POWER SYSTEM OPERATION AND

CONTROL
(R2041021)

Presented by

J SURESH M.Tech

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

DEPARTMENT OF EEE
POWER SYSTEM OPERATION AND

CONTROL
 Text Books:

1. Power Generation, Operation and Control by Allen J Wood, Bruce F WollenBerg 3rd
Edition, Wiley Publication 2014.
2.Electric Energy systems Theory – by O.I.Elgerd, Tata McGraw–hill Publishing
Company Ltd., Second
edition.
3.Modern Power System Analysis – by I.J.Nagrath&D.P.Kothari Tata McGraw Hill
Publishing Company
Ltd, 2nd edition.
 SYLLABUS

UNIT–I: ECONOMIC OPERATION OF POWER SYSTEMS

Optimal operation of Generators in Thermal power stations, – Heat rate curve –

Cost Curve – Incremental fuel and Production costs – Input–output characteristics

– Optimum generation allocation with line losses neglected – Optimum generation

allocation including the effect of transmission line losses – Loss Coefficients –

General transmission line loss formula.

 CONCEPTS

1.1. OPTIMAL OPERATION OF GENERATORS IN THERMAL POWER STATIONS.

1.2. HEAT RATE CURVE – COST CURVE – INCREMENTAL FUEL AND PRODUCTION
COSTS –

INPUT–OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS.

1.3. OPTIMUM GENERATION ALLOCATION WITH LINE LOSSES NEGLECTED

1.4. OPTIMUM GENERATION ALLOCATION INCLUDING THE EFFECT OF TRANSMISSION

LINE LOSSES .

1.5 LOSS COEFFICIENTS -GENERAL TRANSMISSION LINE LOSS FORMULA.

Make the student able to understand optimal dispatch of generation with
and

without losses.

After the completion of the course the student should be able to compute optimal
scheduling of Generators.
1.1. OPTIMAL OPERATION OF GENERATORS IN
THERMAL
POWER STATIONS
 OPTIMAL OPERATION OF GENERATORS IN THERMAL POWER STATIONS

 Optimal Means minimum utilisation of the resources to get the max output power.

 Practically we have have different types of generating plants, such as coal fired

thermal plants, hydel plants, nuclear plants, oil and natural gas units etc.

.but generating plants are

not located at the same distance from the load centres. PG G PL L PD

TRANSMISSION LINE

 Fuel cost is different from different locations under normal condition generating capacity is

greater than demand and losses

 PG>PD+PL
 The factors influencing the cost of generation are the generator
 efficiency, fuel cost and
transmission losses.
 For interconnected system Real Power (P) & Reactive Power(Q) is scheduled for each

plant to minimize the operating cost.

 Factors affecting power generation at minimum cost are

1. Operating efficiency-we can’t guaranty for minimum cost

2. Fuel cost-The location at which the most efficient generator we installed but fuel cost we

don’t know. 18MW

+
3.Transmission losses- LOAD 100Watt

10MW
G1 G2
1.25Rs/Watt

10MW

1.5Rs/Watt 10MW
G3
2Rs/Watt
 The most efficient generator may not give minimum cost, since it may be

located in a place where fuel cost is high. Further, if the plant is located far

from the load centers, transmission losses may be high and running the

plant may become uneconomical.

 The economic dispatch problem basically determines the generation of

different plants to minimize total operating cost.

 Economy of operation is naturally predominant in determining allocation of

generation

to each station for various system load levels.

 The first problem in the power system is unit commitment (UC) problem
 and the second
problem is load scheduling (LS) problem.
 Main aim in the economic dispatch problem is to minimize the total cost

of generating real power (production cost) at various stations while

satisfying the loads and losses in the transmission links.

