast breakage 45
5.5 Volumetric behaviour of ballast under monotonic and cyclic loading 50
6 Impact of ballast fouling on rail tracks 51

6.1 Introduction 51
6.2 Quantifying of ballast fouling 51
6.3 Relation among fouling quantification indices 54
6.4 Influence of ballast fouling on track drainage 55
6.4.1 Drainage requirements 56
6.4.2 Fouling versus drainage capacity of track 58
6.5 Fouling versus operational train speed 60
6.6 Determining VCI in the field 63
Contents vii
7 Application of geosynthetics in railway tracks 66

7.1 Types and functions of geosynthetics 66
7.2 Geogrid reinforcement mechanism 66
7.3 Use of geosynthetics in tracks – UOW field measurements and
laboratory tests 67
7.3.1 Track construction at Bulli 67
7.4 Measured ballast deformation 69
7.5 Traffic-induced stresses 70
7.6 Optimum geogrid size for a given ballast 70
7.7 Role of geosynthetics on track settlement 72
7.7.1 Predicted settlement of fresh ballast 73
7.7.2 Predicted settlement of recycled ballast 75
7.7.3 Settlement reduction factor 75
7.7.4 The effect of fouling on the ballast–geogrid interface shear strength 75
7.8 The effect of coal fouling on the load-deformation of
geogrid-reinforced ballast 78
7.8.1 Laboratory study using process simulation testing apparatus 78
7.8.2 Materials tested 82
7.8.3 Cyclic testing program 85
7.8.4 Lateral deformation of fresh and fouled ballast 86
7.8.5 Vertical settlements of fresh and fouled ballast 86
7.8.6 Average volumetric and shear strain responses 88
7.8.7 Maximum stresses and ballast breakage 90
7.8.8 Proposed deformation model of fouled ballast 91
8 UOW – constitutive model for ballast 94

8.1 Introduction 94
8.2 Stress and strain parameters 94
8.2.1 Determination of model parameters 98
8.2.2 Applimcation of the UOW constitutive model to predict
stress–strain responses 98
9 Sub-ballast and filtration layer – design procedure 103

9.1 Introduction 103
9.2 Requirements for effective and internally stable filters 104
9.3 Filter design procedure 104
9.3.1 Internal stability of subgrade 104
9.3.2 Re-grading subgrade 106
9.3.3 Selection of capping (sub-ballast) band and PSD of filter 106
9.3.4 Internal stability of capping 107
9.3.5 Application of CSD-based retention criterion 108
9.3.6 Thickness of a sub-ballast filter 108
viii Contents
10 Practical design examples 109

10.1 Worked-out example 1: calculate the bearing capacity of ballasted tracks 109
10.1.1 Design parameters 109
10.1.2 Calculation procedure 109
10.2 Worked-out example 2: determine the thickness of granular layer 111
10.3 Worked-out example 3: ballast fouling and implications on drainage
capacity, train speed 112
10.3.1 Calculate levels of ballast fouling 113
10.3.2 Effect of ballast fouling on track drainage 113
10.3.3 Fouling versus train speed 113
10.4 Worked-out example 4: use of geosynthetics in ballasted tracks 114
10.4.1 Design input parameters 114
10.4.2 Predicted settlement of fresh ballast at N = 500,000 load cycle 115
10.4.3 Recycled ballast 115
10.5 Worked-out example 5: evaluation of track modulus and settlement 116
10.5.1 Determine the overall track modulus for a given track
structure with the following information 116
10.6 Worked-out example 6: determine the friction angle of fouled ballast 117
10.7 Worked-out example 7: determine the settlement of fouled ballast 118
10.8 Worked-out example 8: calculate the ballast breakage index (BBI) 119
10.9 Worked-out example 9: effect of the depth of subgrade on determine
thickness of granular layer 123
10.9.1 Example: Design a ballasted track substructure for a train
crossing two different sections over the same highly plastic
clay subgrade (CH); one section has 10 times the thickness of
the other 124
10.9.2 Design summary 125
10.10 Worked-out example 10: design of sub-ballast/capping as a filtration
layer for track 125
10.10.1 Design example 10.1: selection of effective granular filters
effective to retain a base soil under given hydraulic conditions 125
10.10.2 Sub-ballast filter design 125
10.10.3 Design example 10.2: Geometrical assessment of internal
instability potential of sub-ballast filter 126
Contents ix
11 Appendix A: Introduction of SMART tool for track design 129

11.1 Introduction 129
11.2 Practical design examples using SMART tool 131
11.2.1 Bearing capacity of ballast 131
11.2.2 Granular layer thickness 131
11.2.3 Effect of confining pressure 131
11.2.4 Effect of ballast fouling on track drainage 131
11.2.5 Effect of ballast fouling on operational train speed 131
11.2.6 Use of geosynthetics in tracks 131
11.2.7 Predicted settlements of ballast with or without geogrid 135
11.2.8 Ballast Constitutive Model 135
11.2.9 Selection of capping/sub-ballast for filtration layer 139
12 Appendix B: Unique geotechnical and rail testing

equipment at the University of Wollongong 145
References153
Index159
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Preface
Railway track systems are constructed to provide a smooth and safe transport mode for
passengers or freight trains. They are designed to sustain the stresses imposed by lateral,
longitudinal and vertical loads acting on the track structure. A ballasted railway track system
comprises several components, among which steel rails, rail fasteners, timber, steel or con-
crete sleepers, granular ballast, sub-ballast and subgrade materials are the main constituents.
The recent increases in axle loads, speed and traffic volume, along with the need to improve
passenger comfort and reduce track life cycle costs, have created a need for track design
optimisation. Furthermore, complementary decision support systems require a more precise
analytical and mechanistic approach to meet the design needs of modern railway track sys-
tems. These aspects highlight the necessity of a thorough review and revision of the current
railway track design.
Given the lack of capacity of current ballasted tracks in many parts of Australia to support
increasingly heavier and faster trains, the development of innovative and sustainable bal-
lasted tracks is crucial for transport infrastructure. Ballast degradation and infiltration of fine
particles such as coal along the heavy haul corridors and soft subgrade soils contaminating
the overlying ballast decrease the porosity of the ballast layer and impede track drainage.
This leads to excessive track settlements and instability, as well as increased maintenance
costs. To mitigate these problems, the utilisation of geosynthetics (e.g. polymer geogrids,
geocomposite, geocells) and recycled rubber mats has been investigated by the authors.
The tangible outcomes of this research study has made a considerable impact on indus-
try in view of forcing design modifications and provision of new technical standards for
Australian railways. Already, a considerable portion of the R&D work in this area of research
is captured in our in-house computer software (SMART – supplementary methods of analy-
sis for railway track), which can accommodate a variety of problematic ground conditions in
Australia in user-friendly modules that enable best track management practices.
This book presents a comprehensive procedure of ballasted track design based on a rational
approach that combines extensive laboratory testing, mathematical and computational mod-
elling and field measurements carried out over the past two decades. The Ballast Railroad
Design: SMART-UOW approach can be regarded as a useful guide to assist the practitioner,
rather than a complete design tool to replace existing rational design approaches. Practising
engineers can refer to this book for designing new tracks as well as to remediate existing bal-
lasted tracks with subgrade deformation problems because it provides a systematic approach
and greater flexibility in track design. This book can also be used as a useful resource by
postgraduate students and as a teaching tool by academics in track design and maintenance.
Buddhima Indraratna
Trung Ngo
Foreword
Studies on ballasted rail tracks have been conducted at the University of Wollongong for
more than two decades, and these research outcomes have significantly influenced the way
that rail tracks can be modernised through innovative design. Imparting that knowledge to
today’s rail practitioners, especially those in heavy haul operations, is the objective of Ballast
Railroad Design: SMART-UOW approach. This book complements the software SMART
(supplementary methods of analysis for railway track) currently managed by the University
of Wollongong together with the Australasian Centre for Rail Innovation (ACRI).
This book deals with both theoretical and practical issues directly related to ballasted
tracks, considering a series of options from the selection of mechanical and geotechnical
parameters to advanced design examples, capturing the influence of various factors such as
particle breakage, ballast fouling, track confining pressure and the application of geosynthet-
ics. The technical content also assists in track maintenance incorporating subgrade deforma-
tion and stability considerations, supplemented by case studies and large-scale simulations.
Importantly, complex technical content is presented for practitioners in a clear and concise
manner, working through examples based on real world situations.
With significantly increased axle loads and speeds of freight trains supporting the min-
ing and agriculture industries in many nations, including Australia, design and construction
requirements, and longevity and performance expectations, have become increasingly stra-
tegic and challenging than the traditional heavy haul tracks of the past. This is a timely book
presenting considerations for contemporary track design and current state-of-the-art practice
in ballast railroads. It has been informed through collaborative research with industry, incor-
porating sophisticated laboratory tests, computational modelling and field studies to advance
the design of ballasted tracks.
ACRI congratulates the University of Wollongong on this enhancement to SMART and
associated railroad design and analysis and the contribution it will make to the rail industry
through informing engineering solutions and advancing industry training.
Andrew Meier,
CEO, Australasian Centre for Rail Innovation
About the authors
Distinguished Professor Buddhima Indraratna (FTSE, FIEAust,

FASCE, FGS, FAusIMM) is a civil engineering graduate from Impe-
rial College, London, and obtained his PhD from the University of
Alberta in 1987. He worked in industry in several countries before
becoming an academic and has been a United Nations Expert and For-
eign Advisor to numerous overseas projects. Professor Indraratna’s
pioneering contributions to railway geotechnology and various aspects
of geotechnical engineering have been acknowledged through numer-
ous national and international awards, including the 1st Ralph Proctor
Lecture and 4th Louis Menard Lecture of the International Society of
Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, ISSMGE; the 2015 Thomas Telford Premium
Award (ICE, UK); the 2009 EH Davis Memorial Lecture of Australian Geomechanics Soci-
ety; and the 2014 CS Desai Medal for his substantial and sustained contributions to Transport
Geotechnics and Ground Improvement, respectively. Recently, he was the recipient of the
2017 Outstanding Contributions Medal of IACMAG. The New South Wales Minister of
Transport awarded Professor Indraratna the 2015 Australasian Railway Society’s Outstand-
ing Individual Award at the State Parliament. His pioneering contributions to railway engi-
neering and ground improvement earned him the Fellowship of the Australian Academy of
Technological Sciences and Engineering (FTSE) in 2011.
Distinguished Professor Indraratna has made fundamental contributions to transport geo-
technology and ground improvement. He has developed unique process simulation equip-
ment for geomaterials and computational methods for predicting the dynamic response of
transport infrastructure. His original efforts capture the role of particle breakage in heavy
haul rail environments, the only theory to determine the optimum confining pressure for rail-
road stability, the methods of eliminating impact-based track damage using energy-absorbing
recycled materials, innovative computer simulations of vacuum pressure application for sta-
bilising foundations and field-based methods for quantifying soil disturbance. His research
has influenced national and international standards and projects in road/rail embankments
and port reclamation.
Dr Trung Ngo is an early career researcher with internationally recog-
nised expertise in the field of physical and computational modelling of
ballasted rail tracks using Discrete Element Method (DEM) and Finite
Element Method (FEM). After graduating from the Ho Chi Minh city Uni-
versity of Technology, Viet Nam, he obtained a master’s and a PhD from
the University of Wollongong, Australia, under the supervision of Dis-
tinguished Professor Indraratna. In 2013, Dr Ngo’s doctoral research was
About the authors xiii
acknowledged by Railway Technical Society of Australasia (RTSA) and he was honoured by

