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Metaplasticity in Virtual Worlds Aesthetics and Semantic
Concepts 1st Edition Gianluca Mura Digital Instant
Download
Author(s): Gianluca Mura
ISBN(s): 9781609600778, 1609600770
Edition: 1
File Details: PDF, 7.99 MB
Year: 2010
Language: english
Metaplasticity in Virtual
Worlds:
Aesthetics and Semantic
Concepts
Gianluca Mura
Politecnico di Milano University, Italy
INFORMATION SCIENCE REFERENCE

Hershey • New York
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Metaplasticity in virtual worlds : aesthetics and semantic concepts / Gianluca

Mura, editor.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-60960-077-8 (hardcover) -- ISBN 978-1-60960-079-2 (ebook) 1.
Human-computer interaction. 2. Virtual reality. 3. New media art. 4.
Communication and technology. I. Mura, Gianluca, 1965-
QA76.9.H85M48 2010
006.8--dc22
2010036722
British Cataloguing in Publication Data

A Cataloguing in Publication record for this book is available from the British Library.
All work contributed to this book is new, previously-unpublished material. The views expressed in this book are those of the
authors, but not necessarily of the publisher.
Editorial Advisory Board
Paul Catanese, Columbia College Chicago, USA
Félix Francisco Ramos Corchado, CINVESTAV GDL, Mexico
Everardo Reyes Garcia, Tecnologico de Monterrey Campus Toluca, Mexico
Olga Sourina, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Daniel Thalmann, EPFL VRLab École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Switzerland
Hidenori Watanave, Tokyo Metropolitan University, Japan
Table of Contents
Preface . ................................................................................................................................................. xi
Acknowledgment................................................................................................................................. xiv
Chapter 1
Virtual Metaplasticity (Ars Metaplastica)................................................................................................ 1
Gianluca Mura, Politecnico di Milano University, Italy
Chapter 2
The Metaplastic Virtual World Theory.................................................................................................. 27
Chapter 3
The Tangiality of Digital Media............................................................................................................. 58
Joan Truckenbrod, School of the Art Institute of Chicago, USA
Chapter 4
Pervasive Virtual Worlds........................................................................................................................ 78
Everardo Reyes-García, Monterrey Tech at Toluca, Mexico
Chapter 5
Semantic Entities in Virtual Worlds: Reasoning Through Virtual Content........................................... 90
Vadim Slavin, Lockheed Martin Space Systems, USA
Diane Love, Lockheed Martin Information Systems & Global Services, USA
Chapter 6
Humanness Elevated Through its Disappearance................................................................................ 102
Jeffrey M. Morris, Texas A&M University, USA
Chapter 7
The Mediation Chamber: Towards Self-Modulation........................................................................... 121
Chris Shaw, Simon Fraser University, Canada
Diane Gromala, Simon Fraser University, Canada
Meehae Song, Simon Fraser University, Canada
Chapter 8
A Behavioral Model Based on Personality and Emotional Intelligence for
Virtual Humans.................................................................................................................................... 134
Héctor Orozco, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del I.P.N., México
Félix Ramos, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del I.P.N., México
Daniel Thalmann, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Switzerland
Victor Fernández, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del I.P.N., México
Octavio Gutiérrez, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del I.P.N., México
& Grenoble Institute of Technology, France
Chapter 9
The Virtual World of Cerberus: Virtual Singer using Spike-Timing-Dependent
Plasticity Concept................................................................................................................................ 158
Jocelyne Kiss, LISAA, University Paris East, France
Sidi Soueina, Strayer University, USA
Martin Laliberté, LISAA, University Paris East, France
Adel Elmaghraby, University of Louisville, USA
Chapter 10
Learning from Baroque........................................................................................................................ 167
Carola Moujan, Université Paris 1 LETA/CREDE, France
Chapter 11
Synthetic Worlds, Synthetic Strategies: Attaining Creativity in the Metaverse.................................. 182
Elif Ayiter, Sabanci University, Turkey
Chapter 12
Kritical Artworks in Second Life......................................................................................................... 198
Dew Harrison, University of Wolverhampton, UK
Denise Doyle, University of Wolverhampton, UK
Chapter 13
Digital Media and the Quest for the Spiritual in Art............................................................................ 217
Ina Conradi Chavez, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Chapter 14