 Unit commitment (UC) is a popular problem in electric power system that aims at

minimizing the total cost of power generation in a specific period, by defining an

adequate(enough) scheduling of the generating units

 PRACTICAL EXAMPLE
Thermal Power Plant Locatio Capacit
n y

Simhadri NTPC Kondapalli,Vizag 2,000

MW

Simhadri Super Thermal Power NTPC LtdVisakhapatnam, 2,000

Project MW

Vijjeswaram A.P. Gas Power Corporation 272 MWe

Limited

Nellore Thermal Power Station A.P. Power Generation 2,400

Corporation MW

Limited

GVK Jegurupadu Power plant Phase-I 235 MW 220 MWe

Jegurupadu village, Kadiyam Kadiyam 235 MW

Vemagiri Power Generation Vemagiri, Kadiam Mandal 767.6 MW

Limited
Vijayawada Thermal Power A.P. Power Generation 1760 MW
Station Corporation Ltd

Kakatiya TPS Chelpur,Andhra Pradesh 1,100

MW

Simhadri STPS Simhadri,Andhra Pradesh 2,000

MW
1.2. HEAT RATE CURVE – COST CURVE – INCREMENTAL FUEL AND

PRODUCTION COSTS – INPUT–OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS

OR

CHARACTERISTICS OF POWER GENERATION (STEAM) UNIT

or
Hot Gasses to Cblzriney

Bo:ler
Coal
hopped

Turbine

Pulverizer
Aly Ash
hopper

Feedwater
Condenser
Pump Cooling Tower
Water
Storage
This unit has to supply power not only to the load connected to the power

system but also to the local needs for the auxiliaries in the station, which may

vary from 2% to 5%.

The power requirements for station auxiliaries are necessary to drive boiler feed
pumps, fans

and condenser circulating water pumps, etc.

Unit consist of BOILER,TURBINE,GENERATOR

 1.2.1..INPUT-OUTPUT CURVE
This is the fundamental curve for a thermal plant and is a plot of the
input in British thermal units (Btu) per hour versus the power output of
the plant in MW as shown in Fig.

Let Ci Rs / hr be the input cost to generate a power of Pi MW in unit i. Fig.1

shows a typical

input–output curve of a generating unit. For each generating unit there shall be a

minimum and a maximum power generated as Pi min and Pi max

.
Which Is Uneconomical
To Operate The
Unit.

Pi min Pi max
 1.2.2 HEAT RATE CURVE:

 Heat obtained after fuel combustion .which is required to generate

electrical output

 The heat rate characteristics obtained from the plot of the net heat rate in
kcal/kWh versus

power output in kW is shown in fig.

 The thermal unit is most efficient at a minimum heat rate, which corresponds
to a particular

generation PG. The curve indicates an increase in heat rate at low and high
power limits.

 Efficiency of the Generator =output/input=Electrical Power/Heat Energy

Efficiency α 1/Heat Rate

 Heat Rate 2.5 Mkcal/Mwhr at Effieciency=34%

 When efficiency 100% at Heat Rate is 0.859 Mkcal/Mwhr

1.2.3 COST CURVES:
To convert the input-output curves into cost curves, the fuel input per hour
is multiplied with the cost of the fuel(expressed on Rs./million kCal).
i.e., (kCal×106)/ hr×Rs./million kCal
= million kCal/hr × Rs./million kCal
=Rs./hr
1.2.4 INCREMENTAL FUEL COST CURVE:

From the input –output curves, the incremental fuel cost (IFC) curve can

be obtained. The IFC is defined as the ratio of a small change in the

input to the corresponding small change in the output.

Incremental fuel cost = Δ input / Δ output

= Δ F / Δ PG

Where Δ represents small changes.

As the Δ quantities become progressively smaller,

Incremental Fuel Rate=d(input)/d(output)=dF/dP. and is expressed in

Rs./MWh.

Fuel cost is assumed to be variable.

The cost of the curve given bye quadratic equation

Diff equation ----1 with respect to Pi

A typical plot of IFC versus output power is shown in fig

How much cost will be include to producing next increment of the power

Wide range of power

output
1.2.5 INCREMENTAL PRODUCTION COST:

The incremental production cost of a given unit is made up of the IFC

plus the

incremental cost of items such as labor, supplies, maintenance, and

water.

It is necessary for a rigorous analysis to be able to express the

costs of these

production items as a function of output.

However, no methods are presently available for expressing the cost

of labor,
supplies, or maintenance accurately as a function of output.
Incremental efficiency is defined as reciprocal of incremental fuel
rate or
incremental efficiency=Output/Input=dP/dF
CONSTRAINT EQUATIONS
CONSTRAINT EQUATIONS
The economic power system operation needs to satisfy the following types of constraints.