RTSA Postgraduate Thesis Award, which is awarded once every three years, recognising “con-
tributions to rail industry in transferring the results of advanced computational, theoretical,
and laboratory research into professional engineering practices”. Dr Trung Ngo is currently a
research fellow at the Centre for Geomechanics & Railway Engineering (CGRE), University of
Wollongong, working under the Rail Manufacturing CRC project. His research has primarily
focused on the area of railway track design, specifically in computational modelling and labora-
tory testing for ballasted rail tracks.
Acknowledgements
This book was introduced on the basis of knowledge acquired through two decades of
laboratory studies, field observations and computational studies on railroad engineering
conducted at the Centre for Geomechanics and Railway Engineering (CGRE), University
of Wollongong, Australia. It contains research deliverables of numerous sponsored projects
completed since the mid-1990s. Many of the concepts and analytical principles incorporated
herein have already been described to some extent in the more elaborated textbook Advanced
Rail Geotechnology – Ballasted Track and in various peer-reviewed research papers pub-
lished by the first author and his co-workers and research students.
Significant contributions made over the years by Dr Sanjay Nimbalkar, A/Prof Cholachat
Rujikiatkamjorn and A/Prof Hadi Khabbaz through their involvement in numerous spon-
sored ARC and CRC projects are gratefully acknowledged. The authors specifically thank
industry colleagues, Tim Neville (ARTC) and, more recently, Dr Richard Kelly (SMEC),
for pointing out the imperative need for such a publication to assist modern track designers.
The authors also would like to acknowledge the well-known Australian senior rail practi-
tioners David Christie (formerly at RIC and RailCorp), Mike Martin (formerly at Queensland
Rail) and Jatinder Singh (Sydney Trains) for their active collaboration over many years. Par-
ticular mentions with gratitude go to Prof ET (Ted) Brown and Prof Harry Poulos, who have
supported and inspired the first author over many years, encouraging him to pioneer cutting-
edge research in track geotechnology, as this field of research was lacking in Australia. The
support received through the ARC Centre of Excellence for Geotechnical Science and Engi-
neering (CGSE) together with three consecutive rail-based Cooperative Research Centres
(CRC) during the past decade are gratefully acknowledged.
The contents captured in this book are attributed to the original efforts of many research stu-
dents and staff at the Centre GRE, University of Wollongong. Contributions at various times
by A/Prof Jayan Vinod, Dr Ana Heitor, Dr Jahanzaib Israr, Dr Qideng Sun and Dr Fernanda
Ferreira are acknowledged. The specific research works of former PhD students Dr Wadud
Salim, Dr Joanne Lackenby, Dr Nayoma Tennakoon, Dr Khaja Karim Hussaini, Dr Yifei
Sun, Dr Daniel Ionescu, Dr Dominic Trani, Dr Sinnaiah Navaratnarajah, Dr Mahdi Biabani
and Dr Pramod Thakur, among others, are also captured in the content in various forms. The
authors are also grateful to UOW technical staff Alan Grant, Cameron Neilson, Duncan Best,
Frank Crabtree and Ritchie McLean for their assistance in laboratory and field work.
A number of important research projects on ballasted rail tracks and geosynthetics have
been supported in the past and are currently supported by the Australian Research Coun-
cil (ARC) through its Discovery and Linkage programs. Keen collaboration with industry
partners has facilitated the application of theory into practice. In this respect, the authors
Acknowledgements xv
greatly appreciate the financial support from the Rail Manufacturing Cooperative Research
Centre (funded jointly by participating rail organisations and the Australian federal govern-
ment’s Business Cooperative Research Centres Program). The authors also appreciate the
Australasian Centre for Rail Innovation (ACRI), Tyre Stewardship Australia (TSA), Global
Synthetics Pty Ltd, Foundation Specialists Group, Sydney Trains and ARTC, among others.
Selected technical data presented in numerous figures, tables and some technical discus-
sions have been reproduced with the kind permission of various publishers, including: Géo-
technique, ASCE Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, Computers
and Geotechnics, International Journal of Geomechanics, Geotextiles and Geomembranes
and Geotechnical Testing Journal, among others; salient content from these previous studies
are reproduced here with kind permission from the original sources.
Finally, the authors also acknowledge the efforts of Dr Udeni Nawagamuwa, Mrs Manori
Indraratna and Mr Bill Clayton for their assistance during copy editing and proofreading of
the contents.
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 General background

Rail networks form an important part of the transport system in Australia and many other
countries in the world. Railways play a vital role in its economy by transporting freight and
bulk commodities between major cities and ports and by carrying passengers, particularly in
urban areas. The Australian rail has carried around one-third of all domestic freight over the
past 25 years, and millions of passengers travel in trains each year. For instance, the longest
and heaviest train in Western Australia has had a gross weight of nearly 100,000 tonnes and
a length exceeding 7 km, with as many as 682 wagons hauled by eight locomotives (Railway
Gazette 2001). The need to maintain a competitive edge over other means of transportation
has increased the pressure on the railway industry to improve its efficiency and decrease
maintenance and infrastructure costs (Indraratna et al. 2011a). With ballasted railway tracks,
the cost of substructure maintenance can be significantly reduced with a better understanding
of the physical and mechanical characteristics of the rail substructure and the ballast layer
in particular.
In a ballasted rail track, a large portion of the track maintenance budget is spent on ballast-
related problems (Indraratna et al. 2011b). Although ballast usually consists of hard and
strong angular particles derived from high strength un-weathered rocks, it also undergoes
gradual and continuing degradation under cyclic rail loadings (Indraratna et al. 2011a; Selig
and Waters 1994). The sharp edges and corners are broken due to high stress concentrations
at the contact points between adjacent particles. The reduction in angularity decreases its
angle of internal friction (i.e. shear strength), which in turn increases plastic settlement of
the track.
In low-lying coastal areas where the subgrade soils are generally saturated, the fines (clays
and silt-size particles) can be pumped up into the ballast layer as slurry under cyclic rail
loading, if a proper subbase or filter layer is absent (Raut 2006; Selig and Waters 1994).
The pumping of subgrade clay is a major cause of ballast fouling. Fine particles from clay
pumping or ballast degradation form a thin layer surrounding the larger grains that increases
compressibility, fills the void spaces between larger aggregates, and reduces the drainage
characteristics of the ballast bed (Indraratna et al. 2014). The fouling of ballast usually
increases track settlement and may cause differential track settlement. Where there is satu-
ration and poor drainage, any contamination of ballast may also cause localised undrained
failure. In severe cases, fouled ballast needs to be cleaned or replaced to keep the track up to
its desired stiffness (resiliency), bearing capacity, alignment and level of safety (Indraratna
et al. 2013a; Tennakoon et al. 2012).
2 Ballast Railroad Design: SMART-UOW Approach
1.2 Limitations of current track design practices

The most common track design approach nowadays follows the Li and Selig (1998a, b)
method, but this method has several drawbacks because it does not consider: (i) the effect of
ballast breakage, cyclic loading, confining pressure and multiple subgrade layers; (ii) per-
meability reduction due to fine contamination; (iii) fouling assessment and implications on
speed restrictions; and (iv) the use of geosynthetics in tracks.
1.3 New developments in SMART-UOW approach

The conventional track design methods commonly assume the track foundation is an elastic
media using the Winkler model (i.e. a continuously supported beam on an elastic foundation)
currently used in track design practices. This approach has several unrealistic assumptions,
including static point loads for the trains; continuous support under the rail; linear character-
istics for the track support system; and linear uniform pressure distribution under the sleeper,
among others.
Although several factors have been taken into account to compensate for the errors caused
by these assumptions, there can be significant discrepancies between the results obtained
from conventional methods and those obtained in railway fields. This indicates that the effec-
tiveness of conventional track design is questionable due to two aspects: cost efficiency and
accuracy. In the past, some improvements have been made to provide a better understanding
of railway track systems; these new developments can be used to improve the current track
design approach.
This book presents a supplementary methodology for ballasted railway track design and
maintenance supported by extensive laboratory tests and field measurements carried out by
the Center for Geomechanics and Railway Engineering, University of Wollongong (UOW),
over the past two decades.
The main Ballast Railroad Design: SMART-UOW approach introduced herein includes
several modules that allow railway practitioners to input required design parameters and
perform track design, including:
• Module 1: Input design parameters for track design

• Module 2: Check the allowable bearing capacity of the ballasted tracks
• Module 3: Design thickness of the granular layer (ballast, capping layer, structural
fill)
• Module 4: SMART-UOW track design approach that allows designers to:
• Predict ballast breakage
• Consider the effect of the confining pressure and loading frequency on track
performance
• Quantify ballast fouling and associated track drainage and train speed
• Application of geosynthetics in tracks
• Predict vertical track settlement
• Incorporate constitutive model for ballast
• Design of capping layer (sub-ballast) with filtration properties
UOW design approach is presented in a flowchart in Figure 1.1.
UOW track design
Predict ballast Quantification of Track drainage Fouling vs. speed Application of Predict vertical track UOW constitutive Design capping
breakage, BBI ballast fouling, VCI geogrids in track settlement (based on model for ballast layer with filtration
UOW test data) properties
Hydraulic conductivity Input design Parameters for

Determine deviator Fouling materials: Mean particle size Enter model Internal stability
of fines, kco parameters for each tested ballast: t, a, b
stress, q (kPa) mass-Mf , void ratio-ef , distribution of parameters based on of base soil
confining pressure
specific gravity-Gsf ballast, d50 (mm) UOW test data
(13 parameters)
Testing frequency, Hydraulic conductivity Parameters for

