Physics Handouts

PROJECTILE MOTION Horizontal motion:

Projectile Motion χ = 𝑣0(𝑐𝑜𝑠θ)𝑡
● the motion of an object that is
launched into the air and moves Vertical motion:
solely under the influence of 𝑦 = 𝑣0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ −
1 2
𝑔𝑡
2
gravity, with no other forces
acting on it. Where:
● the object follows a curved path
known as a parabola. ● x is the horizontal position
● y (if you intended to use just a
Key characteristics of projectile symbol, it’s correct as is) is the
motion: vertical position
● 𝑣0 ​is the initial velocity
1. Parabolic trajectory: The path
followed by the projectile is a ● θ is the launch angle
parabolic curve. ● t is the time
2. Horizontal and vertical motion: ● g is the acceleration due to
The horizontal and vertical gravity (9.8 m/s²)
motions of the projectile are
RELATIVE MOTION
independent and can be
Relative motion
analyzed separately.
● the motion of an object as observed
3. Constant acceleration due to
from a frame of reference that is
gravity: The vertical motion of itself in motion relative to a fixed
the projectile is subject to a reference frame.
constant acceleration due to ● the motion of one object as seen by
gravity, g = 9.8 m/s². an observer who is also in motion.
4. No air resistance: Projectile ● The key idea is that the motion of an
motion assumes negligible air object depends on the frame of
resistance, so the only force reference from which it is observed.
acting on the projectile is gravity. An object's motion can appear very
different depending on the
Equations of motion for projectile observer's own motion.
motion:
UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION
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Uniform circular motion is the motion of the object's angular position,
an object in a circular path at a constant measured in radians per second.
speed. The key characteristics are:
Key equations for uniform circular
1. Constant speed: The object motion:
maintains a constant speed around
the circular path. 1. Centripetal acceleration:
2. Centripetal acceleration: The ac​=rv2​
object experiences a centripetal Where ac​is the centripetal
acceleration directed towards the acceleration,v is the linear speed,
center of the circle, causing it to and r is the radius of the circular
continuously change direction. path.
3. Constant period: The time it takes 2. Angular velocity:
for the object to complete one full ω=T2π​
revolution around the circle is Where ω is the angular velocity and
constant. T is the period.
3. Relationship between linear and
Key properties of uniform circular angular quantities:
motion: v=ωr
ac​=ω2r
1. Centripetal force: A net force
directed towards the center of the These equations allow us to relate the
circular path, known as the various quantities involved in uniform
centripetal force, is required to circular motion, such as linear speed,
maintain uniform circular motion. angular velocity, radius, and acceleration.
2. Centripetal acceleration: This
centripetal force causes the object to NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION
experience a centripetal Newton’s First Law of Motion (Law of
acceleration directed towards the Inertia)
center of the circle. ● The tendency of a body to keep
3. Period and frequency: The period moving in constant velocity once it is
(T) is the time for one full revolution, set in motion results from a property
and the frequency (f) is the number called inertia.
of revolutions per unit time, where f ● When a body is either at rest or
= 1/T. moving with constant velocity (in a
4. Angular velocity: The angular straight line with constant speed), it
velocity (ω) is the rate of change of would mean that the body is in
equilibrium.
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● For a body to be in equilibrium, it
must be acted on by no forces, or Formula:
by several forces that equate to the ∑F = ma or a = ∑F/m
vector sum or what’s called the net.
m = mass (kg)
It’s expression is represented this way: a = acceleration (m/s²)
∑F = 0 or ∑Fx = 0 ∑Fy = 0 unit for kg • m/s² is N or newton

● A frame in which Newton’s first law ● Keep in mind, MASS and WEIGHT
holds true is called an inertial frame are not the same.
of reference. ● Mass = inertial properties of a body.
● In this case, we as the observer are (the greater the mass the greater the
assessing the motion of other force needed to cause a given
moving bodies relative to your acceleration)
stationary point of view. ● Weight = force exerted on a body by
the pull of the earth.
(The force that makes the body
accelerate downward, g)

Therefore, in order to determine the

magnitude of any object with mass on earth.
We use: w = mg

Newton’s Third Law of Motion (Law of

Interaction)
● If body A exerts a force on body B
(action), then body B exerts a force
on body A (reaction). These two
Newton’s Second Law of Motion (Law of
forces have the same magnitude but
Acceleration)
are opposite in direction
● If a net external force acts on a
(action-reaction pair).
body, the body accelerates. The
● Note that the two forces act on
direction of acceleration is the same
different bodies.
as the direction of the net force.
● So for any given body, the ratio of
the magnitude of the net force to
FA on B = -FB on A
the magnitude of the acceleration is
For example: The body’s upwards force on
constant.
Earth, Earth’s downward force on the Body
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ATWOOD’S MACHINE
● Designed by George Atwood in
1794.
● An Atwood machine uses two
masses (m1 and m2, with m2 heavier)
connected by a string over a pulley.
● The string is weightless and free
from snapped.
● The pulley is weightless and
Acceleration: a= m1g / (m1 + m2)
frictionless.

Tension: T = m (g + a)
where: w = weight
m = mass
Two Blocks Hanging From a Pulley
a = acceleration
● Two objects of different masses
T = tension
(labeled as m1 and m2) are attached
g = 9.8m/s²
to the ends of a string.
● The heavier block pulls the lighter
block up.
Horizontal Pulley
● One block at rest involves two
masses connected by a string over a
horizontal pulley, where one mass
remains stationary.
● Includes friction on one or both
blocks, influencing the forces
involved.