(1) Equality constraints

The sum of real-power generation of all the various units must always be equal to the total

real-power demand on the system.

where total real-power generation and P is the total real-power

demand. Equation is known as the real-power balance equation when losses
are neglected.
(2) In Equality constraints
According to power system parameters, inequality constraints are classified further
into the following categories.
1. Output power constraints: Each generating unit should not operate above its rating
or below some minimum generation. This minimum value of real-power generation is
determined from the technical feasibility.

Similarly, the limits may also have to be considered over the range of reactive-power
capabilities of the generator unit requiring that:
2. Voltage magnitude and phase-angle constraints: For maintaining better
voltage profile and limiting overloadings, it isessential that the bus voltage
magnitudes and phase angles at various buses should vary within the limits.
These can be illustrated by imposing the inequality constraints on bus voltage
magnitudes and their phase angles.
3 or••amic consWaints: These constants may consider when fast
changes in generation are required for picking up the shedding down
or increasing of load demand. These constraints are of the form:

In addition, in terms of reactive-power generation,

d@_g,(f) $ (1) dOc, I*)

df . dr dr
Thank you..!
1.3. OPTIMUM GENERATION ALLOCATION WITH LINE

LOSSES NEGLECTED

or

ECONOMIC DISPATCH NEGLECTING LOSSES

Consider a power generating station having “n” number of units i.e., PG1, PG2, PG3 PGn

Let the Transmission Line Losses are neglected i.e., PL

The total cost of Prodcution of Electrical Energy

C=C1PG1+C2PG2 +C3PG3- CnPGn

Main objective is to Minimizing the operating Cost

Number of generators are running to meet a Particular load demand on the station

ΣPG ≥ PD----------------------ii
Where PG is power capacity of generating power plant

PD is total power demand on the station

The load on each generator is to be constrained with in lower and upper

limits

iii

The cost is minimised subjected to the equality constraints

iv
PG1 PG2 PG3 PGn

G1 G2 G3 Gn
-------

BUS BAR

LOAD
This is a constrained Optimization problem .The loading of each generator is
constrained
By the inequality constrained of equation –iii is not effective ,the problem can be
solved by the method of LAGRANGE MULTIPLIER

L=CTOTAL+ λ(PD - z- ) or

-
L[PG1,PG2,--PGn,PD, λ]=CTOTAL- λ( - PD)------------------------v
TO MINIMIZATION IS ACHIEVED BY THE CONDITION

λ ∂ L/ ∂ PGi =0
The overall cost is summation of cost of each generating unit.
 vi

Reprents Individual Incremental cost of every unit

Hence load amoung various units when neglecting the transmission line losses is the
incremental cost of the individual units are equal.
That is, reducing the output of the unit with the higher incremental cost results in a more

decrease in cost than the increase in cost of adding the same output reduction to units with

lower incremental costs. Therefore, all units must run with same incremental operating costs.

After getting the optimal solution, in the case that the generation of any one unit is below its

minimum capacity or above its maximum capacity, then its generation becomes the

corresponding limit.

In the solution of an optimization problem without considering the transmission losses, we make

use of equal incremental costs, i.e., the machines are so loaded that the incremental cost of

production of each machine is the same.

 1.4. OPTIMUM GENERATION ALLOCATION

INCLUDING THE EFFECT OF

TRANSMISSION LINE LOSSES

or

OPTIMUM LOAD DISPATCH INCLUDING TRANSMISSION LOSSES

Station
Station 2
1 Transmission line

P, g PL
1
CONSIDER A POWER STATION HAVING n NUMBER OF UNITS

LET THE TRANSMISSION LINE LOSSES ARE NEGLECTED

THE TOTAL COST OF PRODUCTION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY

C=C1PG1+C2PG2+C2PG2+ +CnPGn

C= Cn(PGn) (1)

COST IS TO BE MINIMISED SUBJECTED TO THE EQUALITY CONSTRAINTS

OPTIMUM GENERATION SCHEDULING (WHEN LINE LOSSES ARE ACCOUNTED)

From the unit commitment table of a given plant, the fuel cost curve of the plant can be determined in

the form of a polynomial of suitable degree by the method of least squares fit.

If the transmission losses are neglected, the total system load can be optimally divided among the

various generating plants using the equal incremental cost criterion.

It is, however, unrealistic to neglect transmission losses particularly when long distance transmission of

power is involved. A modem electric utility serves over a vast area of relatively low load density.