Ballast: mass-Mb, void Determine peak Optimum geogrid Determine D15 of
f=20 Hz of ballast, kba recycled ballast: c, d
ratio-eb, specific strength for fouled aperture the filter
Number load cycles, Deviatoric stress
gravity-Gsb ballast
N=500,000 versus axial strain
Number of load
Void contaminant Determine dynamic cycles, N
Void contaminant
index, VCI stresses under each Interface efficiency
index, VCI Determine
BBI=A/(A+B) confining pressures factor
Volumetric strain minimum 5 to
Type of versus axial strain avoid the use of
geosynthetics used gap- and broadly
Calculate relative Calculate train speed Vf - graded soils
Decreased friction hydralic conductivity, for fouled ballast Ballast settlement
angle of ballast with k b/k with geogrid Predicted settlement
VCI inclusion for unreinforced
ballast, Sb (mm) Check
segregation
Drainage condition Calculate train speed
criterion
based on VCI (i.e. poor Vb for fresh ballast
to free drainage) Predicted settlement
(VCI=0)
for geosynthetics-
reinforced ballast
Satisfy retention
and internal
Calculate velocity
stability criteria to
reduction factor, VRR
select safe filters
Settlement reduction
factor, SRF
Praccal work design examples
Figure 1.1 Flowchart of SMART-UOW track design approach

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1.4 Scope
This book presents creative and innovative solutions to rail industry worldwide and is the
result of knowledge acquired through two decades of laboratory studies, field observations
and computational studies on railroad engineering conducted at the Centre for Geomechan-
ics and Railway Engineering (CGRE), University of Wollongong, Australia. Keeping the
critical issues of track substructure in mind, the authors present the current state of research,
concentrating on: (i) the procedure to determine bearing capacity and required thickness of
the granular layer of ballasted tracks; to consider the effect of the confining pressure and
loading frequency on track performance; (ii) the effectiveness of various geosynthetics in
minimising ballast breakage and controlling track settlement; (iii) the role of constitutive
modelling of ballast under cyclic loading, the effect of ballast fouling and its implications
on track performance; (iv) the design of sub-ballast and the filtration layer; and (v) practi-
cal worked-out design examples. The authors hope that this book will not only become an
imperative design aid for practitioners but will also be a valuable resource for postgradu-
ate students and researchers in railway engineering. The book will generate further interest
among both researchers and practicing engineers in the wide field of rail track geotechnology
and promote much needed track design modifications.
Chapter 1 describes the general background of rail networks, limitations of current
track design practices and the new developments in SMART-UOW track design approach.
Chapter 2 presents key parameters needed for ballasted track design, different components
of track substructure, typical ballasted track problems, design criteria and traffic conditions.
Chapter 3 describes a procedure to determine the bearing capacity of ballasted tracks. The
details of the design procedure and a flowchart to determine the thickness of the granular
layer are presented in Chapter 4. Chapter 4 also describes a procedure to determine track
modulus and the resilient modulus of ballast. Chapter 5 presents studies on the effects of
confining pressure and frequency on ballast breakage. The influence of ballast fouling
and implications for track performance are discussed in Chapter 6. Effects of fouling on
the drainage capacity of track and operational train speed are also discussed in Chapter 6.
Chapter 7 presents the use of geosynthetics in railway tracks and the effects of coal fouling
on the inter-particle friction angle and load-deformation of geogrid-reinforced ballast. A new
stress–strain constitutive model for ballast incorporating particle breakage is discussed in
Chapter 8. Chapter 9 describes a design procedure for sub-ballast and the filtration layer.
Practical design examples are presented in Chapter 10. Finally, the introduction of SMART
software (supplementary methods of analysis for railway track) to aid in the analysis and
design of rail track substructure is presented.
Chapter 2
Parameters for track design
2.1 General background

The rail track network forms an important part of the transportation infrastructure in
Australia. It plays a significant role in maintaining a healthy economy by transporting
export-oriented heavy bulk freight (coal, minerals and agricultural products) and carrying
passengers between major cities and from various inland terminals to ports. With increasing
competition from other means of transport such as trucks, buses, aircraft and ships, the rail-
way industry must continually upgrade the track system and apply innovative technologies
to minimise the cost of construction and maintenance, as well as increase passenger comfort.
Salim (2004) showed that Australia has more than 43,000 km of narrow, broad, standard and
dual gauge ballasted rail tracks (Fig. 2.1). In Australia, millions of passengers travel in trains
every year, particularly in the state of New South Wales (NSW). According to reported data
(RailCorp 2010–2011), around 300 million passengers travelled by train during the financial
year 2010–2011, and growth in CityRail passenger journeys increased by 1.8% in this year,
leading to an approximate increase of 10% compared to 2005.
Costs associated with track maintenance are steadily increasing due to the utilisation of
heavier and faster trains, as well as a lack of effective methods for strengthening the track
substructure. In many nations, significant funds are invested in track maintenance to sustain
stability and improve passenger comfort. The Australian government has just invested AU$
1.3 billion in the rail industry (RailCorp, 2010–2011) to make continual improvements to
the rail networks. The funds spent to maintain the track substructure, including ballast, sub-
ballast and subgrade, are significant compared to those spent on the track superstructure
(rails, fasteners and sleepers) (Selig and Waters 1994). The American railway industry has
invested millions of dollars per year for ballast replacement and associated maintenance
costs (Chrimer 1985). During the 1992–1993 period, the State Rail Authority of New South
Wales used in excess of 1.3 million tonnes of ballast at a cost of over AU$ 12 million to
replace the ballast in rail track (Indraratna et al. 1997), and millions of dollars were invested
annually to quarry and purchase 800,000 tonne of coarse aggregates for ballast in New South
Wales (Lackenby 2006).
2.2 Typical ballasted track problems

The ballast layer plays a crucial part in transmitting and distributing the wheel load from
sleepers to the underlying sub-ballast and subgrade at a reduced and acceptable stress level
(Selig and Waters 1994). It normally consists of strong, medium to coarse-sized granular
Figure 2.1 Australia’s railway network
(courtesy of Australian Railroad Group)
Parameters for track design 7
particles (10–63 mm) with a large amount of pore space and a permeable structure to assist in
rapid drainage, and it also has a high load bearing capacity (Indraratna et al. 2011b). During
operation, ballast deteriorates due to the breakage of angular corners and sharp edges, the
infiltration of fines from the surface and mud pumping from the subgrade under train loading.
As a result of these actions, ballast becomes less angular, fouled, reduced in shear strength
and with impeded drainage (Fig. 2.2). Fouling materials have traditionally been considered
as unfavourable to track structure because they increase deformation and may cause differ-
ential track settlement. Where there is saturation and poor drainage, trapped water results in
increased pore water pressure and subsequent localised undrained shear failure of the ballast.
Modernising the national railroad infrastructure is a challenge facing all developed socie-
ties due to increased competition from other means of transportation. Consequently, adopt-
ing innovative and effective methods to improve serviceability and effectiveness and reduce
maintenance and infrastructure costs of rail tracks is inevitable. Walls and Galbreath (1987)
showed that the periods between maintenance cycles could be increased by as much as
12 times by using geogrids to reinforce ballast. Geogrid is a type of polymer geosynthetic
usually placed between the layer of sub-ballast and ballast to provide additional confining
pressure and strengthen the ballast due to interlocking with surrounding ballast aggregates.
As a result, this significantly decreases lateral spreading, a major cause of ballast deforma-
tion. Although the effect of geogrid in strengthening the ballast layer has been recognised,
the interface behaviour between the geogrid and ballast has not been examined in detail or
incorporated into ballasted track design. This is probably because when ballast is fouled, the
effectiveness of geogrid is believed to decrease significantly due to fine particles clogging
the apertures of the geogrid and acting as lubricant, leading to reduced interlocking and
mobilised frictional resistance between the geogrid and ballast (Indraratna et al. 2011a; Ngo
et al. 2017a). Therefore, the degree of improvement in track performance with the inclusion
of geogrid while considering the various fouling conditions must be investigated and incor-
porated into existing track designs.
Figure 2.2 Section of track fouled ballast and poor drainage

(courtesy of Australian Transport Safety Bureau, 2012)
2.3 Typical input parameters for track design

The main input parameters considered in track design include: dynamic wheel loads, tonnage
by million gross tonnes, moduli of granular materials and subgrade soil, subgrade soil type
and compressive strength, and other necessary parameters as presented in the input param-
eter chart presented in Figure 2.3.
Input parameters such as width of sleeper (B), length of sleeper (L), unit weight of ballast
(γ) and friction angle of ballast (ϕ) are used to determine the ultimate bearing capacity of the
ballast. The factor of safety (FOS) input box is then used to calculate the allowable bearing
capacity. Other input parameters, such as static wheel load (Ps), wheel diameter (D), sleeper
spacing (a) and train velocity (V), are used to determine the static and dynamic stresses on
the ballast sleeper interface using the AREA (1974) method.
2.4 Substructure of ballasted tracks

The components of typical ballasted rail track are generally divided into two main catego-
ries: (i) superstructure (rails, fastening system, sleepers) and (ii) substructure (ballast, sub-
ballast, subgrade), as depicted in Figure 2.4. Upon repeated train loading, wheel loads are
Impact factor method

Design
Select the preferred method Rail seat load method
criterion
Subgrade capacity method
Rail and
Traffic Granular layer Subgrade
sleeper
condition characteristics properties
properties
Enter the input parameters when you select the

design criterion
Figure 2.3 Components of required input parameters for track design
Figure 2.4 Schematic of main components of track structures