Plastika [Totipotenta]........................................................................................................................... 228
Catherine Nyeki, Plurtimedia Artist “plasticienne”, France
Chapter 15
Spatial Design and Physical Interface in Virtual Worlds..................................................................... 240
Chapter 16
The City of Abadyl............................................................................................................................... 251
Michael Johansson, PRAMnet, Sweden & China
Chapter 17
Social and Citizenship Competencies in a Multiuser Virtual Game.................................................... 266
Germán Mauricio Mejía, Universidad de Caldas, Colombia
Felipe César Londoño, Universidad de Caldas, Colombia
Paula Andrea Escandón, Universidad de Caldas, Colombia
Compilation of References................................................................................................................ 281
About the Contributors..................................................................................................................... 300
Index.................................................................................................................................................... 306
Detailed Table of Contents
Preface . ................................................................................................................................................. xi
Acknowledgment................................................................................................................................. xiv
Chapter 1
Virtual Metaplasticity (Ars Metaplastica)................................................................................................ 1
This chapter introduces the definition of new metaplastic discipline. It also defines the metaplastic vir-
tual medium used in different research areas with application in virtual art and virtual heritage.
Chapter 2
The Metaplastic Virtual World Theory.................................................................................................. 27
Conceptualization of the metaplastic virtual world is explained with its artistic archetypes and it leads
to the composition of a new theoretical model with examples of application.
Chapter 3
The Tangiality of Digital Media............................................................................................................. 58
Joan Truckenbrod, School of the Art Institute of Chicago, USA
This chapter introduces the concept of Tangiality by illustrating how it is represented in the contempo-
rary interdisciplinary, hybrid media and multi-modal artists’ definitions examples.
Chapter 4
Pervasive Virtual Worlds........................................................................................................................ 78
Everardo Reyes-García, Monterrey Tech at Toluca, Mexico
This chapter describes the notion of contemporary society of media which virtualizes human senses and
capabilities integrated within a collective, pervasive hyperspace of information. It is demonstrated with
three different examples of digital media applications.
Chapter 5
Semantic Entities in Virtual Worlds: Reasoning Through Virtual Content........................................... 90
Vadim Slavin, Lockheed Martin Space Systems, USA
Diane Love, Lockheed Martin Information Systems & Global Services, USA
This chapter explores how a parallel semantic knowledge base describing the virtual world can improve
the utility of virtual world environment by enabling virtual agents to interact and behave like their peer
human participants.
Chapter 6
Humanness Elevated Through its Disappearance................................................................................ 102
Jeffrey M. Morris, Texas A&M University, USA
This chapter gives consideration to the different types of presence manifested in various communica-
tion formats, stage presence in technology-mediated performance, and several artworks that bring new
light to the artist’s approach to virtual worlds as a kind of counterpoint with reality.
Chapter 7
The Mediation Chamber: Towards Self-Modulation........................................................................... 121
Chris Shaw, Simon Fraser University, Canada
Diane Gromala, Simon Fraser University, Canada
Meehae Song, Simon Fraser University, Canada
This chapter describes scientific methods of evaluations and findings and it discusses first-person phe-
nomenological aspects of biofeedback technologies and their possible future directions.
Chapter 8
A Behavioral Model Based on Personality and Emotional Intelligence for
Virtual Humans.................................................................................................................................... 134
Héctor Orozco, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del I.P.N., México
Félix Ramos, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del I.P.N., México
Daniel Thalmann, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Switzerland
Victor Fernández, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del I.P.N., México
Octavio Gutiérrez, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del I.P.N., México
& Grenoble Institute of Technology, France
This chapter presents a behavioral model based on personality and emotional intelligence for Virtual
Humans. This model allows virtual humans performing actions based on their current affective state,
beliefs, desires and intentions.