The transmission losses may vary from 5 to 15% of the total load, and therefore, it is essential to

account for losses while developing an economic load dispatch policy.

It is obvious that when losses are present, we can no longer use the simple 'equal incremental cost'

criterion.
where

k = lotal muuber of penei’a1inp

plants Pc, = generation of in plain

PD = sum of load demand iii all buses (system load

demand) PL = total system transmission loss

To solve the pi’oblein we write the Lagraiigian as

i=1 i=1

It will be shown later in tliis section that, if the power factor of load at each bus is assiuned to
reiiiain constant, the systems loss PL can be shown to be a fiinction of active power generation
at each plant. i.e.
To illustrate the point, consider a two-bus system with identical generators at

each bus (i.e. the same IC curves). Assume that the load is located near plant 1

and plant 2 has to deliver power via a loss line. Equal incremental cost criterion

would dictate that each plant should carry half the total load; while it is obvious in

this case that the plant 1 should cane a greater share of the load demand thereby

reducing transmission losses

In this section, we shall investigate how the load should be shared among various

plants, when line losses are accounted for. The objective is to minimize the overall

cost of generation at any time under equality constraint of meeting the load

demand with transmission loss, i.e.

Thus in the optimization problem posed above, PGi (i=1, 2 ...k) are the only
control variables. For optimum real power dispatch,

is called the penalty factor of the ith plant.

 The Lagrangian multiplier 2 is in rupees per megawatt-hour, when fuel cost is in
rupees per hour. Equation (2.6) implies that minimum ”fuel cost is obtained, when the
incremental fuel cost of each plant multiplied by its penaltJ r factor is the same for all the plants.

The (k + l) variables G i • G 2-• - - - - - *'Gk .* 1 can be obtained from k optimal

-

dispatch Eq. (2.6) together with the power balance Eq. (2.2). The partial derivative p i

termed to as the incremental transmission loss (ITL), associated with the ith generating plant.

Equation (2.6) can also be written in the alternative form

{/C),= i / i —( ITL), i — 1,2,.. ..... k ( 2.9)

This equation is referred to as the exact coordination equation.

Thus it is clear that to solve the optimum load scheduling problem, it is

necessary to compute ITL for each plant, and therefore we must determine

the functional dependence of transmission loss on real powers of generating

plants. There are several methods, approximate and exact, for developing a

transmission loss model. One of the most important, simple but approximate,

methods of expressing transmission loss as a function of generator powers

isthrough B-coefficients. This method is reasonably adequate for treatment

of loss coordination in economic scheduling of load between plants. The

general form of the loss formula (derived later in this section) using B-

coefficients is
 λ =Li. ∂ C/ ∂ PGi

WHERE Penalty factor

λ =Li * ∂ Ci(PGi)/ ∂
PGi

λ =1/1-(∂ PL/ ∂ PGi) * ∂ Ci(PGi)/

∂ PGi λ =∂ PGi / ∂ PGi- ∂ PL * ∂

λ =∂ Ci(PGi)/ ∂ PD WHERE PD=PG-PL

Ci(PGi)/ ∂ PGi
 When ∂ Ci(PGi)/ ∂ PD IS THE INCREMENTAL COST OF RECEIVED
POWER OF Ith

plant and penalty factor ∂ PGi/ ∂ PDmeans PGi increment has a large portion
dissipated

as loss

 ∂ PGi/ ∂ PD approaches unity and penalty factor Li increases with out

bound

 Thus ,for a large penalty factor should be operated at low incremental

cost implying a low power output Penalty factor

A B
C
A C B
1.5 LOSS COEFFICIENTS – GENERAL TRANSMISSION

LINE LOSS FORMULA.

 TWO GENERATORS WHICH ARE INTERCONNECTED

R2
R1
I1 I2
G1 PL G1

I1+ I2
PD

R3
PL=I12R1+I22R2+( I1+ I2)2R3 LOAD

WHERE P=VICOSØ
I=P/V COSØ
 Transmission loss PL IS EXPRESSED WITHOUT LOSS OF ACCURACY

 POWER LOSS IS EXPRESSED INTERMS OF B-COEFFICENT OR LOSS COIEFFICENT

 TRANSMISSION POWER LOSS IS DERIVED USING KRON’S METHOD

Method is elaborate and a simpler approach is possible by making the following

assumptions:
(i) All load currents they have same phase angle

(ii) All the lines in the system have same The ratio X / R is the same for all the network
branches

(iii) The magnitude and phase angle of voltages at each station remain constant

(iv)Power factor at each station bus remaing constant.

