Discuss ‘Marginalization’ and ‘Vulnerability’, and identify the different forms of marginalization that

affect minorities and other vulnerable groups. In your discussions, make sure that you address the
major causes and manifestations of marginalization along with the approach devised to protect the
rights of vulnerable and minority groups.

-Marginalization is defined as a treatment of a person or social group as minor, insignificant or

peripheral. Marginalization involves exclusion of certain group from social interaction such as marriage
relations, sharing food and drinks and living together.

-Vulnerability refers to the state of being exposed to physical or emotional injuries. Vulnerable groups
are people exposed to possibilities to attack, harms or mistreatment. For example, girls and women are
vulnerable to gender based violence such as harassment, rape and forced marriage. Children's are also
among vulnerable group exposed to harm because of their age.

Different form of Marginalization

1, Cultural Marginalization - refers to the devaluation or suppression of particular cultural identities,

practices or beliefs. Cultural marginalization is manifested in stereotyping such as occupational
minorities are labeled as impure and polluting ( they are accused of eating animals that have died with
out being slaughtered ), and also considered unreliable, lacking morality, respect and shame. The major
cause of cultural marginalization is social stigma, stereotype and social norms that devalue or stereotype
certain groups. For instance, discrimination based on cultural heritage.

2, Social Marginalization - it occurs when individual or group are excluded from full participation in social
activities, interactions or networks. The major cause are discrimination based on race, ethnicity, gender,
sexuality, religion or socioeconomic status. Social marginalization is manfested in individual or group
may be excluded from social activities leading to a sense of isolation and alienation. For example, lack of
inclusion in peer groups or communities like craft-workers are excluded from inter marriage.

3, Economic Marginalization - it involves limited access to economic resources, employment

opportunities or financial stability. The major cause are economic status. It is manfested group may
experience poverty, limited economic opportunities, unequal pay and lack of financial stability. Ex- lack
to access to financial services.

4, Political Marginalization - is the exclusion of certain groups from participating in decision-making

process or governance. The major cause are inequality and power imbalance ( Where certain groups
hold more power and resources than others). It is manifested by limit political representation. Ex- vote
suppression.

5, Educational Marginalization - involves barriers ti accessing quality education, opportunities for

learning or academic support. The major cause is limited access to education. It is manifested in unequal
access to quality education, resources and acadamic opportunities.

- All forms of marginalization and discrimination against vulnerable and minority groups contradict the
principles of human rights. One of the way we protect the right of vulnerable and minority group are
inclusion service and equal opportunity, promoting and protecting human rights, empower the people
to know and claim their rights and enactment and enforcement of law.

2. Make a conceptual and theoretical discussions about Ethnicity, emphasizing on the

dominant theoretical approaches (Primordialism, Instrumentalism & Social Constructivism)
envisaged to understand the nature and characteristics of ethnicity, ethnic identity and ethnic
interaction (it is invaluable to substantiate your discussion with empirical examples from
Ethiopia/or abroad).

-Ethnicity is a grouping of people who identity with each other on the basis of perceived shared
attributes that distinguish them from other groups. Those attributes can include a common nation of
origin or common sets of ancestry, traditions, language, history, society, religion or social treatment.

-The term ethnicity is often used interchangeably with the term nation, particularly in cases of ethnic
nationalism. Ethnic membership shared cultural heritage, origin myth, history, homeland, language,
dialect, religion, dressing style, art or physical appearance.

-The English origin of the term “ethnicity“ is connected to the term “ethnic“, which is derived from
Greek term “ethnos“(which in turn, derived from latin word “ethnikos“), which literally means a group
of people bound together by the same manners, customs or other distinctive features. In today's world
translated to people or nation.

-Conceptual Definition - is the social group a person belongs to and either identifies with or is
identified with by others, as a result of cultural or other factors. For ethnicity to come about,
the groups must have a minimum of contact between them, and they have the ideas of each
other as being culturally different from themselves. If these conditions are not fulfilled, there is
no ethnicity, for ethnicity is essentially an aspect of a relationship, not a property of group.

-Theoretical Definition - from the theoretical perspective, ethnicity is framed as a dynamic and
socially constructed concept that influences individual and group identities, interactions and
experiences with in societal contexts.