Chapter 9
The Virtual World of Cerberus: Virtual Singer using Spike-Timing-Dependent
Plasticity Concept................................................................................................................................ 158
Jocelyne Kiss, LISAA, University Paris East, France
Sidi Soueina, Strayer University, USA
Martin Laliberté, LISAA, University Paris East, France
Adel Elmaghraby, University of Louisville, USA
The Cerberus is an avatar singer model that performs his musical style and emotion using competitive
learning rule within artificial neural networks methodologies.
Chapter 10
Learning from Baroque........................................................................................................................ 167
Carola Moujan, Université Paris 1 LETA/CREDE, France
This chapter discusses from a cultural perspective, philosophical and aesthetic issues related to mixed
reality spaces. It proposes a perceptual analysis of early Baroque architecture for bringing aesthetic
depth and relevance into mixed reality installations.
Chapter 11
Synthetic Worlds, Synthetic Strategies: Attaining Creativity in the Metaverse.................................. 182
Elif Ayiter, Sabanci University, Turkey
This chapter underlines theoretical premises of an immersive learning approach to the visual arts imple-
mentation into online three dimensional synthetic worlds.
Chapter 12
Kritical Artworks in Second Life......................................................................................................... 198
Dew Harrison, University of Wolverhampton, UK
Denise Doyle, University of Wolverhampton, UK
This chapter outlines the curatorial process of creative practices for showing artworks exhibitions in the
Kriti SL island. It indicates new reading guidelines of Art exhibition practice in Second Life
Chapter 13
Digital Media and the Quest for the Spiritual in Art............................................................................ 217
Ina Conradi Chavez, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
This chapter presents a virtual art concept of immersive 3D installations for social interaction through
sensation and physical engagement.
Chapter 14
Plastika [Totipotenta]........................................................................................................................... 228
Catherine Nyeki, Plurtimedia Artist “plasticienne”, France
This chapter describes biological creatures “living” in their virtual world. It composes a virtual “vi-
varium” with diverse digital interactive pieces inspired with latest biotechnology and cellular biology.
Chapter 15
Spatial Design and Physical Interface in Virtual Worlds..................................................................... 240
This chapter proposes an architecture spatial model design methodology to create physical human ex-
perience in 3D virtual worlds.
Chapter 16
The City of Abadyl............................................................................................................................... 251
Michael Johansson, PRAMnet, Sweden & China
This chapter introduces a complex digital space that can be utilized as an open world in order to gener-
ate scenarios and producing new artifacts for the co-creators of Abadyl.
Chapter 17
Social and Citizenship Competencies in a Multiuser Virtual Game.................................................... 266
Germán Mauricio Mejía, Universidad de Caldas, Colombia
Felipe César Londoño, Universidad de Caldas, Colombia
Paula Andrea Escandón, Universidad de Caldas, Colombia
This chapter discusses findings of theory and models about effects of video gaming in education and
proposes an e-learning virtual game.
Compilation of References................................................................................................................ 281
About the Contributors..................................................................................................................... 300
Index.................................................................................................................................................... 306
xi
Preface
Concepts of virtual worlds are strongly related to the current innovations of the Internet and new media
communications. Nowadays, the research areas of virtual worlds include different scientific fields com-
ing from Science, Technology, Arts, Design and Digital Cultures.
This book explores the interdisciplinary development of Virtual world’s aesthetics and semantics through
many approaches of metaplastic conceptualizations. The term metaplasticity, generally in neuroscience,
defines mnemonic and adaptive synaptic properties. Metaplasticity conceptualization, differently in
plastic arts, is a process of creation and transformation.