Acceleration: a = (m2 - m1)g / (m1 + m2)

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Weight: w = mg

Tension: T1 = m1a + w1
T2 = w2 - m2a

Inclined plane refers to the component of

the gravitational force that acts parallel to
the incline, which causes the object to
accelerate down the plane.

● Two masses (m₁ and m₂) are

connected by a string over a pulley.
● One mass is on an inclined plane,
and the other hangs vertically. Acceleration:
● The inclined plane makes an angle θ
with the horizontal. Tension: T = m (a+g)

Where:

● a represents the acceleration of the

mass/two masses
● T represents the tension in the
connecting string
● m represents the mass of the
objects
Acceleration: a = gsinθ ● θ represents the angle of inclination
● g represents the acceleration due to
Tension: T = ma gravity (9.8 m/s²)

WORK
Work
● Work is a scalar product.
● It is the transfer of energy by a force
acting on an object as it is displaced.
● Work can be positive, negative, or
zero.
● Work: negative at 91° - 269°
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positive below 90° and ● You lose kinetic energy when you
perform work on a person and that
above 270°
person gains kinetic energy.
zero at 90° and 270°
● Work = force x displacement
Formula: KE=​½mv2
● Work = force x displacement cos θ
m: Mass (kg)
● The SI unit for work and energy is
v: Velocity (m/s)
the joule (J), where:
● 1J=1N⋅m=1kgm2/s2.
STATIC ENERGY/POTENTIAL ENERGY
Static Energy
Formula: W=Fd cos θ ● Refers to potential energy, which is
the energy stored in an object due to
● W: Work (Joules, J) its position, configuration, or
● F: Magnitude of the force (Newtons, condition (e.g., gravitational potential
N) energy or elastic potential energy).
● d: Displacement of the object
(meters, m) Formula: PE=mgh
● θ: Angle between the force and m: Mass (kg)
displacement vector g: Gravitational acceleration
(9.8 m/s2)
ENERGY
h: Height (m)
● Capacity to do work
● Two types of Mechanical Energy:
● Kinetic and Static Energy
WORK AND KINETIC ENERGY

KINETIC ENERGY
● You do work by exerting force on a
Kinetic Energy
body, resulting in displacement.
● Total work done to gain the present
● Work symbol W
speed (velocity).
● Weight symbol w
● When work is performed in object A
● 1 joule = (1N) (1m) or 1Nm
and it hits object B, object A
● Energy: capability to do work
performs work on object B. Thus, the
● When you push an object to the
kinetic energy of object A will be
right, there is an increase in the
subtracted by the work it performed
work done, (+) positive work
on another object.
● When you push an object to the left,
● Total work a particle can do in the
there is a decrease in the work
process of being brought to rest.
done, (-) negative work
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● Negative work = smaller Kinetic Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)
energy ● Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM) is
● Positive work = bigger Kinetic a type of periodic motion in which an
energy object oscillates back and forth
about an equilibrium position
WORK ENERGY THEOREM under the influence of a restoring
● The work-energy theorem states that force that is proportional to its
the net work done on an object is displacement.
equal to the change in its kinetic ● This motion is characterized by its
energy. sinusoidal nature, meaning that the
displacement, velocity, and
Formula: W=ΔKE acceleration of the object can all be
W=KEfinal−KEinitial described using sine or cosine
functions.
Concepts of SHM in Springs
ENERGY CONVERSION
● The process of transforming energy
from one form to another.
● This principle is based on the law of
conservation of energy, which states
that energy cannot be created or
destroyed; it can only change from
one form to another.

Formula:
PE= mgh 1. Equilibrium Position - This is the
Other energy = Percentage x PE central point where the object would
KE= ½mv² naturally stay if there were no external force
where KE = PE acting on it. In this case, it’s located at (b).

2. Restoring Force - This is the force

that brings the object back to the equilibrium
position when the object is moved away
from equilibrium. In SHM, the restoring force
is directly proportional to the displacement
(distance from equilibrium). In this case, it
would be the object oscillating between (a)
to (c) and vice versa.
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Formulas of SHM in Springs highest at the maximum displacement
1. Restoring Force: points (the endpoints of motion).
c. Total energy in an ideal SHM system
remains constant and is continuously
converted between KE and PE.
2. Elastic Potential Energy
SHM in Pendulums

Pendulums, like springs, oscillate back

3. Period on a spring-mass system and forth exhibiting simple harmonic
behavior.

Characteristics of SHM
1. Period (T) : T=1/f
a. The time it takes to complete one full
cycle of motion (from starting position, to
maximum displacement, back to the starting
position). Its units are in seconds (s).

2. Frequency (f) : f=1/T

a. The number of cycles completed per Formula:
second. Its units are Hertz (Hz).

3. Amplitude (A) finding T: finding l:

a. The maximum distance the object moves 2

from the equilibrium position. T = 2π 𝑔𝑙 𝑙 =

𝑇𝑔
4π
2

b. Amplitude determines how “far” the object

swings or moves during each cycle.
Where:

4. Energy in SHM (unit J or N*m)

T = Period of the pendulum (time for one
complete oscillation)
a. Kinetic Energy (KE): The energy
associated with the object’s motion. KE is
l = Length of the pendulum (in meters)
highest at the equilibrium position.
g = Acceleration due to gravity (typically
b. Potential Energy (PE): The energy
9.8, m/s²)
associated with the object’s position. PE is
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Parts of a ‘Sine Wave’