-Theoretical approach of ethnicity have perennial and argumentative debate about the nature
of ethnicity/ethnic identity. Out of the debate three important theoretical perspective
emerged. These are Primordialist, Instrumentalist and Constructivist Approaches and they
made possible the understanding of the nature and characteristics of ethnicity, ethnic identity
and ethnic interactions.

1, Primordial Model Of Ethnicity - primordialist approach is the oldest in anthropological

literature. Primordialism holds that ethnicity has existed at all times of human history and that
modern ethnic groups have historical continuity in to far past. For them, the idea of ethnicity is
closely linked to the idea of nations and is rooted in the pre-weber understanding of humanity
as being divided into primordially existing groups rooted by kinship and biological heritage.
Primordialist emphasizes the innate, enduring and biological basis of ethnicity tied to ancestry
kinship and primordislties. Primordialist conclude that primordialisim makes two distinct claims.
In the first, ethnicity and ethnic attachment is natural and innate, which could never change
over time. And the second claim is, it is ancient and perennial. At birth a person becomes a
member of a particular group and ethnic identification is based on deep, primordial attachment
to the group, established by kinship and descent. One's ethnicity is thus fixed and an
unchangeable parts of one's identity.

2,Instrumentalist(Situational) Theory Of Ethnicity - regards ethnicity as instrumental,

manipulated for political, economic or strategic gains, often used to mobilize support or achieve
specific goals. While seeing ethnicity primarily as a versatile tool that identified different ethnic
groups and limits through times, explains ethnicity as a mechanism of social stratification,
which fix group membership is used as a major criterion for assigning social positions. Ethnic
group share common interests and in pursuit of these interests they develop basic
organizational functions such as distinctiveness or boundaries(ethnic identity), communication,
authority structure, decision making procedure, ideology and socialization.

3, Constructivist Theory Of Ethnicity - holds that ethnic groups are only products of human
social interactions, maintained only in so far as they are maintained as valid social constructs in
societies. It views ethnicity as socially constructed, contingent on historical, political and
cultural contexts, shaped by interactions and ideologies. Ethnic identity forms through
boundary maintenance and interaction between individuals. Overall, interaction between
individuals doesn't lead to an assimilation or homogenization of culture. Instead, cultural
diversity and ethnic identity are still maintained in a non-static form. Flow of individual from
one ethnic group to another is possible among constructivist theory. This provoked that
ethnicity is a dynamic that changes through time and space and ethnic identity are constructed,
deconstructed and reconstructed.

In the context of Ethiopia,

1. primordialism is exemplified by the ethnic identities of groups such as the Oromo, Amhara, and
Tigray. These groups have distinct languages, cultural practices, and historical narratives that are
considered fundamental to their identity. For instance, the Oromo people in Ethiopia trace their roots
back to a common ancestry, share the Oromo language, and have a rich cultural heritage that
contributes to their ethnic identity. Primordialist perspectives highlight the enduring nature of these
ethnic identities and the significance of ancestral ties in shaping them.

2. Instrumentalism:
In Ethiopia, instrumentalism is evident in the political landscape where ethnic identities are mobilized
for political purposes. The ethnic federal system in Ethiopia, implemented in the early 1990s, recognizes
and grants autonomy to different ethnic groups. This has led to the formation of ethnic-based political
parties that utilize ethnicity as a means to rally support and gain political influence. Instrumentalist
dynamics can be observed during elections, where political parties strategically align themselves along
ethnic lines to secure votes and resources.

3. Social Constructive

In Ethiopia, social constructivism is exemplified by the interactions and negotiations of ethnic identities
among diverse groups. Urban areas, such as Addis Ababa, serve as melting pots where people from
different ethnic backgrounds interact, leading to the emergence of hybrid identities and the blurring of
strict ethnic boundaries. Additionally, the Ethiopian government's policy of ethnic federalism has
influenced the social construction of ethnic identities, as it recognizes and grants self-governance to
different ethnic groups, allowing them to develop their own cultural, educational, and administrative
institutions.