From these definition qualities, the goal of this book becomes finding new definitions of the meta-
plasticity term for Digital media and Virtual Worlds fields. It would be proposed diverse interdisciplinary
meanings of digital media researches for the purposes of this book.
This volume starts with Virtual Metaplasticity (Ars Metaplastica) chapter where the analyses of
Modern Art history and the definition of new Metaplastic discipline are based on the intersection of
plastic formalism with digital technology. The Metaplasticity concept defined within an interdisciplin-
ary research field introduces the characteristics of a metaplastic virtual media model and their possible
applications to different research fields.
The Metaplastic Virtual World Theory chapter describes how the metaphor of artistic machine finds
its new realization within the metaplastic virtual world, where the machine metaphor itself becomes
aesthetic expression of the virtuality. The methodology explains the becoming of new virtual worlds
typologies made through abstract art languages and artificial intelligence.
Joan Truckenbrod and Paul Catanese in Tangiality of Digital Media illustrates the immateriality as
a conceptual materiality of virtual world. It makes an interdisciplinary analysis of many contemporary
experiences that use this concept in their examples of hybrid and multimodal artworks.
Everardo Reyes Garcia continues with Pervasive Virtual Worlds experience where virtual media are
explained through different social media definitions that virtualize human senses and capabilities.These
notions are expressed with three different digital installations.
Vadim Slavin and Diane Love in their chapter Semantic Entities in Virtual Worlds describe how se-
mantic knowledge base could define virtual world architecture richness by giving their virtual entities
behavior and their relationships with human participants.
Jeffrey Morris in his Humanness Elevated through its Disappearance argues on human's different
types of presence and the blurring boundaries between real and virtual in art experiences. His artistic
approaching to virtual world is seen as a counterpoint with reality.
Diane Gromala, Chris Shaw and Meehae Song describe in their Meditation Chamber: Towards
Self-Modulation an immersive virtual environment, which analyzes human feelings including stress,
xii
anxiety and pain and their biofeedback technologies. They discuss results and new findings on possible
applications in neurosciences.
Daniel Thalmann, Félix Ramos, Héctor Orozco, Victor Fernández and Octavio Gutiérrez in A Behav-
ioral Model based on Personality and Emotional Intelligence for Virtual Humans developed a behavioral
model for Virtual Humans and implemented it in a system that uses various calculus formalism driven by
emotions and try to define virtual human behaviors for each situation they experience in the environment.
Jocelyne Kiss, Sidi Soueina, Martin Laliberté and Adel Elmaghraby in Virtual World of Cerberus
present an avatar singer application that performs different sounds and express their correspondent facial
emotions.This study applies the metaplasticity notion differently, as used in neuroscience, in an avatar
model to enhance memory functions and simulated feelings related to a virtual context.
Carola Moujan in Learning from Barouque, gives a historical and cultural perspectives through phy-
losophical studies implications with proposing mixed realities artistic installations. This essay indicates
a radical change into artist's view for creating meaningful experience and participation of spectators in
artworks. It explains the Baroque architecture as an relevant early example of virtuality in Art.
Elif Ayiter in her chapter Synthetic Worlds, Synthetic Strategies: Attaining Creativity in the Metaverse
attempts to define theoretical premises and definition of an immersive learning approach pertaining to
visual arts to be implemented in an online synthetic worlds. The author proposes recent educational
approaches as well as an examination of creative practices into the formulation of an virtual world
learning strategy.
Dew Harrison and Denise Doyle in Kritical Artworks in Second Life, introduce their SL island where
they experiment creative practice and give curatorial view in virtual world. They introduce various case
studies of artist's exhibition in Second Life.
Ina Conradi in Digital Media and the Quest for the Spiritual in Art, presents her public virtual art
exhibition and defines a virtual world's aesthetics based on spectator's oneiric virtual world realization.
The virtual media accomplishes its aesthetics within different mental states with a connected user.
