Statistical sampling procedures

Statistical inference relies on inductive projection of findings from the sample to

the population which is based on the assumption that the sample is

representative of the population from where it is drawn. This representativeness

is ensured by random sampling in which the individual units in the population

are selected by chance and at a given equal opportunity of being selected.

Definition of terms

Sample

A sample is a subset of the larger population or parent population. Alternatively,

a sample is a finite subset of individuals in a population selected for study. A

sample should represent the population adequately as the purpose is to infer the

characteristics of the population from the sample findings.

Parent Population

This is the group of individuals under study which may be finite or infinite.

Sample Statistic

This is the measure computed from the sample observation alone e.g. mean (ı̅)

and standard deviation (σ).

Sample Size

This is the total number of units in the sample.

Sampling Unit
This is the smallest unit in the selection process. This should be well defined in

every survey e.g. a household or an under-five in a community survey of

nutritional status or a

the pregnant woman studied in the community.

Sample Error

This is an index of the precision of the estimate obtained from a sample.

What is sampling?

In survey research, sampling is the process of using a subset of a population to

represent the whole population. Sampling allows large-scale research to be

carried out with a more realistic cost and time frame because it uses a smaller

number of individuals in the population with representative characteristics to

stand in for the whole.

Sampling is based on two principles viz.

1. Elimination of bias by ensuring that,

· All units have an equal chance of being selected.

· Every unit has a known chance of being selected.

· Probability sampling technique is used to select each unit.

2. Obtaining High Precision. Precision is the measure of how repeated

observations or outcomes conform to the others. It is also called the error margin.
It is the quantity obtained by multiplying the reliability factor by the standard

error of the mean.

Sources of Bias

1. Design defect. When the wrong study design is adopted the study will be

defective as bias is being introduced from the onset of the study.

2. Observer error. This may be inter-observer error where biases are introduced

by different persons whose observations or measurements are in variance. It may

also be intra observer error where the same person’s observations or

measurements on the same variable are in variance.

3. Instrument error. Biological measurements are also subject to variability. This

variability may be inherent to the instrument, peculiar to environmental factors

e.g. climates, variation within an individual, from one occasion to another, and

from one observer to another, etc. Variations in instruments can introduce errors

in results or outcomes. Therefore, to assess biological data we need statistical

techniques that will help us cope with such variability.

4. Communication problems. Poor communication, no response, incomplete or

misinformation may occur between observer and respondent.

Advantages of sampling

1. It reduces the cost of study.

2. Not all persons in the population are studied.

3. Material used is less.

4. Demand for personnel is less.

5. It guarantees quick results as a smaller population is studied.

6. Reduces time constraints.

7. Reduces error and enhances accuracy due to the smaller population

studied.

Limitations of sampling

1. Some people or units are excluded.

2. The sample mean may not be equal to the population mean i.e. ×ı ≠ μ

3. It may be difficult sometimes to select a sample that is representative of the

population.

4. In the human population, it is naturally easy to introduce bias (discrimination)

in sampling.

5. Some surveys may not fit into sampling as everyone has to be interviewed, e.g.

census.

Types of sampling

There are two major types of sampling methods: probability and non-probability

sampling.

Probability sampling, also known as random sampling, is a kind of sample

selection where randomization is used instead of deliberate choice. Each member

of the population has a known, non-zero chance of being selected.

Non-probability sampling techniques are where the researcher deliberately picks

items or individuals for the sample based on non-random factors such as

convenience, geographic availability, or costs.

Probability sampling methods

1. Simple random sampling

With simple random sampling, every element in the population has an equal

chance of being selected as part of the sample. It’s something like picking a

name out of a hat. Simple random sampling can be done by anonymizing the

population – e.g. by assigning each item or person in the population a number

and then picking numbers at random.

Advantages: Simple random sampling is easy to do and cheap. Designed to

ensure that every member of the population has an equal chance of being

selected, it reduces the risk of bias compared to non-random sampling.

Disadvantages: It can lead to unrepresentative groupings being picked by

chance due to lack of control

2. Systematic sampling

With systematic sampling, the random selection only applies to the first item

chosen. A rule then applies so that every nth item is picked afterward. The best

practice is to sort your list randomly to ensure that selections won’t be

accidentally clustered together. This is commonly achieved using a random

number generator. If that’s not available you might order your list alphabetically

by first name and then pick every fifth name to eliminate bias.

Advantages: Systematic sampling is efficient and straightforward, especially

when dealing with populations that have a clear order. It ensures a uniform

selection across the population.

Disadvantages: There’s a potential risk of introducing bias if there’s an

unrecognized pattern in the population that aligns with the sampling interval.

3. Stratified sampling

Stratified sampling involves random selection within predefined groups. It’s a

useful method for researchers wanting to determine what aspects of a sample

are highly correlated with what’s being measured. Samples are then subdivided

(stratified) in a way that makes sense for the research.