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We have no reason to think, with the Papists[211], that, during his
infancy, he had the perfect exercise of his reasoning powers, as
though he had been in a state of manhood, as supposing that the
contrary would have been a dishonour to him. For, if it were in no
wise unbecoming the divine nature to continue its union with his
body, when separate from his soul, and therefore in a state of the
greatest inactivity, it could be no dishonour for it to be united to his
human nature, though we suppose it to have been, during his
infancy, in that state, in which other infants are, as having the
powers and faculties of the soul not deduced into act, as they
afterwards are; therefore we can reckon this no other than a
groundless and unnecessary conjecture, and cannot but admire this
instance of his humiliation, while he was an infant. And, indeed,
since he came to redeem infants, as well as others, it was becoming
the wisdom and goodness of God, that he should be like them, in
most other respects, except in their being born guilty of Adam’s sin.
If his passing through the other ages of life was designed for our
advantage, as he was therein like unto us, and as the apostle says,
able to sympathize with us, in the various miseries that attend them;
so this affords the like argument for that peculiar compassion, which
he has for infants, under those evils that they are liable to.
What we have here asserted, against those who think it a dishonour
to him, to suppose, that he was liable to any imperfection, as to
knowledge, during his infancy, is not to be reckoned a groundless
conjecture, without sufficient reason to support it; since it is
expressly said, in scripture, in Luke ii. 52. that he increased in
wisdom as well as stature; therefore we suppose, that Christ’s
humiliation began in those natural infirmities, which he was liable to,
that are inseparable from a state of infancy.
2. Another branch of Christ’s humiliation, respecting his birth, was,
that he should be born of a woman of very low degree in the world,
rather than of one, whose circumstances and character therein were
superior to those of all others, and called for an equal degree of
respect from them. The blessed virgin was, indeed in a spiritual
sense, honoured and respected above all women, as the salutation
given her, by the angel, imports, Hail thou that art highly favoured,
the Lord is with thee; Blessed art thou among women, Luke i. 28.
notwithstanding, it is plain she was far from being honourable in the
opinion of the world. It is true, she was, of the seed of David, which
was a princely line: But the sceptre was now departed from it;
therefore, when our Saviour is said to have the throne of his father
David, chap. i. 32. given him by God, it is certain he had it not from
his parents, in a political sense. It is called, indeed, the throne of
David, as referring to that promise made to David, 2 Sam. vii. 12-16.
that one should descend from him whom God would set on his
throne, whose kingdom he would establish for ever. What relates to
the establishment of David’s kingdom, and the eternity of it,
certainly looks farther than the reign of Solomon, or the succession
of kings, who were of that line; so that David’s kingdom continuing
for ever, denotes the perpetuity thereof, in Christ’s being set, in a
spiritual sense, on his throne, which seems to be the meaning of the
angel’s words, He shall sit on the throne of his father David. He had
not, indeed, a right to David’s crown by natural descent from him,
for that seems contrary to what was foretold of him; for though it is
said, that a rod shall come of the stem of Jesse, and a branch shall
grow out of his roots; Isa. xi. 1. which plainly refers to our Saviour,
as being of the seed of David; yet it is as plainly intimated, that he
was not to inherit the crown of David, in a political sense, by right of
natural descent from him, inasmuch as it is said, He shall grow up
before him as a tender plant, and as a root out of a dry ground,
chap. liii. 2.
To this we may add; that his mother’s condition in the world appears
to have been very low, in that she was treated with an uncommon
degree of neglect, as it is particularly remarked, Luke ii. 7. designing
to set forth our Saviour’s humiliation in his birth, that she brought
forth her first-born Son, and wrapt him in swaddling clothes, and laid
him in a manger, because there was no room for them in the inn. No
room, because his mother was poor, and therefore was treated in
such a manner; better accommodations were reserved for others,
who, at that time, in which there was great resort to Bethlehem,
were better able to satisfy the mercenary demands of those, at
whose house they lodged.
As for Joseph his reputed father, he was not one of the great men of
this world, but lived by his industry, his occupation being that of a
carpenter, Mat. xiii. 55. This was sometimes objected against our
Saviour by his enemies, who did not consider, that the mean
condition of his parents was a part of that state of humiliation, which
he was to pass through, in discharging the work for which he came
into the world, and plainly discovered, that he cast the utmost
contempt on all the external pomp and grandeur thereof, and
thought no honours worthy of his receiving, but such as were of a
spiritual nature.
3. There is another circumstance of humiliation, taken from the
places of our Saviour’s birth and residence. He was born in
Bethlehem, a city, which though once esteemed honourable when
David dwelt there: yet, at this time, it was reckoned, by the Jews,
not as one of the principal cities of Judah. The prophet Micah styles
it, Little among the thousands of Judah, Micah v. 2. But as for the
place of his abode, Nazareth, that was despised, even to a proverb;
so that the Jews reckoned, that nothing good or great could come
from thence. Thus Nathaniel speaks their common sense, when he
says, Can there any good thing come out of Nazareth? John i. 46.
And this was afterwards improved against him, as an argument that
he was no prophet; when the Jews say, not concerning this place
alone, but the whole country, in which it was, to wit, Galilee, Out of
it ariseth no prophet, chap. vii. 51. And this, is expressly intimated,
as a design of providence, that it should be a part of his humiliation,
as it is said, He dwelt in a city called Nazareth, that it might be
fulfilled, which was spoken by the prophets, He shall be called a
Nazarene, Matt. ii. 23. by which we are not to understand, that any
of the prophets foretold this in express words, as having particular
reference to the place where he lived: But the meaning is, that as
the prophets, with one consent, spake of him, as being in a most
low and humble state, so this was a particular instance hereof; and,
in that respect, what was spoken by them, concerning his state of
humiliation, in various instances, as fulfilled in this[212].
II. Christ’s state of humiliation appeared throughout his whole life,
and that in several instances.
1. In his subjecting himself to the law; and accordingly he was under
an obligation to yield obedience to God in every thing that was
required of him, during the whole course of his life. This, indeed,
was the necessary result of his incarnation; so that he no sooner
became man, but he was under a law, which no creature is, or can
be, exempted from. Nevertheless, it was so far founded on his own
consent, as he consented to be incarnate, which was certainly an
instance of infinite condescension; and his being, in pursuance
thereof, actually made under the law, was a branch of his
mediatorial humiliation.
1st, He was made under the law, that is, he was obliged to obey the
precepts thereof; and that not only of the moral law, which, as to
some of its precepts, the best of creatures are under a natural
obligation to yield obedience to; but, besides this, there were several
positive laws, which he submitted to yield obedience to, in common
with these he came to redeem, which obligation he perfectly fulfilled,
as it is observed in what he says to John the Baptist, Thus it
becometh us to fulfil all righteousness, Mat. iii. 15. q. d. it becometh
me, in common with all mankind, to yield perfect obedience to the
law; and elsewhere he speaks of himself, as coming into the world to
fulfil the law, chap. v. 17. And we may observe, that it was not one
single act, but a course of obedience, that he performed, during his
whole life, as it is said, in this answer, he perfectly fulfilled the law,
which is agreeable to that sinless perfection, which is ascribed to
him in scripture.
2dly, He was made under the law, that is, he was subject to the
curse thereof, that was due to us for sin; which is called, by divines,
the maledictory part of it; as it is said, Christ hath redeemed us from
the curse of the law, being made a curse for us, Gal. iii. 13. As he
obeyed what the law enjoined, so he suffered what it threatened, as
a punishment due to us for sin.
2. Our Saviour conflicted with the indignities of the world. When he
was an infant, Herod sought his life; and, had not his parents been
warned by God, to flee into another country, he had been slain, as
well as the children that were barbarously murdered in Bethlehem,
Mat. ii. 13. But he was most persecuted, and met with the greatest
indignities, after he appeared publickly in the world; for before that
time, till he was about thirty years of age, it might be reckoned a
part of his humiliation, that he was not much known therein, and
was, at least, a considerable part of that time dependent on, and
subject to his parents. It is true, he did not then meet with much
opposition from the Jews, while they were in expectation that he
would appear as an earthly monarch, and deliver them from the
Roman yoke: But when their expectation hereof was frustrated, and
they saw nothing in him but what was agreeable to his state of
humiliation, they were offended; and, from that time, the greatest
injuries and indignities were offered to him, as will appear, if we
consider,
(1.) That they did not own his glory as the Son of God, nor see and
adore his deity, that was united to the human nature, when, being
made flesh, he dwelt among us; and therefore it is observed, that
though the world was made by him, the world knew him not, John i.
10. or, as the apostle says, concerning him, (for so the words may
be rendered) Whom none of the princes of this world knew, 1 Cor. ii.
8. they knew, or owned him not to be the Lord of glory; and, as they
knew him not, so they desired not to know him; therefore the
prophet says, We hid, as it were our faces from him, Isa. liii. 3.
(2.) They questioned his mission, denied him to be the Christ,
though this truth had been confirmed by so many incontestable
miracles: This is that unbelief which the Jews are so often charged
with. Thus when they come to him, and tell him, How long dost thou
make us to doubt? tell us plainly, whether thou be the Christ or no?
To which he replies, I told you, and ye believed not, and appeals to
the works which he did in his Father’s name, John x. 24-26. which
one would think were a sufficient evidence hereof: But yet they were
obstinate and hardened in unbelief; and not only so, but,
(3.) They reproached him, as though he wrought miracles by the
power of the devil, which was the most malicious and groundless
slander that could be invented, as though Satan’s kingdom had been
divided against itself, or he would empower a person to work
miracles, as a means to promote the interest of God, and thereby to
weaken his own, as our Saviour justly replies to that charge, Mat. xii.
24-26. And, indeed, they knew, in their own consciences, that this
was a false accusation, and hereby sinned against the greatest light,
and fullest conviction; which occasioned him to denounce that
terrible and awful threatning against them, that this sin should never
be forgiven them, neither in this world, nor in the world to come.
(4.) They reproached him as to his moral character, for no other
reason, but because he conversed, in a free and friendly manner,
with his people, and went about doing them good. If he, at any
time, accepted of the least common instances of kindness, or
conversed with sinful men, with a design to promote their spiritual
advantage, they revile him for it: Thus he says, The Son of man
came eating and drinking, and they say, Behold a man gluttonous,
and a wine-bibber, a friend of publicans, and sinners, chap. xi. 19.
(5.) It was a matter of common discourse amongst them, that he
was a deceiver of the people, though the evidence of truth shone
like a sun-beam in every thing that he said and did; Thus it is said
There were much murmuring among the people concerning him; for
some said, He is a good man, others said, Nay; but he deceiveth the
people, John vii. 12.
(6.) Sometimes they were uneasy at his presence, and desirous to
be rid of him, and his ministry. Thus the Gergesenes, because they
had suffered a little damage in the loss of their swine, unanimously
besought him to depart out of their coasts, Matt. viii. 34. Thus they
knew not their own privilege, but were weary of him, who was a
public and universal blessing to the world.
(7.) Many refused to give him entertainment in their houses, or to
treat him with that civility, which a common traveller expects; which
occasioned him to complain, that the foxes have holes, and the birds
of the air have nests; but the Son of man hath not where to lay his
head, chap. viii. 20.
(8.) At some times, even before his last sufferings and crucifixion,
they attempted to take away his life, and thereby expressed the
greatest degree of ingratitude and hatred of him. Their attempts,
indeed were to no purpose, because his hour was not yet come:
Thus, when he had asserted his divine glory, they not only charged
him with blasphemy, but took up stones to stone him, John viii. 59.
and even his fellow-citizens, among whom he had been brought up,
and to whom he had usually read and expounded the scripture, on
the sabbath-days; these not only thrust him out of the city, but led
him to the brow of an hill, designing to put him to death, by casting
him down from it, but he passed through the midst of them, and for
the present, escaped their bloody design: This was a more
aggravated crime, as it was committed by those who were under
peculiar obligations to him, Luke iv. 16. compared with 29, 30. Thus
he endured, not only, as the apostle says, the contradiction of
sinners against himself, Heb. xii. 3. but the most ungrateful and
injurious treatment from those, to whom he had been so great a
friend, which was a great addition to his sufferings, so that during
his whole life, he might be said to have been, as the prophet styles
him, A man of sorrows, and acquainted with grief, Isa. liii. 3.
3. Our Saviour conflicted with the temptations of Satan: Thus it is
said, He was in all points, tempted, like as we are, yet without sin,
Heb. iv. 15. or, He suffered being tempted, chap. ii. 18. though we
are not to understand by his being, in all points, tempted, like as we
are, that he had any temptations arising in his own soul, as we have,
from the corruption of our nature; for this would have been
inconsistent with his perfect holiness; and therefore what the apostle
says concerning us, that every man is tempted, when he is drawn
away of his own lust, and enticed, James i. 14. is, by no means
applicable to him; but that he was tempted by Satan, is very evident
from scripture. Some think, that Satan, was let loose upon him, and
suffered to express his utmost malice against him, and to practise all
those usual methods whereby he endeavours to ensnare mankind, in
those remarkable seasons of his life, namely, in his first entrance on