Catherine Nieky in her Plastika Totipotenta presents her biotope virtual “vivarium”, where biological
creatures “live” into a simulacrum and the concept of metaplasticity is applied from natural and nanosci-
ences into biotechnological virtual world.
Michael Johansson with his City of Abadyl generates an interactive virtual scenario of an open work
project of the city of Abadyl. It is a database that contains information which is continuously updated
and this interactive updating it is called “fieldasy”.
Hidenori Watanave in his Spatial Design and Physical Interface in Virtual Worlds proposes a new
spatial model, a contents oriented architectural space design methodology to create spatial experience
in a 3D virtual world.
Germán Mauricio Mejía, Felipe César Londoño, Paula Andrea Escandón in their Social and Citinzen-
ship Competencies in a Multiuser Virtual Game describe educational gaming that shows a metaphor of
collective challenge and indicates an overview of everyday life complexity and learning transferability.
The authors discuss findings according to proposed theories and models about effects of video games
in education and behavior.
The chapters collected an in-depth coverage of the state-of-the-art of virtual worlds experiences. It
has traced some of research tendencies and paths, regarding virtual worlds aesthetics and semantics, and
grouped them into the following areas:
xiii
• knowledge communication in virtual worlds as social media;

• development of methodologies dedicated more precisely to human perceptiveness, with greater
involvement of human participants into different and inter-crossed levels of realities;
• intersection of relations and roles between dynamics of virtual world and representation, and virtual
participant and co-creator;
• cultural strategies analysis of creative practice, education, exhibition and communication within
virtual worlds;
• virtual worlds concepts between architectures, new territories, new biotype creatures into real-virtual
societies. In conclusion, the experiences of contemporary virtual worlds indicate a necessity of
changing the actual methodologies and practices toward new languages dedicated to humans and
solving their cultural and social issues.
Gianluca Mura
Editor
xiv
Acknowledgment
I would like to gratefully thank all the Editorial Board members and particularly Paul Catanese, Félix
Francisco Ramos Corchado, Everardo Reyes-García, Olga Sourina, Daniel Thalmann, and Hidenori
Watanave.
I would also like to thank all the Authors that have generously and patiently contributed to this book
with their important and precious work, that has made this book possible, particularly Elif Ayiter, Ina
Conradi, Denise Doyle, Adel S. Elmaghraby, Paula Andrea Escandón, Victor Fernández Cervantes,
J.Octavio Gutierrez-Garcia, Diane Gromala, Dew Harrison, Michael Johansson, Jocelyne Kiss, Martin
Laliberté, Felipe César Londoño, Diane J.Love, Germán Mauricio Mejía, Jeffrey M.Morris, Carola
Moujan, Catherine Nyeki, Héctor Rafael Orozco Aguirre, Chris Shaw, Vadim Slavin, Meehae Song,
Sidi Soueina and Joan Truckenbrod.
I wish to thank all IGI Global for their kind and precious help during all the time for developing
and supporting this book project, particularly thanks to Jan Travers, Elizabeth Ardner, Dave DeRicco,
Mike Killian and Erika Carter. Their professional assistance and guidance have made this collaboration
a great enriching experience.
I want to gratefully acknowledge the support and collaboration of Nataša Duboković, for all the time
and dedication to this book.
Thank you.
Gianluca Mura
Editor
1
Chapter 1
Virtual Metaplasticity
(Ars Metaplastica)
Gianluca Mura
ABSTRACT
This chapter defines a new metaplastic discipline through analysis of Digital art history and their
relations among artistic and scientific achievements. Virtual Realities found in Art and Science a new
modality of definition based on technological codifying with language philosophies that interpret new
digital aesthetics. It would be introduced new metaplastic virtual media used in different research areas
with examples of applications.
INTRODUCTION structures, surfaces and kaleidoscopes of images.