In order to understand ethnicity more, we have taken one of the communities in Ethiopia as an example
and put it below:-

Examples Of Ethnicity In Ethiopia

#Mursi People

-The mursi people are a distinctive ethnic group residing in a southwestern Ethiopia, primarily
in the omo valley region near the boundaries of South Sudan and Kenya. Known for their
unique cultural practices, traditions, and body modifications, the Mursi have captured global
interest for their rich heritage.

Overview of Mursi ethnic group

- Cultural Identity: The Mursi are recognized for their cultural identity, which includes body
adornments, scarification, lip plates worn by women, ornate body paint, and traditional attire
that symbolize aspects of their heritage and social status.
- Livelihood and Economy: The traditional livelihood of the Mursi revolves around cattle
herding, agriculture, and fishing in the Omo River. Their economy is intricately tied to local
ecosystems and natural resources.

- Language and Communication: The Mursi speak the Mursi language, which is part of the Nilo-
Saharan language family. Language plays a crucial role in preserving their cultural heritage and
facilitating communication within the community.

- Social Structure: Mursi society is organized around kinship, with lineage, age sets, and clans
forming the basis of social organization. Ceremonies, rituals, and communal gatherings are
integral to maintaining social cohesion.

- Challenges and Resilience: The Mursi face challenges related to environmental pressures,
encroachment on their lands, and limited access to essential services. Despite these challenges,
the Mursi demonstrate resilience and adaptability in preserving their culture and way of life.

- Cultural Preservation: Efforts to preserve and celebrate Mursi cultural practices, language,
rituals, and traditions are essential for ensuring the longevity and vitality of their ethnic identity
in a changing world.

# Significance:The Mursi ethnic group exemplifies the diversity, cultural richness, and resilience
of Ethiopia's ethnic mosaic. Their unique traditions, lifestyle, and identity contribute to the
vibrant tapestry of Ethiopia's multicultural heritage, highlighting the importance of ethnic
diversity, cultural preservation, and community resilience.

Similarly, empirical examples from other regions or countries can be explored to illustrate these
theoretical approaches.

For example, in Rwanda, the ethnic divisions between the Hutu and Tutsi communities were reinforced
over generations through narratives of distinct origins, physical features, and cultural practices. These
primordialist narratives played a significant role in fueling the ethnic tensions that eventually led to the
1994 genocide.

An example from abroad is the case of Yugoslavia, where instrumentalist dynamics played a significant
role in the breakup of the country. Political leaders manipulated ethnic identities, particularly among
Serbs, Croats, and Bosniaks, to mobilize support and consolidate power. Ethnic tensions were
instrumentalized to advance political agendas, ultimately leading to violent conflicts and the
disintegration of Yugoslavia.
An international example of social constructivism is found in the United States, where the concept of
"race" is considered a social construct rather than a biological reality. The classification of individuals
into racial categories has evolved and varies across different societies. Social interactions, cultural
practices, and societal interpretations all contribute to the construction and understanding of racial
identities.

In conclusion, the theoretical approaches of primordialism, instrumentalism, and social constructivism

provide valuable frameworks for understanding ethnicity, ethnic identity, and ethnic interaction.
Primordialism emphasizes the innate and enduring aspects of ethnic identities, instrumentalism
highlights the strategic use of ethnicity for specific purposes, and social constructivism underscores the
socially constructed and dynamic nature of ethnic identities. Examining empirical examples from
Ethiopia and other regions helps to further illustrate and substantiate these theoretical discussions.

3. Discuss Multiculturalism by focusing on its conceptual meaning, its underlying

assumptionsand theories (the Melting Pot theory & the Salad Bowl theory) along with the
Characteristics of a multicultural society and the importance of Diversity.

Multiculturalism can be defined as the way in which a given society engages with cultural
diversity. It is the manner in which a society deals with cultural

diversity, both at the national and community level. Multiculturalism is a socio-political

philosophy and policy approach that recognizes, respects, and values cultural diversity within a
society. It promotes the coexistence of multiple cultural communities, embraces inclusivity, and
fosters a sense of equality and mutual respect among individuals from different cultural
backgrounds.The underlying assumption is that members of very different cultures can coexist
peacefully and multiculturalism articulates the view that society is strengthened through
preserving, respecting, and even encouraging cultural diversity.

Theories of Multiculturalism

-Multiculturalism can be conceptualized by one of two theories: such as the melting pot and
salad bowl models, represent contrasting approaches to cultural diversity, assimilation, and
integration within societies.