Consider the simple case of two generating plants connected to an arbitrary OR any
number of loads through a transmission network as shown in Fig a

Transmission system
 (b)

Fig Twci plants ccintiected tc› a nurrit›er of lc›ads through a transrri issinn network
Current carried by that particular line i.e., I specified one of the line

Depends on line Resistance and not ID

Ng, and Ngg ale called cunent distribufion factnis and their values depend on tin
impedances of the Ems and the inVo4 coni<cGon. They are in‹3ep:ndeni of Ip.
Wlnn bo1 genentom are supplying the load, tlen by @nciple of supeiposltion
Ig = Ng, Ig,I f'fK2 2

whete Ig„ Ig, are the current supplied by planG 1 and 2 resp:ctive9, to meet flu
demand Io. Because of the assumptions ma&, lxi and In have same phase angle, as
do Ici and Ip Therefore, the cunent distrlbu?on facton are real nther than
complex. Rt

where zr, and u 2 are phase angles of Q, 2 «:a respect to a common reference. We
andpI

2
Np2 )fp,
+ 2$Np,|/ p,|cos‹r,N „| /, 2| cos‹r, + Ng,|J Is N rz oz1 sin zr,j
fly ) 2 = (N ; f ; ) coszr/ + JV¿2 )/G2 ) Cos« 2 )2 + (N ;)/ ) sin a/ + JV 2 )/ 2 |sin « 2 )2
2 z 2
N g, 2 ) Gf , -2 + sin
+ 2[Ng,|/„ | coszr, N, 2|f p2| COSW 2 -1- NSU! G | siR ‹r, N, 2 |fp 2| siR w2

=
, ,| 2 + N 2
| | 2 + 2Ng, Ng |fp,||SG2 | Cos(u , — cr2 )
NK 2
U G x 2 pf 2 2

and |f « 1
•,S|V,|cos#, •,S|V,|cos#2
where Pp„ Pc2 are three phase real power outputs of plantl and plant 2; V„ V, are
the line to line by voltages of iR plants and $, g2 are the power factor
angles.
The total tmnsmission loss in ie sysRm is given by

where the summation is taken over all branches of the network and Rx is the branch
resistance. Substituting we get

2 2£'m,/’G2 Cos(o, — N g,N g Rg

N
o,) , Rg +
)V, ) 2 Z Z 2
K JV 2 COS COS
(cos$, )*
IF THERE ARE “L” NUMBER OF LINES IN THE SYSTEM ,THE TOTAL POWER LOSS CAN BE CALCULATED AS
IF THE SYSTEM HAS “n” NUMBER OF STATIONS SUPPLING THE TOTAL THROUGH TRANSMISSION LINES,T/L
LOSSES IS GIVEN BY
CONTENT BEYOND SYLLABUS
 Used by consumer at any time

Demand factor=Maximum Demand/Connected

load

At consumer Premises

Dialy average load= number of Kwh supplied by a station/24 hours

Monthly average load= number of Kwh supplied by a station/30 * 24

Annual average load= number of Kwh supplied by a station/365 * 24

 Load factor=Average Demand/Maximum
Demand

Plant Capacity Factor=Average Demand/Maximum installed

capacity

Capacity Factor=Load Factor * Utilization

Factor
Utilization factor=Station output in Kwh/Plant capacity *
Hours of use
FEW EXAMPLES
Example 1.1: A generating station has a maximum demand of 35 MW and has a connected
load of 60 MW.The annual generation of units is 24 × 10 kWh.Calculate the load factor and
the demand factor.
Solution:
Example 1.2: Calculate the total annual energy generated, if the maximum demand on
a power station is 120 MW and the annual load factor is 50%.
Solution:
Maximum demand on a power station = 120 MW
Annual load factor = 50%
Example 1.3: Determine the demand factor and the load factor of a generating station,
which has a connected load of 50 MW and a maximum demand of 25 MW, the units
generated being 40 × 10 /annum.
Solution:
Thank you..!
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