These expressions narrate of new visual and
Art and virtuality discover their common origins musical languages modalities with their peculiar
within the poetic vision of artists, for example characteristics. Their research processes of new
imaginary worlds of Kandinsky, Klee, Miro’. shapes and disciplines established archetypes of
Their worlds are, in fact, inhabited with organisms virtual reality languages. According to Jaron La-
similar to cells, bacteria and other microorganisms nier, a pioneer of the virtual reality, artists should
in fantastic and indefinite spaces. Artists (re)create create new worlds:
new realities with systems of symbols that express
the representation of their concepts. At the same “Instead of communicating symbols like letters,
mode, computer’s virtual realities are patterns numbers, pictures, or musicals’ notes, you are
of information. The description of artists’ imagi- creating miniature universes that have their own
nary worlds occur with representations of basic internal states and mysteries to be discovered.”
elements, combinations of elements in sequence,
In the last decades of the 20th Century, tech-
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-60960-077-8.ch001 nological innovations in different research areas
Copyright © 2011, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Virtual Metaplasticity (Ars Metaplastica)
have developed new interdisciplinary interests creation methodologies. According to Christiane

between art, design, science and technology. From Paul, one of these new methodologies of creation
the 1950s, Computer Art is a term used to define is the combinatorial processes that obey to the
artistic electronic data processes for creating new rules of Dadaist Poetry, which were resumed by
aesthetics. In the same period, the mathematician the members of OULIPO (Ouvroir de Littérature
Norbert Wiener in his essay “Cybernetics and Potentielle) and their creation poetics became
Society” (1950) presented Cybernetics which part of combinatorial loop of conceptual gam-
refer to the general analysis of control systems and ing. The Fluxus artists have specific rules when
communication in living organisms and machines. they stage their performances. Vera Molnar uses
The exhibition “Cybernetic Serendipity” (1968) mathematical functions to create new drawing
at the Institute of Contemporary Arts in London methodologies for computer graphics. In these
was important because there were presented research areas, the Permutation Art, defined by
various artworks of computer graphics, of sound Abraham Moles in 1971 found its aesthetics. It is
and luminous spaces, “intelligent” robots which created with combinations of limited set composed
could be considered precursors of contemporary with simple elements, which gave representations
artistic installations. of infinite perceptual games.
Some artworks were dedicated to machine’s A different method forms of “self-production”
aesthetics and its transformations, other artworks has been suggested by mathematician H. Conway
created audio visual motives and automation’s po- with his famous “Game of Life”(1970) which has
etry, like “open systems” installation where specta- inspired the future development of Generative
tor acts as a part of a programmed system. From Arts theories. Chistiane Paul in his book Digital
the 1960s, the researches within new technologies Art indicates various artistic experience that have
created new research areas in arts and sciences. been developed in the 1960s and 1970s period,
In that period, important transdisciplinary studies and in the following part will be given their de-
were developed by artists as Andy Warhol, Robert scription. Michael Noll in his artwork “Computer
Rauschenberg, Jean Tinguely, John Cage and Composition with Lines”(1964) uses a graphic
others at the Osaka Universal Exposition, Pepsi table to draw combinations of lines and other
Cola’s pavilion in 1970. (Christiane Paul,2004 pictorial representations. Manfred Mohr composes
p.16). The artistic creative process is modified with his artworks with computer as exercises on para-
new technologies, generating new methodologies metric variations of basic graphic repertoire. This
and different disciplinary areas in Digital Art. methodology originated the “generative drawing”.