1. Melting Pot Theory: The melting pot theory explores the assimilation of diverse cultural groups into
a unified, homogeneous society by blending their distinct characteristics and identities into a common
culture.This theory assumes that different immigrant groups will be inclined to “melt together,” leaving
their own individual cultures and subsequently will be fully assimilated into the predominant society and
its culture.This simply means heterogeneous cultures will be mixed and become one or create a
monoculture.The theory envisions a process where immigrants and minority groups gradually adopt the
dominant culture of the host society, contributing their unique cultural elements to create a new,
amalgamated national identity. Melting pot theory is often shown by the metaphor of a smelting pots in
which the "elements iron and carbon are melted together to create a single, stronger metal steel.

2. Salad Bowl Theory (Cultural Mosaic): The salad bowl theory, also known as the cultural mosaic,
recognizes and celebrates the coexistence of diverse cultural groups within a society, allowing them to
maintain their distinct identities while contributing to the larger social fabric. This is more of a liberal
theory of multiculturalism in comparison to the melting pot theory. The salad bowl theory illustrates a
heterogeneous society in which people coexist by retaining at least some of the distinctiveness aspects
of their traditional culture. This theory emphasizes the preservation of cultural diversity, pluralism, and
individual identities, highlighting the significance of each cultural group's unique contributions to the
collective cultural landscape. Like ingredients of salad, various cultures are brought together; however,
retain their own distinct flavors rather than mixing into a single homogeneous culture.

The Characteristics of a Multicultural Society

-A multicultural society is marked by cultural diversity, interaction among different cultural groups, and
the coexistence of varied identities within a shared social framework. The defining characteristics of
Multicultural societies are that people of different races, ethnicities, and nationalities living together in
the same community. In multicultural communities, people up hold, transfer, cherish, and share their
distinctive cultural ways of life, languages, art, traditions, and behaviors. The key characteristics that
define a multicultural society are Cultural Diversity, Ethnic Pluralism, Language Variability, Religious and
Spiritual Pluralism, Cultural Exchange, Celebration of Diversity, Inclusivity and Equity and Respect for
Differences.

-The Importance of Diversity- diversity plays a crucial role in various aspects of society, fostering
innovation, creativity, inclusivity, and social progress. Diversity takes place when people of diverse races,
nationalities, religions, ethnicities. Today, countries, workplaces, and schools are ever more made up of
different cultural, racial, and ethnic groups. By acknowledging and learning about these different groups,
communities make trust, respect, and understand across all cultures. Different communities and
organizations in various settings can benefit from the different backgrounds, skills, experiences, and new
ways of thinking that come with cultural diversity. Diverse perspectives, backgrounds, and experiences
bring a range of ideas, insights, and problem-solving approaches, driving innovation and fostering
creative solutions to complex challenges. Diverse workplaces and economies tend to be more resilient,
adaptable, and competitive, benefiting from a range of talents, skills, and perspectives that drive
productivity and growth. Embracing and valuing diversity in all its forms is fundamental to creating a
more inclusive, equitable, and harmonious society that celebrates the unique contributions,
experiences, and identities of all individuals. By recognizing the importance of diversity, we can build
stronger, more vibrant communities that thrive on openness, acceptance, and mutual respect.

4. Write a brief essay on ‘Indigenous/customary Institutions of Conflict Resolutions and

Peacemaking (both intra & inter-ethnic)’ in Ethiopia with a focus on the role, major
components(structures), characteristic features, strengths & limitations of customary justice
institutions. Supporting your discussions with empirical examples (cases) from different
ethnic/cultural groups in Ethiopia is invaluable.

Indigenous communities often have unique traditions, practices, and institutions

that are deeply rooted in their cultural heritage and are utilized for resolving conflicts and
promoting peace both within their own communities (intra-ethnic) and between different
ethnic groups (inter-ethnic). Conflict is a common phenomenon in human societies and
communities. Human beings develop different institutions and mechanisms to resolve conflicts
and restore peace and social order. Each ethnic group has its own institutions of conflict
resolution and peace making. Regardless of cross cultural diversity, most ethnic/cultural groups
in Ethiopia have similar conflict resolution institutions. The basic ones are customary (most of
the time unwritten) laws, customary courts, and council of elders. The role of notable elders is
essential in all cultural settings in Ethiopia. Although women play a significant role in conflict
resolution and peacemaking.