his public ministry, and immediately before his last sufferings; the
former of these none deny; the latter some think we have ground to
conclude from his own words, in which he says, The Prince of this
world cometh, and hath nothing in me, John xiv. 30. where it seems,
that by the prince of this world, he means the devil, inasmuch as he
is so called elsewhere, chap. xii. 31. as well as the god of this world,
2 Cor. iv. 4. and the prince of the power of the air, Eph. ii. 2. If this
be the sense of our Saviour’s words, The prince of this world
cometh, it is as if he should say, I expect that, together with my
other sufferings, I shall be exposed to the last and most violent
efforts that Satan will make. As he assaulted me when I first entered
on my public ministry, so he will do it now I am about to close my
work on earth: Then he endeavoured to ensnare me with his wiles;
now he will endeavour to make me uneasy with his fiery darts. This
was, as it were, the hour of the powers of darkness: and we may
suppose, that if they were suffered, they would attempt to
discourage our Saviour, by representing to him the formidableness of
the death of the cross, the insupportableness of the wrath of God
due to sin, and how much it was his interest to take some method to
save himself from those evils that were impending: Thus we may
suppose, that our Saviour apprehends the tempter as coming: but
we may observe he says, he hath nothing in me, that is, no corrupt
nature, that shall make me receptive of any impressions, arising
from his temptations. His fiery darts, though pointed and directed
against me, shall be as darts shot against a rock, into which they
cannot enter, but are immediately repelled.
But some think, that by the prince of this world, our Saviour does
not mean the devil, any otherwise than as he instigated his
persecutors to accuse, condemn, and crucify him; and that this is
most agreeable to the words immediately foregoing, Hereafter I will
not talk much with you, q. d. I have not much time to converse with
you; for he who will betray me, and those that are sent to
apprehend me, are ready to come; I must in a very little time, be
accused and tried, and, as the consequence hereof, condemned,
though they will find nothing in me worthy of death; I say, since it is
questioned, whether this be not as probable a sense of this text, as
that above mentioned, and therefore that this cannot be reckoned
an instance of Christ’s temptation, which was more immediately from
Satan, we shall pass it over, and proceed to consider that conflict,
which, without doubt, he underwent with the devil, in his first
entrance on his public ministry.
This we read of in Matt. iv. 1-11. and Luke iv. 1-13. And, because
there is a small difference between these two evangelists, in the
account they give of this matter, from whence the enemies of divine
revelation take occasion to reproach it, as though it were
inconsistent with itself, we shall briefly consider and vindicate it from
calumny. We may observe, that Matthew says, When he had fasted
forty days, the tempter came to him; whereas Luke says, He was
forty days tempted of the devil; and Mark speaks to the same
purpose, Mark i. 13. Matthew seems to speak of his temptations as
at the end of the forty days; the other two evangelists intimate, that
he was tempted more or less, all the forty days. There is no
contradiction in these two accounts; Luke only adds a circumstance
which Matthew omits, to wit, that Satan assaulted him with various
temptations, all the time he was in the wilderness; whereas these,
which are recorded by both the evangelists, were towards the end of
the forty days.
Again, Matthew, speaking concerning the first of these temptations,
introduces the devil, as saying to our Saviour, If thou be the Son of
God command that these stones be made bread; whereas Luke
speaks but of one stone; Command that this stone be made bread.
This seeming contradiction may easily be reconciled, by considering,
that by these stones in Matthew, may be meant one of these stones,
which is a very common hebraism; as when it is said, that Jonah
was gone down to the sides of the ship, Jonah i. 5. that is, one of
the sides; and elsewhere it is said, that, when Christ was upon the
cross, the thieves, which were crucified with him, reviled him, Matt.
xxvii. 44. which hebraism Luke explains, when he says, One of the
malefactors railed on him, Luke xxiii. 59. So in this temptation, Satan
pointing at some large stone, tempted him to turn it into bread; and
Matthew intends no more, when he says, Command that these
stones, that is, one of them, be made bread.
Again, we observe another difference in the account given by
Matthew, from that given by Luke, respecting the order of the
temptations. Matthew speaks of Satan’s tempting him to fall down
and worship him, as the third and last temptation, which, as it is
more than probable, it was; but Luke, inverting the order, lays down
this temptation in the second place. However, there is no
contradiction between these two; for the credit of an historian is not
weakened, provided he relate matters of fact, though he does not, in
every circumstance, observe the order in which things were done,
especially when nothing material depends upon it; so that, upon the
whole, the difference between the accounts of these two
evangelists, is so inconsiderable, that it is needless to say any thing
farther on that head. We shall therefore proceed to consider Christ’s
temptation, as we find it here recorded. And,
1. We may observe the time in which he was exposed thereunto, to
wit, immediately after his baptism, when he first entered on his
public ministry, having but just before received a glorious testimony,
by a voice from heaven saying, This is my beloved Son, in whom I
am well pleased, Matt. iii. 17. upon which it is said, Then was he led
into the wilderness, to be tempted of the devil, or, as Mark farther
explains it, Immediately the spirit driveth him into the wilderness,
Mark i. 12. From whence we may take occasion to infer,
(1.) That God’s children have reason to expect, in conformity to
Christ their Head, that, after extraordinary manifestations of divine
love, they may sometimes meet with great temptations; so that, as
grace is excited by the one, it may be exercised, tried, and the truth
thereof more plainly evinced by the other; and, indeed, in us, there
is a particular reason for it, which was not applicable to our Saviour,
namely, that after great honours conferred upon us, when God is
pleased to manifest himself to us, we may be kept, as the apostle
says, concerning himself on the like occasion, from being exalted
above measure, 2 Cor. xii. 7.
(2.) We may, from hence, observe, how Satan shews his malice and
envy at God’s people, so that when they are raised nearest to
heaven, he will use his utmost endeavours to bring them down to
hell; and hereby he shews his opposition to God, by attempting to
rob him of that glory, which he designs to bring to himself, by these
extraordinary manifestations, as well as his people, of the blessed
fruits and effects thereof, whereby he thinks to counteract what God
is doing for them.
(3.) As our Saviour was tempted just before his entrance on his
public ministry, we learn, from hence; that when God designs that
his people shall engage in any great, useful, and difficult work, they
are like to meet with great temptations, which God suffers that he
may put them upon being on their watch, and fortify them against
many other temptations, which they may expect to meet with, in the
discharge thereof. Many instances of this we have in scripture;
particularly in Moses, when called to go into the land of Egypt, Exod.
iv. 1, 10, 13. and the prophet Jeremiah, when sent to a people,
whose faces he was afraid of, Jer. i. 6, 8. Satan suggested several
unwarrantable excuses, to discourage them from undertaking the
work to which they were called.
2. The next thing to be observed is, the place in which Christ was
exposed to these conflicts with the tempter, namely, the wilderness.
It is not our business to enquire what wilderness it was, whether
one of the smaller wildernesses in the land of Judea, or the great
wilderness on the other side Jordan, since the scripture is silent as to
this matter; though the latter seems more probable, since there are
higher mountains in it than in the other; and we read, that that
wilderness, in which Christ was tempted, had in it an exceeding high
mountain, from whence the devil shewed him all the kingdoms of
the world, and the glory of them. There was in that wilderness
mount Nebo, from the top whereof Moses took a view of the whole
land of Canaan: But, passing by the consideration of the particular
wilderness, in which Christ was tempted, we shall observe, that the
place which providence designed for this conflict was a wilderness,
(1.) That he might fast during the time of his being there, that being
a place destitute of necessary food: And this was ordered by
providence, not only as a particular instance of his humiliation, but
that Satan might, from hence, take occasion to suit one of his
temptations to his condition, as being an hungred.
(2.) Another reason was, that being separate from all his friends and
acquaintance, he might be neither helped nor hindered by them,
that so Satan might have the greatest advantage he could desire
against him, as solitude is a state most adapted to temptations; and
consequently that his affliction herein, and the victory he should
obtain, should be more remarkable: As none was with him to offer
him any assistance, so none could take occasion to claim a part in
his triumph over the adversary.
As to what is said, in the text, concerning his being led by the Spirit,
into the wilderness to be tempted, we humbly conceive that it is the
Holy Spirit who is there intended, as the words seem to import; for it
would not be so proper to say, he was led by the impure spirit, the
devil, to be tempted of the devil; and Luke says, that, being full of
the Holy Ghost, he was led by the Spirit, that is, the Holy Ghost, with
whom he was filled, into the wilderness, Luke iv. 1. Besides this, it
doth not seem agreeable to the holiness of Christ, to suppose, that
he went into the wilderness at the motion and instigation of the
devil; for that would have been an unjustifiable action. We may
lawfully go, in the way of temptation, when providence leads us
there; but it is not lawful for us to go within the verge of Satan’s
temptations, by his own instigation. And this seems farther probable,
inasmuch as it is said, that, after the devil was departed from him,
he returned in, or by the power of the Spirit, into Galilee, ver. 14. If
he returned by the power of the Holy Spirit out of the wilderness,
have we not equal ground to conclude that he was led by him into it
at first.
But if it be said, that he did not go into the wilderness by the
instigation of the devil, but was carried thither with violence by him:
though this would clear our Saviour from the guilt of going by the
devil’s persuasion in the way of temptation; yet we can hardly allow
that God would suffer the devil to have so much power over Christ’s
body, as to carry him where he pleased, by a violent motion.
If it be replied to this, that the devil might as well be said to carry
him into the wilderness, as to take him up into the holy city, and set
him upon a pinnacle of the temple, by a violent motion; in which
sense some understand that passage in the second temptation,
wherein it is said, that the devil did so, in ver. 5. what answer may
be given to this, will appear from what may farther be said, when
we speak of this temptation in particular.
3. We shall now consider the three temptations, mentioned in this
scripture, which he was exposed to. And that,
(1.) More generally; and accordingly we may observe,
1st, That the two first of them were very subtil: so that some would
hardly have discerned wherein the sin lay, had he complied with
them; but that will be considered under a following head. We need
only remark, at present, that herein the devil acted like a deceiver,
and appeared to be, as he is elsewhere called, The old serpent. In
the third temptation, he openly discovered his own vileness, and
blasphemously usurped that glory which is due to God alone, when
he tempted our Saviour to fall down and worship him.
2dly, In these temptations, he insinuates, that some advantage
would accrue to our Saviour from his compliance therewith. This he
generally does when he tempts us, wherein he makes an overture of
some advantage which we shall gain by our compliance. The
advantage he proposed, by the first temptation, was, that hereby he
might prevent his starving with hunger. By the second, he proposed,
that he might gain popular applause, by casting himself down from
the temple, among the people that were walking near it, that they
might admire him for his wonderful action; and, in both these
temptations, he urges him to give a proof of his being the Son of
God, by which means his doctrine might be more readily received. In
the third temptation, indeed, the advantage is altogether carnal, and
such as, had Satan considered the holiness of the Person he was
speaking to, and his contempt of the kingdoms of the world, and the
glory thereof, he might easily have supposed that our Saviour would
have despised the overture, as well as abhorred the action.
3dly, We may observe, that in the second temptation, the devil
refers to a promise contained in scripture, and so puts him upon that
which carries in it the appearance of duty, namely, his depending
upon the divine protection, in expectation that God would give the
angels charge over him: but he quotes the scripture fallaciously, by
leaving out a very material thing contained in it, He shall give his
angels charge over thee, to keep thee in all thy ways, Psal. xci. 11.
whereby it is implied, that none have a right to depend on the divine
protection, but they who are in the way of duty, which Christ would
not have been, had he complied with this temptation.
4thly, Another thing we observe is, that our Saviour not only refused
to comply with the temptation, in all these three instances, but he
assigned a reason of his refusal, whereby it appears that he did this
with judgment; and hereby we are instructed not only to refuse to
comply with Satan’s temptations, but we should be able to give a
reason of our refusal. And, as we farther observe, that our Saviour
answers all these temptations, by referring to scripture, which he
adhered to, as a rule to direct his conduct, and therein expressed
the greatest deference to it: so he teaches us to do the same, as the
Psalmist says, By the word of thy lips I have kept me from the paths
of the destroyer, Psal. xvii. 4. it is by the sword of the Spirit, which is
the word of God, that we quench all the fiery darts of the wicked,
Eph. vi. 16, 17.
(2.) We shall now proceed to consider the three temptations in
particular, together with our Saviour’s answer to each of them, and
that in the order in which they are related by the evangelist
Matthew, in chap. iv.
First, The first temptation was, that he would prove his being the
Son of God, by commanding stones to be made bread. The subtilty
of this temptation consists,
1. In that it seemed not only lawful, but necessary, for Christ, on
some occasions, to give a proof that he was the Son of God; and his
working miracles was the way by which this was to be done. And it
would not seem, to some, unlawful for him to work a miracle in
turning stones into bread, since we read, among other miracles, of
his multiplying the loaves and fishes to feed the multitude; therefore
why may he not produce bread, in a miraculous manner, as well
now, as at any other time?
2. Satan puts him upon working this miracle, from a principle of self-