For example, you want to measure the height of students at a college where 80%

of students are female and 20% are male. We know that gender is highly

correlated with height, and if we took a simple random sample of 200 students

(out of the 2,000 who attend the college), we could by chance get 200 females

and not one male. This would bias our results and we would underestimate the

height of students overall. Instead, we could stratify by gender and make sure

that 20% of our sample (40 students) are male and 80% (160 students) are

female.
Advantage: Stratified sampling enhances the representation of all identified

subgroups within a population, leading to more accurate results in

heterogeneous populations.

Disadvantage: This method requires accurate knowledge about the

population’s stratification, and its design and execution can be more intricate

than other methods.

4. Cluster sampling

With cluster sampling, groups rather than individual units of the target

population are selected randomly for the sample. These might be pre-existing

groups, such as people in certain zip codes or students belonging to an

academic year.

Cluster sampling can be done by selecting the entire cluster, or in the case of

two-stage cluster sampling, by randomly selecting the cluster itself, and then

selecting at random again within the cluster.

Advantage: Cluster sampling is economically beneficial and logistically easier

when dealing with vast and geographically dispersed populations.

Disadvantage: Due to potential similarities within clusters, this method can

introduce a greater sampling error compared to other methods.

Non-probability sampling methods

The non-probability sampling methodology doesn’t offer the same bias-

removal benefits as probability sampling, but there are times when these types of

sampling are chosen for expediency or simplicity. Here are some forms of non-

probability sampling and how they work.

1. Convenience sampling

Elements in a sample are selected based on their accessibility and availability. If

you are doing a research survey and you work at a university, for example, a

convenience sample might consist of students or co-workers who happen to be

on campus with open schedules and are willing to take your questionnaire. This

kind of sample can have value, especially if it’s done as an early or preliminary

step, but significant bias will be introduced.

Advantage: Convenience sampling is the most straightforward method,

requiring minimal planning, making it quick to implement.

Disadvantage: Due to its non-random nature, the method is highly susceptible

to biases, and the results are often lacking in their application to the real world.

2. Quota sampling

Like the probability-based stratified sampling method, this approach aims to

achieve a spread across the target population by specifying who should be

recruited for a survey according to certain groups or criteria. For example, your

quota might include a certain number of males and a certain number of females.
Alternatively, you might want your samples to be at a specific income level or in

certain age brackets or ethnic groups.

Advantage: Quota sampling ensures certain subgroups are adequately

represented, making it great for when random sampling isn’t feasible but

representation is necessary.

Disadvantage: The selection within each quota is non-random and researchers’

discretion can influence the representation, which both strongly increase the risk

of bias.

3. Purposive sampling

Elements in the sample are chosen consciously by researchers based on their

knowledge and understanding of the research question at hand or their goals.

Also known as judgment sampling, this technique is unlikely to result in a

representative sample, but it is a quick and fairly easy way to get a range of

results or responses.

Advantage: Purposive sampling targets specific criteria or characteristics, making

it ideal for studies that require specialized participants or specific conditions.

Disadvantage: It’s highly subjective and based on researchers’ judgment,

which can introduce biases and limit the study’s real-world application.

4. Snowball or referral sampling

With this approach, people recruited to be part of a sample are asked to invite

those they know to take part, who are then asked to invite their friends and
family, and so on. The participation radiates through a community of connected

individuals like a snowball rolling downhill.

Advantage: Especially useful for hard-to-reach or secretive populations, snowball

sampling is effective for certain niche studies.

Disadvantage: The method can introduce bias due to the reliance on participant

referrals, and the choice of initial seeds can significantly influence the final

sample.

A structured sampling procedure

1) Define your research goals

If you aim to get a general sense of a larger group, simple random or stratified

sampling could be your best bet. For focused insights or studying unique

communities, snowball or purposive sampling might be more suitable.

2) Assess the nature of your population

The nature of the group you’re studying can guide your method. For a diverse

group with different categories, stratified sampling can ensure all segments are

covered. If they’re widely spread geographically, cluster sampling becomes

useful. If they’re arranged in a certain sequence or order, systematic sampling

might be effective.

3) Consider your constraints

Your available time, budget, and ease of accessing participants matter.

Convenience or quota sampling can be practical for quicker studies, but they

come with some trade-offs. If reaching everyone in your desired group is

challenging, snowball or purposive sampling can be more feasible.

4) Determine the reach of your findings

Decide if you want your findings to represent a much broader group. For a wider

representation, methods that include everyone fairly (like probability sampling)

are a good option. For specialized insights into specific groups, non-probability

sampling methods can be more suitable.

5) Avoid or reduce sampling errors and bias

Using a sample is a kind of shortcut. If you could ask every single person in a

population to take part in your study and have each of them reply, you’d have a

highly accurate (and very labor-intensive) project on your hands.

But since that’s not realistic, sampling offers a “good-enough” solution that

sacrifices some accuracy for the sake of practicality and ease. How much accuracy

you lose out on depends on how well you control for sampling error, non-

sampling error, and bias in your survey design.