Intra-ethnic conflict resolution institutions play a crucial role in managing

disputes and maintaining peace within a particular ethnic group or community. These
institutions often draw upon cultural norms, traditions, and practices to address conflicts
effectively. Conflicts and disputes may occur between individual or group within the same
ethnic group. Intra-ethnic conflict resolution institutions address conflicts between individuals
and groups (e.g., clans) within the same ethnic group. Peoples across Ethiopian regions have
intra-ethnic institutions and mechanisms of conflict resolution and peacemaking. These
institutions are parts of indigenous systems of governance. In this section we will discuss the
major features of intra-ethnic institutions of conflict resolution. As Ethiopia is a big multicultural
country, we need to discuss these issues taking examples from selected cultural settings.

There are different indigenous institutions of conflict resolution and

peacemaking across regions and cultures in Ethiopia. Some of them are customary dispute
resolution mechanisms, traditional mechanisms of conflict resolution, grassroots justice
systems and customary justice institutions. Indigenous/customary justice institutions have been
widely used across Ethiopian regions and cultures. Customary justice institutions include three
major components. The three components are Customary Laws, Council of Elders and
Customary Courts or Assemblies.

Customary law refers to a body of legal norms, practices and traditions that
have evolved within a particular community, society, or group over time. Customary law is
based on the customs, beliefs, and values of the community and it often governs various
aspects of social life, including dispute resolution, property rights, marriage, inheritance and
governance. The Sera of the Sidama, the dere woga of the Gamo, the Seera Addaa of the
Oromo, Ye Siltie Serra of the Siltie, Gordena Sera of Kestane Gurage are examples of customary
laws. In most cases, customary laws are available orally. Some customary laws are published in
recent years. For example, the Sebat Bet Gurage published their customary law named Kitcha.
The second component of customary justice system is council of elders. Elders councils consist
of respected individuals within the ethnic group who offer wisdom, guidance, and mediation in
resolving conflicts. The council of elders embraces highly respected and well-experienced
community members who have detail knowledge of the customary laws. Members of the
elder’s council are also known for their personal qualities such as truthfulness and experience in
settling conflicts. Elders often serve their communities on voluntary basis without any payment.
In Ethiopia there is elders council in different ethnic group like Yehager Shimagile (Amhara),
Jaarsaa Biyyaa (Oromo), Baliqenet (Siltie), Hayyicha (Gedeo), Guurtii (Somali), Dere Cima
(Gamo), Deira Cima (Wolayita), and Cimuumaa (Burji). The third and last components of
customary justice system are customary courts. A customary court is a local assemblies that
operates based on traditional norms, customs, and practices within a particular community or
cultural group. These courts provide a forum for resolving disputes, administering justice, and
upholding customary laws in alignment with the values and traditions of the community.
Customary courts are public assemblies that serve two major purposes that is hearing,
discussing, examining and settling disputes and revising, adapting, and making laws.

