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Third Edition
PRINCIPLES OF
ORGANIC
SYNTHESIS
To j. and F.
Third Edition
PRINCIPLES OF
ORGANIC
SYNTHESIS
Sir Richard Norman, kbe, frs
Rector, Exeter College
University of Oxford, U.K.
J.M. Coxon
Professor of Chemistry
University of Canterbury, New Zealand
CRC Press
Taylor Francis G roup
Boca Raton London New York
This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted with
permission, and sources are indicated. A wide variety of references are listed. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish
reliable data and information, but the authors and the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity o f all materials
or for the consequences o f their use.
Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system, without prior
permission in writing from the publisher.
The consent o f CRC Press LLC does not extend to copying for general distribution, for promotion, for creating new works,
or for resale. Specific permission must be obtained in writing from CRC Press LLC for such copying.
Direct all inquiries to CRC Press LLC, 2000 N.W. Corporate Blvd., Boca Raton, Florida 33431.
Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for
identification and explanation, without intent to infringe.
Organic chemistry is one of the most rapidly developing of the sciences. Each
year, there are new applications of organic compounds, for example, in medicine,
in agriculture, and in the new technologies such as optoelectronics and supercon
ductors; tens of thousands of new compounds are synthesized or isolated from
natural sources; and new synthetic methods and reagents are introduced. It might
seem to the student that ever more needs to be learned.
Fortunately that is not so. The profound increase in our understanding of the
pathways by which organic compounds react - their mechanisms of reaction - has
provided a relatively simple superstructure on which the vast array of the facts of
the subject can be hung. The mechanistic principles are relatively few, and yet
they account for the enormous range of reactions of organic compounds.
The purpose of this book is to show how these principles can be applied both
to acquiring a knowledge of organic synthetic processes and to planning the
construction of organic compounds. It is designed for those who have had no
more than a brief introduction to organic chemistry. Nor is it intended to be com
prehensive; for example, the vast body of evidence on which reaction mechanisms
are based is not included, nor are experimental details given. The object has been
to convey a broad understanding rather than to produce a reference text.
The book is in two parts. In Part I, reaction mechanism is set in its wider
context of the basic principles and concepts that underlie chemical reactions:
chemical thermodynamics, structural theory, theories of reaction kinetics, mech
anism itself, and stereochemistry. In Part II, these principles and concepts are
applied to the formation of particular types of bonds, groupings, and compounds:
for example, how small molecules can be built on to give larger ones by the
construction of new carbon-carbon bonds, or how one functional group can be
transformed into another. The final chapter in Part II describes the planning
and detailed execution of the multi-step syntheses of several complex naturally
occurring compounds.
There have been numerous important developments since the second edition of
this book was published, and every chapter has been brought up to date to include
them. Among the more notable are: the stereochemical control of reactions,
reflecting the need to synthesize efficiently compounds with several asymmetric
centres; the use of organotransition-metal reagents, leading to a new chapter; the
exploitation of lithium diisopropylamide (LDA) as a base in the formation of new
C— C bonds; free-radical reactions for the synthesis of C— C bonds; uses of
Vi PREFACE
R. O. C. NORMAN
J. M. COXON
Contents
Preface V
PART 1
Introduction to Part 1 3
1 Chemical thermodynamics 5
1.1 Equilibrium 5
1.2 Free energy 5
1.3 Bond energies 6
1.4 Entropies 9
1.5 Further applications of thermodynamic principles 12
2 Molecular structure 20
2.1 Bonding 20
2.2 The covalent bond 20
2.3 Delocalization 24
2.4 Applications of structural theory 27
3 Chemical kinetics 52
3.1 Rates of reaction 52
3.2 The orders of reaction 52
3.3 The effect of temperature on reaction rates 55
3.4 Collision theory 55
3.5 Transition-state theory 58
3.6 Applications of kinetic principles 59
4 Mechanism 71
4.1 Unit processes in organic reactions 71
4.2 Types of reaction 80
4.3 Addition 82
4.4 Elimination 93
4.5 Substitution 102
4.6 Condensation 120
4.7 Rearrangement 121
4.8 Pericyclic reactions 123
4.9 Oxidation - reduction 127
via CONTENTS
Stereochemistry 134
5.1 Optical isomerism 134
5.2 The stereochemistry of cyclic compounds 152
5.3 Stereochemistry and reactivity 159
PART II
Introduction to Part II 179
19 Oxidation 587
19.1 Introduction 587
19.2 Hydrocarbons 588
19.3 Systems containing oxygen 608
19.4 Systems containing nitrogen 621
19.5 Systems containing sulfur 625
19.6 Systems containing phosphorus 626
19.7 Systems containing iodine 626
20 Reduction 629
20.1 Introduction 629
20.2 Hydrocarbons 630
20.3 Hydrogenolysis 643
20.4 Aldehydes and ketones 649
20.5 Epoxides 656
20.6 Acids and their derivatives 657
20.7 Systems containing nitrogen 666
20.8 Systems containing sulfur 672
CONTENTS XI
Index 791
Nomenclature and conventions
Some readers of this book will have taken introductory courses in organic chem
istry in which the systematic nomenclature of the International Union of Pure and
Applied Chemistry (lUPAC) was used; others will be used to the more common
names of organic compounds. We have continued the practice of the previous
editions of using common names for most simple compounds because this is still
the language used by professional chemists - for example, in papers in the
literature describing their research results - so that early familiarity with it is
important. We have largely followed the conventions of the Journal of Organic
Chemistry.