In this phase, new creation methodologies Mohr is the first plastic artist that had contributed
became with following the simulations of the to the theorizing of criteria and methodologies of
preceding technique. This simulation property creation new aesthetics with computers. The first
gives to digital systems the unprecedented capac- generation of Algorists in the 1960’s and 1970’s
ity of blurring the traditional distinct boundaries, included Herbert Franke, Manfred Mohr, Frieder
by subjecting all techniques of information to the Nake, George Nees, Harold Cohen and Roman
creation of hybrid art forms and to becoming a Verotsko. The term “Algorithm” descended from
hybrid art system itself. This is the first hybridiza- the name of an Arabian mathematician who was
tion typology of creation methodologies. active around 820 AD in Baghdad. It is believed
The new aesthetics of Digital Arts are founded that his surname, al-Khowarazmi is the source for
with this continuous antithesis of blurring the the term algorism. According to Roman Verotsko
boundaries and resisting to this new artistic becom- (2009):
ing. This is the second hybridization typology of
2
“Artists engaging new computing and visualizing the progress of artwork with the goal of acting
technologies had to either collaborate with engi- its potentiality, differently from the traditional
neers for programming their ideas or else create spectator that has no possibility of interaction. The
their own procedures (algorithms). The Algorists artwork is therefore, constituted of two different
are artists who create art using algorithmic pro- semiotic objects: the actor that is the computer
cedures that include their own algorithms”. Program and the other object, the spectator with
the role of co-authoring or co-acting. The computer
within its interactivity logic is capable of virtual
AESTHETICS OF INTERACTION objects reproductions that don’t act as “things”
anymore with forms and immutable properties, but
The notion of interactivity means the possibility as artificial “beings” more or less sensibly, more
of real time interaction with digital artwork. Art or less lively, more or less autonomously, more
of Virtual Environments integrates informatics or less intelligently. These achievements came
devices and modifies its interaction with the from research area of Artificial Life and Cogni-
Audience. It cannot be reduced only to technicist tive Sciences. Researches in the fields of Artificial
manipulations. This is the third hybridization Intelligence were going toward non programmed
typology of creation methodologies. behavior by utilizing genetic algorithms’ proper-
John Cage’s artworks have strongly anticipated ties. There is a basic principle within this studies:
interactive arts experience with introducing par- interactivity in its highest level of complexity
ticipation of spectators through objects, combina- between basic elements of Artificial Life (genes
tions and their casual instructions. or neurons) and their configurations correspond
In the same way, Duchamp stated that art- to the production of these emergent phenomena.
work becomes physical and objective through its This disciplinary field is derived from the first
Interactivity. Nowadays, researches on “specta- developments of Cybernetics. New aesthetics of
tor’s participation” were used in different areas hybrid forms between artwork and spectator led
of the Media Art as Performances, Kinetic Art, Contemporary Art to its conceptual and physical
Conceptual Art, Body Art and other forms of art. dematerialization. The phenomenon of demateri-
Aesthetics of Participation found its new alization entered the arts of showing with digital
redefinition within actual digital technologies. choreographies where dancers interacted with
Technological progresses have conducted to their virtual doubles projected on scenes. Digital
the creation of the first interactive media for Inter- Arts restore their lost technique with introducing
net with reintroducing and extending on the Web a new way of automatic use of information. The
experiences based on relations between digital computer is a hybrid machine and it is the first
artwork, audiences and authors. Digital creative machine that uses an interpretive language for
process becomes the result of complex collabo- its functioning.
rations among different co-authors from various
levels and matter of research in interdisciplinary
areas. Interactive artworks contain dialogs with VIRTUAL REALITIES
their spectators that are more than simply observ-
ers, they have an acting function. The virtual has its plain reality because it’s virtual.
The interactive artwork is created with two Gilles Deleuze, Difference and Repetition. (1994)
actors. The first actor that originates or defines
programming rules for spectator’s conditions
and the second actor-spectator that introduces
3
The definition of Virtual Reality is confusingly period was largely based on art and technology
expressed between one concept and its contrary. improvements. The concepts of Vannevar Bush
In fact, reality and virtuality aren’t in opposition: was taken and developed by Theodor Nelson
Virtual, from Latin virtus that means strength, of into basic notions of hypertext and hypermedia
what exists powerfully in reality, it’s essential and which indicate a space of reading and writing of
existential condition. The fundamental dualism is text, image and sound electronically doubled with
between ours’ perception and what really exists, the possibility of connection to a “Docu-verse”
and between what has been induced in ourselves (universe of documents).