preservation which is a duty founded in the law of nature, to supply
himself with necessary food, being an hungred; and, if it was lawful
for him to produce bread to feed others, was it not lawful to do the
same for his own subsistence, especially since he was in a place in
which food was not to be obtained by any other means?
3. He pretends to have a great concern for our Saviour’s welfare,
that so he might not perish with hunger: thus he thought to gain an
advantage over him, by a pretence of friendship, as he often does in
those temptations he offers to us, to promote our own welfare by
unlawful means.
Let us now consider wherein the snare lay, which our Saviour was
thoroughly apprized of, and in what respects he would have sinned,
had he complied with this temptation. This will appear, if we
consider,
(1.) That it was not lawful for him to work a miracle to gratify the
devil; and that for this reason in particular, because it would have
been contrary to the general end and design of his working miracles,
which was only for the advantage of his people, who are the proper
subjects of conviction thereby; for him to work them with any other
design, would have been to prostitute a sacred ordinance, or to
apply it to whom it did not belong. When the woman of Canaan
came to him, beseeching him to work a miracle, in casting the devil
out of her daughter; she being not a member of the Jewish church,
or one of the lost sheep of the house of Israel, our Saviour tells her,
It is not meet to take the children’s bread, and cast it unto dogs;
and that he was not sent but unto the lost sheep of the house of
Israel, Matt. xv. 24, 26. that is, he was only to work miracles for the
conviction of those who were the proper subjects thereof; and,
doubtless, he would not have wrought this miracle at her request,
had she not been a proper subject of conviction, which she was, as
an elect person, though not by nature an Israelite. Now, to apply
this to our present purpose, the devil was not a subject of
conviction, and therefore Christ was not obliged to prove himself the
Son of God to him; for which reason he would have sinned, had he
complied with this temptation.
(2.) Had it been otherwise, it doth not seem necessary, at this time,
for him to prove himself to be the Son of God, since that had, but a
little before, been sufficiently attested, by a voice from heaven; and
therefore to work a miracle to confirm it at present, would argue a
disbelief of that testimony.
(3.) For Christ to work a miracle for his own subsistence, seems
disagreeable to the main design of his working miracles, which, as
was before hinted, was his people’s conviction that he was the
Messiah; and therefore it does not sufficiently appear that he ever
provided for the necessities of himself, or his family in such a way.
[213]
But suppose he had at any time, subsisted himself by working a
miracle, it would have argued a distrust of the providence of God to
have supplied his hunger, at present, that way; as though God, who
had hitherto preserved him without food, could not have continued
so to do, as long as he was in the wilderness. And it would also have
been contrary to one design of his being led there by the Spirit;
which was, that he might humble himself by fasting, as well as
conflict with Satan’s temptations. Thus concerning the first
temptation that was offered by the devil.
Let us now consider Christ’s answer to it. This is contained in ver. 4.
It is written, Man shall not live by bread alone, but by every word
that proceedeth out of the mouth of God. The scripture here
referred to, is in Deut. viii. 3. where we have the very same words;
which, as they are applied by our Saviour to repel this temptation,
imply in them two things:
1st, That man hath a better life to secure, than that which is
maintained by bread, to wit, the life of the soul: thus it is said, A
man’s life consisteth not in the abundance of the things which he
possesseth, Luke xii. 15. If we take it in this sense, it is as though he
he should say, If I comply with this temptation, I should sin against
my own soul; and, by using unlawful means to support my natural
life, should lose that spiritual life, which consists in the divine favour;
or rather the meaning is,
2dly, That it is by the word of God’s power that our lives are upheld;
which power, though it be ordinarily exerted in the use of means, by
applying that proper food, which God gives us; yet this power can
sustain us without it, when we are called, in an extraordinary
manner by him, to depend upon it, and have ground to conclude, as
our Saviour now had, that our dependence should not be in vain.
Hitherto he had depended upon it, for almost forty days, since he
was first brought into the wilderness; and therefore he concluded,
that it was his duty to exercise the same dependence, so long as he
was there.
Secondly, The second temptation was that, in which Satan
endeavoured to persuade him to cast himself down from a pinnacle
of the temple, expecting that God would preserve him safe from
danger; pretending that he would give his angels charge concerning
him, and in their hands they should bear him up, lest, at any time,
he should dash his foot against a stone. This was a snare laid by the
subtle adversary, for his life; and herein we may observe,
1. That as, in the former temptation, he solicited him to distrust the
providence of God, and our Saviour’s reply to it, contains an
intimation of his firm resolution to depend upon it, for his farther
preservation, though without the necessary food of life; now he
tempts him, since he is resolved to depend upon the power and
providence of God, to do it, in an unlawful way, which is no other
than a presuming on the divine protection, without a sufficient
warrant.
2. He tempts him to the sin of self-murder, which would be the
consequence of his presumption; for, if providence did not preserve
him, which he had not sufficient ground to conclude that it would,
when engaged in an unlawful action, such as throwing himself down
from the temple would have been, this certainly would have proved
his death. And the tempter had something farther than this in view,
namely, to put a stop to the work of our redemption, and defeat the
great design of Christ’s coming into the world; for, if he had died this
way, by his own hands, he would have contracted guilt, and brought
a dishonour to the divine name, rather than have given satisfaction
to divine justice, and finished the work he was sent into the world
about.
3. In this, Satan tempts him also to a vain-glorious, and fruitless
action, which was far from answering any valuable end: his throwing
himself down from the top of the temple, among the people, who
were gathered together in that public place of resort, might, it is
true, have amused them, when seeing a person flying through the
air; but it would not have been an expedient to confirm their faith,
since there was no explicit appeal to this miracle for the confirmation
of any contested doctrine; and therefore it would have contradicted
the general design of his working miracles, and, in that respect,
been unlawful. Had he been, indeed, at this time, at the bottom of
the temple, disputing with the Jews about his mission, and offering
to confirm it, by such a miracle as they should chuse; and, had they
insisted on it, that he should go up to the top of the temple, and
cast himself down amongst them, and signified that this miracle
should decide the controversy, for their conviction, I don’t apprehend
that it would have been unlawful for him to have done it; nor would
it have been an instance of presumption for him, to expect the
divine protection in so doing. But the case was otherwise
circumstanced at present; the devil, who was assaulting him in the
wilderness (as was before observed) was no proper subject of
conviction; and none of his people were present, to desire that this
miracle should be wrought, that they might believe.
Having thus considered the matter of the second temptation in
general, it may not be amiss for us to enquire into the meaning of
those words, in ver 5. which are generally considered, as
preparatory to it: thus it is said, The devil taketh him up into the
holy city, and setteth him on a pinnacle of the temple. The most
common opinion of those, who give their sense of this scripture, is,
that the devil had power over the body of Christ, to carry it from
place to place; which they reckon not to be an improbable
supposition, from the account that some give, who write on the
subject of witchcraft, of persons being so carried by him in a
preternatural way: but these relations have not much weight in
them; and many persons of judgment question the truth thereof;
but whether they be true or false, it makes nothing for this purpose,
for which they are brought. We do not question, but that the devil,
by divine permission, might carry persons, by a violent motion, from
place to place; but whether our Saviour was carried by him from the
wilderness to the top of the temple, is the question to be debated.
They, who suppose this to have been really done, either think that
Christ went there together with, and at the instigation of the devil,
without any thing preternatural in his being conveyed there by him;
or else, that the devil carried him there from the wilderness through
the air; the latter of which is the most commonly received opinion:
but we cannot see sufficient reason to acquiesce in either of them.
(1.) As to the former of these opinions, I cannot think it lawful for
our Saviour to go from the wilderness to the temple at the
instigation of the devil, for that would be to go in the way of
temptation, without a divine warrant. Had the Spirit of God carried
him thither, and encouraged him to throw himself down from thence,
it had been his duty to have done it, as much as it was to abide in
the wilderness, being led there by the Holy Spirit: But as it would
have been unlawful for him to come into the wilderness to be
tempted by the devil, so it would be no less unlawful to go from
thence to the temple, at his desire.
Moreover, it may be greatly questioned, whether our Saviour was fit
to take so long a journey, as from the wilderness to the temple, after
he had fasted forty days, and, it may be, his strength impaired
thereby. And, indeed, when we read, Luke iv. 14. of his return out of
the wilderness into his own country, it was by the power of the
Spirit, which supplied his want of strength, for so great a journey;
therefore, as his coming there was by the Spirit, his safe conduct
back again was by the same Spirit. And we cannot suppose that he
went out of the wilderness till the Spirit carried him out into his own
country; therefore it does not appear that he went to the temple by
the solicitation of the devil, to be tempted by him there, and
afterwards returned to the wilderness, to submit to his last
temptation.
(2.) We cannot altogether give into the other opinion, which, as was
before observed, is the most common, namely, that the devil was
permitted to carry our Saviour through the air, and set him on a
pinnacle of the temple, (which seems to be the more direct and
literal sense of the words of the evangelist, relating to this matter)
for the following reasons.
1st, The pinnacle of the temple, upon which the devil is supposed to
have set our Saviour, was, as some writers observed, the sharp
point, or apex, or extremity, of a cone, on which it was not possible
for the smallest bird to perch; therefore a man could not stand upon
it, and consequently Christ could not be said to be sit upon it.
To this, it is true, it is generally replied, that by his being set on a
pinnacle of the temple, is meant his being set upon one of the
battlements, near one of the spires of the temple, on which men
may conveniently stand. Here they suppose the devil placed our
Saviour, and then tempted him to cast himself down from thence.
But suppose this be sufficient to account for those words that speak
of Christ’s being set on a pinnacle of a temple, and so enervates the
force of this reason against it, let it be farther considered,
2dly, That it does not seem probable that the devil should have so
much power over our Saviour, so as to carry him from place to place
at his will: But if it be replied to this, that it contains no absurdity for
God to suffer it; nor was it any moral evil in Christ to be thus carried,
who must be supposed herein to be altogether passive; let it be
farther considered,
3dly, That if the devil really carried him through the air, from the
wilderness to the temple, this could not well be done, in an invisible
way; for that is contrary to the nature of things; for even the motion
of a bird, which is a far less creature, through the air, if it be in the
day time, is not invisible. Now if this preternatural motion of our
Saviour’s body through the air was visible, how comes it to pass that
no notice was taken of it by the Jews, which would have been as
remarkable an occurrence, as his flying from a pinnacle of the
temple to the ground? Some of them, doubtless, would have been
amused at it, and probably it would have given them occasion to
have said something concerning this preternatural event; and others,
it may be, would have reproached him for it; and from his flying by
the power of the devil, would have taken occasion to say, that his
other miracles were wrought by the same power, which would have
given umbrage to the objection, when they said, He casteth out
devils by Beelzebub, the prince of the devils.
If it be farther objected, that the devil might carry him to the top of
the temple by night, and so his motion through the air not be
observed. This seems very improbable; for then he must continue
there all night, till the people were gathered together the next day
on the plain, at the foot thereof, otherwise his casting himself down
from thence, would not have answered the end designed thereby,
there being none of the Jews present to observe the miracle; and so
the devil might have spared the pains of carrying him to a pinnacle
of the temple, and might have as well tempted him to have cast
himself down from a precipice in the wilderness. We own,
notwithstanding, that it might be replied to this, that the devil might
raise a thick fog in the air in the day-time, so that the people could
not see him conveyed from the wilderness to the temple: But,
though this be possible, it doth not seem probable, especially when
we consider the other reasons brought against this supposition in
general; therefore we must have recourse to some other sense, in
which this scripture is to be understood.
Accordingly some suppose that this was only done in a vision, and
that he continued all this time in the wilderness; which will in some
measure, account for several difficulties, that would arise from the
supposition, of the devil’s having power over him to carry him from
place to place; and this agrees with those other scriptures, that
speak of his being tempted forty days in the wilderness.
Nevertheless, this sense does not appear very probable, as it
supposes the devil to have had a greater power over Christ’s
imagination, than can readily be allowed of. And it seems to contain
an absurdity in this respect; that Christ could not be said to work a
miracle, by throwing himself from a pinnacle of the temple, if he
were all that while standing in the wilderness; and what proof would
that have been of his being the Son of God?
Object. If it be objected to this, that many things are said to be
done, in vision, by the prophets, which could not well be said to be
done otherwise; as the prophet Ezekiel, when he was among the
captives in Babylon, is said to be took by a lock of his head, and, by