Let us examine the structure and functions of the three components/branches of

customary justice systems taking the Burjj case as an example. The customary justice system of
the Burji people of Southern Ethiopia has the following branches, Biyankaa Adda (customary
laws), Cimuumaa (council of elders) and Qala'a/Biyaa/Haradaa (Customary courts or
assemblies). Biyankaa Adaa(Customary laws) in the Burji community consists of unwritten
norms, traditions, and principles that guide behavior, define rights and obligations, and regulate
social interactions based on long-established customs. Customary law serves as the
foundational legal framework for resolving disputes, enforcing norms, and maintaining social
order within the Burji society. It reflects the community's values, beliefs, and collective wisdom
in addressing legal matters. The literally meaning of Biyankaa Adaa is law of land.
Cimuumaa(Council of Elder) is composed of respected community leaders, elders, and
individuals recognized for their wisdom, experience, and integrity within the Burji society. The
Council of Elders plays a pivotal role in interpreting customary law, mediating disputes, and
providing guidance on legal matters. They embody the authority and knowledge necessary for
upholding traditional values and resolving conflicts within the community.
Biyaa/Qala'a(Customary Court) functions as a formal legal institution within the Burji customary
justice system, tasked with administering justice, hearing cases, and settling disputes according
to customary laws. The Customary Court serves as a judicial body responsible for applying
customary legal principles, resolving conflicts, and ensuring compliance with community norms.
 Customary Justice systems have their major characteristic features. They also
reveal strengths and weaknesses of customary justice systems. They have their common
features. The first one is high involvement of elders at different stages of conflict resolution
and peacemaking process. The second characteristic feature is Preference and respect for
elders known for their qualities including experience in dispute resolution; knowledge of
customary laws, procedures, norms and values of the society; impartiality, respect for rules and
people; the ability of listening and speaking politely; honesty and tolerance. The last one is
indigenous dispute resolution practices focus on restoring social relationships, harmony, and
peaceful coexistence. They also have differences in terms of hierarchies, procedures and level
of complexities. In the first, In some cultural settings, conflict resolution mechanisms involve
several hierarchies and complicated procedures. And then, the compositions and
responsibilities of council of elders also vary from society to society.

Customary justice institutions have their own strength and limitations. Let us
start with their strength. Customary justice institutions align with the cultural values, traditions,
and customs of the community, making the legal processes more acceptable and relatable to
community members. Customary justice encourages community involvement, fostering a sense
of ownership over the justice processes and promoting social cohesion through collective
decision-making. Customary justice prioritizes restorative approaches, focusing on healing,
reconciliation, and repairing relationships rather than punitive measures, which can lead to
more sustainable and lasting solutions. Incur limited cost in terms of time and
resources/money; elders do not request payment for their services; fines and compensation are
relatively small. Rely on respect for elders, the tradition of forgiveness, transferring
compensations, embedded in indigenous beliefs. There is some limitations in this system.
Limitations related to protecting and safeguarding women’s rights. Indigenous justice
institutions are dominated by men. For example, the council of elders is not open to elderly
women. Women are excluded from participation at customary courts and assemblies with a
few exceptions. Indigenous institutions of dispute resolution and peacemaking are effective to
resolve dispute and restore peace within the same ethnic group. Their potential in resolving
inter-ethnic conflicts and restoring long-lasting peace is very limited. Customary justice systems
may lack mechanisms for oversight, accountability, and transparency, raising concerns about
fair and consistent application of justice.

Conflicts and disputes also occur between individual or group within different
ethnic groups. Inter-ethnic conflict resolution institutions adress this types of conflicts.
Indigenous communities may utilize peace treaties or agreements to establish peaceful
relations, resolve boundary disputes, or manage conflicts with neighboring ethnic groups. These
treaties create frameworks for peaceful coexistence, mutual respect, and conflict prevention
between different ethnic communities, enhancing inter-ethnic understanding and cooperation.
As noted above, one of the weaknesses of indigenous institution of peacemaking is their
limitation in resolving inter-ethnic conflicts. There are some example of inter-ethnic conflict
resolution institutions in some parts of Ethiopia. Abbo Gereb is one of the indigenous
institutions that address inter-ethnic conflicts. It is a dispute resolution institution in Rayya and
Wajirat district, Southern Tigray. Abbo Gereb, literally means the father of the river Gerewo.
Abbo Gereb serves to settle disputes between individuals or groups from highland areas of
Tigray and lowland areas of Afar. Conflict between the two groups often arises because of
dispute over grazing land or water resources, particularly in dry season. When conflict arises
between parties from two ethnic groups, notable elders from Tigray and Afar come together to
resolve the dispute and restore peaceful relations. Most of the elders involved in inter-ethnic
conflict resolutions are bilingual, speaking Tigrigna and Afar.

In general, customary justice system play a significant role in many societies

worldwide especially in indigenous or traditional societies, by providing a framework for
resolving disputes, administering Justice and maintaining social order based on cultural norms,
values and traditions. By recognizing and supporting these systems, societies can harness the
strengths of traditional knowledge and practices to address contemporary justice needs
effectively while honoring their cultural heritage and promoting social well-being. It has role in
preservation of cultural identity, community empowerment and participation, flexible and
context-specific approaches, conflict resolution and peacemaking and promotion of social
cohesion.