Organic compounds are frequently expressed on paper by a formula such as
CH3
\
CH-CH2-CH3
/
CH3
for 2-methylbutane. This can be cumbersome for all but small molecules, and we
have generally used a convention in which a C— C bond is represented by a line;
when more than one is present in an aliphatic chain, a zigzag line is used except
for alkynes, which are linear; and hydrogen atoms attached to carbon are not
shown. Examples are:
OH
O
propyne 3-pentanone 3-methyl-1-butanol
M e I-E tO “ /EtO H
NOMENCLATURE AND CONVENTIONS xiij
indicates that the reactant is treated with methyl iodide and ethoxide ion in
ethanol solvent. Notice the difference between
where ammonia is involved only as solvent in the former but as both solvent and
reagent (the source of protons in reduction by sodium) in the latter.
The following are the more frequently used common names with their usual
representation.
Other aliphatic Ph
compounds cinnamic acid "-^^COpH
cumene PhCHMea
diethyl ether EtaO
Me
chloroform CHCia
mesitylene
carbon tetrachloride CCI4
Me Me
ethyl orthoformate HC(OEt)a
acetonitrile MeCN phenol PhOH
acrylonitrile i^ C N
phthalic acid
a::
diglyme (MeOCHjCHïljO
salicylic acid
acetoacetic ester
0
stilbene
malonic ester EtOgC^COzEt styrene Ph^^
toluene PhMe
o
Me
xylene 1 ^Me
Aromatic compounds + m- and p
acetophenone
0 Common names for groups
The five chapters which comprise Part I are concerned with the principles that
govern organic reactions.
In chapters 1-3, the principles of chemical thermodynamics, the theory of
molecular structure, and the principles of reaction kinetics are briefly summarized
(textbooks on physical chemistry should be consulted for detailed treatments); the
emphasis in these chapters is on the application of the principles and theories to
the structures and reactions of organic compounds.
Thermodynamic principles show that a reaction will ‘go’ - that is have an
equilibrium constant greater than unity - only if the products have a lower free-
energy content than the reactants. The free energy of a species is related to its
enthalpy, which is determined essentially by the strengths of the bonds it contains,
and to its entropy, which is a measure of its degree of disorder: a low free energy
corresponds to strong bonding forces and a high degree of disorder. From ther
modynamic considerations there follows, for example, an understanding of why it
is possible to reduce acetylene to ethylene at room temperature and to carry out
the reverse reaction at high temperatures, why small changes in structure can have a
very large effect on the position of dynamic equilibrium between isomers, and
why some ring-closure reactions occur so much more efficiently than equivalent
bimolecular reactions.
In the second chapter, the strengths of bonds and the shapes of organic com
pounds are related to the theories of molecular structure. Delocalized bonds
are emphasized; for example, the different chemical behaviour of benzene and
ethylene is related to the very large stabilization energy in benzene which arises
from delocalization. Other properties of organic compounds that are of importance
in synthesis, such as the acidities of C— H bonds in various environments, also
follow from structural theory.
That there should be a negative free-energy change is in practice a necessary
but not a sufficient condition for a reaction to occur, for the rate at which it
takes place may be negligible. Thermodynamic considerations alone indicate that
hydrocarbons should not coexist with air, for the free-energy change involved in
their oxidation to carbon dioxide and water is significantly negative; in practice,
however, their rates of combustion at ordinary temperatures are negligible. The
third chapter sets out the theories of reaction kinetics and the effects of tempera
ture on rate, and then introduces correlations of the rates of specific types of
reaction with structure.
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PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIC SYNTHESIS
1.1
All chemical reactions are in principle reversible: reactants and products eventually Equilibrium
reach equilibrium. In some cases, such as the esterification of an acid by an
alcohol,
the position of the equilibrium is quite closely balanced between reactants and
products, whereas in other cases the equilibrium constant is either very high or
very low, so that the reaction goes essentially to completion in one direction or
the other (given the appropriate conditions). From the point of view of devising
an organic synthesis it is necessary to know whether the position of equilibrium
will favour the desired product. The factors which determine the equilibrium
constant of a reaction and its variation with changes in conditions follow from the
principles of thermodynamics.