the Spirit, lifted up between the earth and the heaven, and brought
in the visions of God to Jerusalem, Ezek. viii. 3. the meaning of
which is, that he had an impression hereof made on his imagination,
not much unlike to a dream, which inclined him, at the same time,
to think himself carried to Jerusalem, and to behold the idolatry that
was practised there.
Answ. To this it may be replied, that this was a divine impression
upon the soul of the prophet; and we are not, from hence, inclined
to think, that because God has sometimes appeared in vision to his
people, that the devil was suffered to do so, with respect to our
Saviour, or to have power over his imagination, to give it that
disturbance, that would result from hence.
Therefore there is another sense, a little different from this, in which
we cannot but acquiesce, though not without great deference to
those who are otherwise minded, namely, that the devil had neither
power over Christ’s body, nor actually carried him from the
wilderness to a pinnacle of the temple, on the one hand, nor had he
power to give disturbance to his imagination on the other: But that
he tempted, or endeavoured to persuade him to go with him to
Jerusalem, which is called the holy city, and then to go up to the top
of the temple, and so cast himself down among the people.
Object. The principal objection that is brought against this sense of
the words, is taken from its being contrary to the literal, or
grammatical sense thereof, inasmuch as the devil is said to take him
up into the holy city, and set him on a pinnacle of the temple; which
does not seem to imply barely his discoursing with him of going
there, and casting himself down from thence.
Answ. The only answer that need be given to this objection, is, that,
since what is done in vision, is represented in scripture as though it
had been actually done, why may we not suppose, that what is
offered in conversation, may be represented as though it had been
actually done, especially considering, that what was only discoursed
of between two persons, is sometimes said to be done. As when the
chief butler reports the conversation which he and the chief baker
had with Joseph in the prison, he represents Joseph as doing what
he only spake of, when he says, Me he restored unto mine office,
and him he hanged, Gen. xli. 13. Therefore there is no absurdity in
supposing, that the devil’s carrying our Saviour to Jerusalem, and
setting him on a pinnacle of the temple, denotes nothing else but his
tempting him to go there. And, if we take it in this sense, the
temptation is no less subtle, or pernicious, in the design thereof; and
our Saviour’s answer to it, is equally opposite, and to the purpose,
as though we suppose the devil had power to carry him there.
We shall now consider Christ’s answer to this temptation, which is
contained in these words, Thou shalt not tempt the Lord thy God, in
which he refers to the words of Moses, Deut. vi. 16. which though
they more immediately relate to the peoples murmuring, and
questioning, whether God was among them or not, Exod. xvii. 7.
upon which occasion the name of the place was called Massah; yet,
inasmuch as there are various ways of tempting God, this general
prohibition might well be applied by our Saviour to his own case, in
answer to Satan’s temptation; and then it is as though he should
say, I will not tempt the Lord my God, either by desiring a farther
proof of my Sonship, which has so lately been attested, by a voice
from heaven; or rather, I will not tempt him, so as to expect his
protection, when engaged, according to thy desire, in an unlawful
action.
Thirdly, The third and last temptation, which was the most
audacious, vile, and blasphemous of all, is contained in ver. 8, 9. in
which Satan makes an overture of the kingdoms of the world, and
the glory thereof, to him, provided he would fall down and worship
him; in which we may observe,
1. Something preparatory to it, when it is said, The devil taketh him
up into an exceeding high mountain, and sheweth him all the
kingdoms of the world, and the glory of them. Whether this was
actually done, or he only tempted him to go up into an high
mountain, which was more convenient for this purpose, I will not
peremptorily determine. There are not so many difficulties attending
the supposition, that it was actually done, as there were in the
former temptation. If it be concluded, that it was actually done, it is
very much to be doubted, whether there was any mountain so high,
as that he might, from thence have a prospect of the kingdoms of
the world; or if there was an exceeding high mountain in the
wilderness where Christ was tempted, yet, if we consider the nature
of the vision, there are two things that would hinder a person’s
seeing the kingdoms of the world, though it were from the highest
mountain.
(1.) The convexity, or unevenness of the surface of the earth, which
would hinder the strongest eye from seeing many kingdoms of the
world; besides, the sight would be hindered by other mountains
intervening.
(2.) If there were several kingdoms, or countries, which might be
beheld from the top of an exceeding high mountain, yet the organ of
sight is too weak to reach many miles. Therefore, when Moses was
commanded, by God, to go up to the top of mount Pisgah, to take a
view of the whole land of Canaan, it is generally thought there was
something miraculous in his strengthening his sight, to see to the
utmost bounds thereof; accordingly it is said, that the Lord shewed
him all the land, Deut. xxxiv. 1. Now this can hardly be applicable to
the case before us, relating to the devil’s shewing our Saviour all the
kingdoms of the world; therefore the best and most common sense
that is given hereof, is, that he made a representation of the
kingdoms and glories of the world in the air, and presented them to
our Saviour’s view in a moment; and a mountain was more
convenient for this purpose, than if he had done it in a valley; which
seems to be the most probable sense of this text.
2. We shall now consider the temptation itself, which is mentioned in
ver. 9. All these things will I give thee, if thou wilt fall down and
worship me. The evangelist Luke adds something that is omitted by
Matthew, as a farther illustration of this temptation namely, that the
power of conferring a right to the kingdoms of the world, was
delivered unto him; and that to whomsoever he will he gives it, Luke
iv. 6. In this temptation, we may observe,
1st, The abominable pride and insolence of the devil, and his
appearing herein to be the father of lies, nothing could be more
false, than for him to assert that the world was given to him to
dispose of, as he pleased; whatever hand he may have in disposing
of it among his subjects, by divine permission: yet he has no right to
do this; so that herein we may observe his proud and blasphemous
insinuation, in pretending to have a grant from God to dispose of
that which he reserves in his own hand, to give as he pleases.
2dly, All that he pretends to give our Saviour, is only the kingdoms of
the world; and, in exchange for them, he must quit his right to that
better world, which he had, by inheritance, a right to, and a power
to dispose of, which the devil has not.
3dly, He pretends to give our Saviour nothing but what, as God and
Mediator, he had a right to. This Satan maliciously questions, when,
by the overture he makes thereof, he insinuates, that he must be
beholden to him for it.
4thly, This he proposes, as an expedient for him, to arrive to glory
and honour an easier way, than to attain it by sufferings; therefore it
is as though he should say; thou expected a kingdom beyond this
world, but there are many troubles that lie in the way to it; whereas,
by following my advice, and complying with this temptation, thou
mayest avoid those sufferings, and enter into the present possession
of the kingdoms and glories of this world; by which, it is probable,
he makes him an overture of the whole Roman empire: But this our
Saviour despises, for he offered it, who had no right to give it; and
the terms, on which the overture was made, were very
dishonourable; and the honour itself was such, as he did not value,
for his kingdom was not of this world. If he had aimed at earthly
grandeur, he might easily have attained it; for we read, that he
might once, not only have been made a king, but that the people
intended to come and make him so by force, John vi. 15. upon
which occasion, he discovered the little value he had for this honour,
by his retiring from them into a mountain himself alone, rather
chusing to continue in the low estate, which he designed to submit
to in this world, as a man of sorrows, and acquainted with grief.
Thus concerning the overture made by Satan to our Saviour. Now let
us consider the condition on which he made it, namely, that he
should fall down and worship him; in which we may observe his
pride, in pretending to have a right to divine honour, and how he
attempts to usurp the throne of God, and that to such a degree, that
no one must expect favours from him, without giving him that
honour, that is due to God alone.
Again, he boldly and blasphemously tempts Christ to abandon and
withdraw himself from his allegiance to God, and, at the same time,
to deny his own deity, as the object of worship, and thereby to cast
away that crown of glory, which he has by nature, and to put it on
the head of his avowed enemy. Thus concerning the third and last
temptation; we may consider,
3. Christ’s reply to it, together with the repulse given to the
adversary, and victory obtained over him, who hereupon departed
from him; where we may observe,
(1.) That he again makes use of scripture, referring to what is said
therein, in different words, though the sense be the same, Thou
shalt fear the Lord thy God, and serve him, and to him shalt thou
cleave, Deut. vi. 13. and chap. x. 20. This is a duty not only founded
in scripture, but in the law of nature, and may be proved from the
perfections of God, and our relation to him, as creatures.
(2.) Our Saviour detests the temptation with the greatest
abhorrence, can no longer bear to converse with the blasphemer,
and therefore says, Get thee hence, Satan. He commands him to be
gone, and Satan immediately leaves him, being, as it were, driven
away by his almighty power. This is more than we can do;
nevertheless, in the like case, we ought, as the apostle did, to
beseech the Lord that he might depart from us, 2 Cor. xii. 8. or, to
use our Saviour’s words on another occasion, The Lord rebuke thee,
O Satan. Thus Christ’s temptations, though very grievous and
afflictive, were not only surmounted, but the adversary, that
assaulted him, was overcome by him, in his own Person,[214]
From what hath been said, concerning Christ’s temptations, we infer,
1st, The desperate and unparalleled boldness of Satan, in that
though he knew well enough that Christ was the Son of God, and
therefore able not only to resist, but to destroy him; yet he should
venture thus to assault him: whereas, at other times, he seems to
be afraid of him, which occasioned him to say, Art thou come to
destroy us before the time? Mark i. 24. and elsewhere, Art thou
come to torment us before the time? Matt. viii. 29. Besides, he
knew, that by this action, his own guilt and misery would be
increased; but what will not malice, and a deep-rooted hatred of
God and godliness, prompt persons to! The attempt was certainly
most unfeasable, as well as prejudicial to himself. Did Satan suppose
that he should gain a victory over him? Could he think, that he, who
was God, as well as man, was not more than a match for him? It
may be, he might hope, that though the human nature of Christ
were united to the divine, yet it might be left to itself; and then he
thought it more possible to gain some advantages against it, which
was a groundless supposition, and altogether unbecoming the
relation that there is between these two natures: and it was also
impossible that he should be overcome, inasmuch as he was filled
with the Holy Ghost from his first conception, and the unction which
he had received from the Holy Ghost, would have effectually secured
him from falling. Whether the devil knew this, or no, he did not
consider it; and therefore this attempt against our Saviour, was an
instance of the most stupendous folly in him, who is described as
the old serpent for his great subtilty.
2dly, From Christ’s temptation, we may infer the greatness of his
sufferings. It could not but be grievous to him to be insulted,
attacked, and the utmost endeavours used to turn him aside from
his allegiance to God, by the worst of his enemies. And, as Satan’s
temptations are not the smallest part of the affliction of his people,
they cannot be reckoned the smallest part of his own; nevertheless,
the issue thereof was glorious to himself, and shameful to the enemy
that attacked him.
3dly, This affords encouragement to believers, under the various
temptations they are exposed to. They are not, indeed, to think it
strange that they are tempted, inasmuch as they are herein
conformed to Jesus Christ, the Captain of their salvation; but they
may, from Christ’s temptation, be instructed that it is not a sin to be
tempted, though it be a sin to comply with Satan’s temptations; and
therefore that they have no ground to conclude, as many do, that
they are not God’s children, because they are tempted. Moreover,
they may not only hope to be made partakers of Christ’s victory, as
the fruits and effects thereof redound to the salvation of his people;
but to receive help and succour from him when they are tempted, as
he, who suffered, being tempted, is able to succour them that are
tempted, Heb. ii. 18. Thus concerning Christ’s humiliation, as
tempted.
4. Christ humbled himself, in being subject to those sinless
infirmities, which were either common to the human nature, or
particularly accompanying that low condition in which he was. Some
of those afflictions, which he endured, took their rise from the sin or
misery of others: thus he is said to have been afflicted in all the
afflictions of his people, Isa. lxiii. 9. which is an instance of that
great sympathy and compassion which he bare towards them.
Sometimes he was grieved for the degeneracy and apostacy of the
Jewish nation, the contempt they cast on the gospel, whereby his
ministry, though discharged with the greatest faithfulness, was,
through the unbelief of those among whom he exercised it, without
its desired success: thus he is represented by the prophet, as
complaining, I have laboured in vain; I have spent my strength for
nought and in vain, chap. xlix. 4. and, when he had almost finished
his ministry among them, and looked upon Jerusalem as a self-
ruined people, He beheld the city and wept over it, Luke xix. 41.
And, besides this, he was sometimes grieved for the remainders of
corruption, and the breakings forth thereof in those whom he loved,
in a distinguishing manner; thus he was sometimes afflicted in his
own spirit, by reason of the hardness of the heart of his disciples,
and the various instances of their unbelief.
These afflictions, more especially, might be called relative, as the
occasion thereof was seated in others: but there were many
afflictions which he endured that were more especially personal;
such as hunger, thirst, fatigue, weariness in travelling to and fro in
the discharge of his public ministry; and that poverty and want of
the common necessaries of life, which he submitted to, whose divine
bounty supplies the wants of all creatures. These, and many other
sufferings, he endured in life, which were agreeable to that state of
humiliation, in which he was, during the whole course thereof. And
this leads us,
Secondly, To consider his humiliation immediately before, as well as
in and after his death.

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2 Parameters for track design 5

3 Bearing capacity of ballasted tracks 17

3.3 Calculation of maximum rail seat load 19

4 Thickness of granular layer 23

5 Effect of confining pressure and frequency on

6 Impact of ballast fouling on rail tracks 51

7 Application of geosynthetics in railway tracks 66

8 UOW – constitutive model for ballast 94

9 Sub-ballast and filtration layer – design procedure 103

10 Practical design examples 109

11 Appendix A: Introduction of SMART tool for track design 129

12 Appendix B: Unique geotechnical and rail testing

Distinguished Professor Buddhima Indraratna (FTSE, FIEAust,

acknowledged by Railway Technical Society of Australasia (RTSA) and he was honoured by

1.1 General background

1.2 Limitations of current track design practices

1.3 New developments in SMART-UOW approach

• Module 1: Input design parameters for track design

Hydraulic conductivity Input design Parameters for

Testing frequency, Hydraulic conductivity Parameters for

Praccal work design examples

Figure 1.1 Flowchart of SMART-UOW track design approach

Parameters for track design

2.1 General background

2.2 Typical ballasted track problems

Figure 2.2 Section of track fouled ballast and poor drainage

2.3 Typical input parameters for track design

2.4 Substructure of ballasted tracks

Impact factor method

Enter the input parameters when you select the

Figure 2.3 Components of required input parameters for track design

Figure 2.4 Schematic of main components of track structures

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2 Parameters for track design 5

3 Bearing capacity of ballasted tracks 17

3.3 Calculation of maximum rail seat load 19

4 Thickness of granular layer 23

6 Impact of ballast fouling on rail tracks 51

7 Application of geosynthetics in railway tracks 66

8 UOW – constitutive model for ballast 94

9 Sub-ballast and filtration layer – design procedure 103

10 Practical design examples 109

11 Appendix A: Introduction of SMART tool for track design 129

Praccal work design examples