1.2
Chemical systems are subject to opposing influences: the tendency to minimize Free energy
their enthalpy (heat content), //, is opposed by the tendency to maximize their
entropy (degree of disorder), S. Chemical reactions are usually carried out at
constant pressure and under these conditions the compromise between the two
trends is determined by the value of the function (// ~ TS): this function tends
to decrease, and the compromise situation - equilibrium - corresponds to its
minimum value. It is convenient to define a new function, G, the Gibbs free
energy, as G = / / - T5. A process will occur spontaneously if, as a result, G
decreases and it will continue until G reaches a minimum.
The principles of thermodynamics lead to an equation that relates the equilibrium
constant, K, to the change in free energy accompanying a reaction. If the sums of
the free energies of reactants and products in their standard states (i.e. for 1 mole
at a pressure of 1 bar) at temperature T are G^\ and G^ respectively, then the
change in free energy on reaction, AG^, is G2 - G? and is given by
RT In K = - A G^0
where R is the gas constant (8.314 J mol'^).
PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIC SYNTHESIS
C2H6 C2H4 H2
has AG^ = -flO lkJm ol“ ^ so that we cannot obtain ethylene from ethane in
significant amount under these conditions although we may expect to obtain
ethane from ethylene. Notice, however, that even though a free-energy change
may be favourable, the rate of formation of the product may be too slow for the
reaction to be practicable, or the reaction may take a different course (e.g.
ethylene might react with two molecules of hydrogen to give two molecules of
methane, which is also a thermodynamically favourable process). Fulfilment of
the thermodynamic criterion is therefore a necessary but not a sufficient condition
for a reaction to occur. The factors which control rates of reaction and the
pathways which reactions take are discussed in subsequent chapters.
Thermodynamic data also give no information about the reasons why the free
energies of compounds have particular values. Ethylene, for example, has a
positive standard free energy of formation, whereas that for ethane is negative;
that is, ethylene is unstable with respect to carbon and hydrogen and ethane is
stable. These are empirical facts', the reasons underlying them lie in the realm of
theory, namely, the theory of chemical structure and bonding, which is discussed
in the next chapter.
1.3
Bond energies Since - TS^ and RT In K = -AG®, it follows that
R T In K = -A//® -f TAS^
Therefore a knowledge of the differences between the enthalpies and entropies of
reactants and products gives information about whether a reaction will ‘go’. This
is generally a more useful approach than considering free-energy differences, for
three reasons: free energies are not known in most cases; enthalpy differences -
the heats of reactions - can be calculated with reasonable precision from those of
reactions which have been measured; and entropy differences can usually be
inferred to the accuracy required (section 1.4) (in the conditions of most organic
CHEMICAL THERMODYNAMICS
reactions the term is in any case much smaller than the A/7^ term).
The calculation of enthalpy differences is based on the first law of thermo
dynamics: if the heats of the reactions A B and B C are respectively x and y,
then that of the reaction A C is (jc + y), since otherwise it would be possible to
construct a cycle of reactions that generated energy, in contravention of the first
law. The calculations are facilitated by constructing a table of bond energies,
taking as the reference point the heat of formation of molecules from their
constituent atoms. For example, the bond energy of the C — H bond is defined as
one-quarter of the heat of the reaction
CH 4(g) C (g ) 4 H (g )
since four C— H bonds are broken in this process. It is not possible’ to determine
this experimentally, but it can be calculated since it is the sum of the heats of the
following reactions which have been measured*:
C (s ) — - C (g )
The premise on which the use of Table 1,1 is based, that bond energies are con
stant for a particular bond in different environments, requires closer examination.
If it were strictly true, the heats of combustion of the three isomeric pentanes, for
example, each of which contains four C— C and 12 C— H bonds, would be the
same. In fact, they are different: CH3(CH2)3CH3, 3533; (CH3)2CHCH2CH3,
3525; (CH3)3CCH3, 3513kJmol“ ^ Nevertheless, the percentage differences are
so small in this and many similar cases that bond-energy data are of considerable
use. However, there are certain structural environments in which appreciable
differences between observed and predicted bond energies occur. One example,
in Table 1.1, concerns the carbonyl group, whose bond energy is nearly 10%
greater in ketones than in formaldehyde, and is greater still (804kJ mol“ ’) in
carbon dioxide.
A more general deviation occurs with conjugated compounds, that is, compounds
possessing alternating single and double bonds. For example, consider the fol
lowing hydrogenations:
2H2 AH^ = -2 5 4 -2 k Jm o l“ ’
If bond energies were strictly additive, the heats of hydrogenation in the above
reactions should be the same since, in each, two C = C double bonds are converted
into single bonds, two H — H bonds are broken, and four C— H bonds are
formed. The lower value for 1,3-butadiene shows that this is a more stable
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