and what exists outside of ourselves. These phe- Nelson’s hypertext isn’t linear but layered and
nomena that solicit our senses are always real: it allowed to its readers/writers personal infor-
they are physical phenomena. On the contrary, mation paths. His notions anticipate future files’
the cognitive representations induced by physical transfers and Internet messages which will start
phenomenon in our brain, could be an object that with the Web, in 1990. Political environment of
really exists or created by our imagination, so it the 1960s with the cold war conditions, initiate
doesn’t exist: in the first case the object is real; the ARPA project in the USA for creating domi-
in the second case the object is defined as virtual. nant positions in technology. Further goals of this
The Virtual Reality is often defined as an expres- group was the development of a communication
sion of meaning, deduced from an immersive and system. This communication system was called
interactive simulacra created by computer, which ARPANET and accomplished in 1969. The suc-
provides the user with the sensation of being com- cessive phases of technological development hap-
pletely immersed within artificial environment. pened at the end of that decade contributed with
For understanding the growth of virtual realities two fundamental notions of information science:
concepts, it’s important to introduce briefly the the information space and the interface. Douglas
fundamental phases of their history. The article Engelbart, from Augmentation Research Center of
entitled “As We May Think” written by Vannevar the Stanford University, introduced a revolution-
Bush and published by the Atlantic Monthly in ary idea of windows’ direct bit-mapping in 1968.
1945, had a revolutionary role for the history of Every pixel was assigned a bit memory unit with
communications. He described a machine called a value of 0 or 1. Engelbart with his invention
Memex that had a form of a desk with a translucent gave a possibility of direct space manipulation
plane, where the user could read his documenta- with the introduction of interface devices like the
tions. The Memex’s content was full of books, mouse and optical pen, user’s hand prosthesis.
journals and images translated to microfilms in a During the 1970s, Alan Kay and his research
readable format. This important project is consid- group of the Xerox PARC in Palo Alto, widened
ered to be an archetype of all hypertextual systems. these concepts by introducing the GUI (Graphic
Memex, was essentially an analogical machine. User Interface) through the introduction of the
The ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator Desktop metaphor, which became very popular
and Computer) was the first machine with alpha- with the Apple Computers. From the ARPANET
numerical code that was commercialized. During built in the 1960s, it has been developed the
the 1940s, Wiener’s cybernetic theories served World Wide Web by Tim Berners-Lee and the
as base for researches on “symbiosis” between CERN (European Council of Nuclear Research)
human and machines, concept which would be which would become a multimedia information
largely explored later on by many multimedia system for public audience in 1990.The Web has
artists. In the 1960s, there were important develop- a protocol of hypertext transfer (http, HyperText
ments of information science; the effects of that Transfer Protocol) that allows access to docu-
4
ments written with HTML(HyperText Markup environments are usually visited with the
Language). The first multiple user environments aid of an expensive data suit which features
MUD(Multiple User Dungeons) are essentially stereophonic video goggles and fiberoptic
textual interfaces and founded on the model of data gloves”(Biocca,1992).
the first electronic role video games. The MOO
(Muds Object-Oriented) are software more similar These definitions of Virtual Reality include the
to video conference systems than to role games. notion of electronically simulated environments
Visual virtual worlds created by users, have started and systems that need “goggles and gloves” for
to spread on the Web with the 3D programming accessing into them. This way of seeing them is
language named VRML (Virtual Reality Model- limiting because it doesn’t give the right explana-
ing Language). Tony Parisi and Mark Pesce at tion of these system’s opportunities. The natural
the first conference on the World Wide Web in consequences of these definitions cause behaviors
1994, presented Labyrinth, the first prototype of for this kind of realities that assign crucial part only
interface 3D that demonstrated the need to create a to important “hardware” or “software”. But this
language for describing 3D scenes on the Net. At conduct should be changed with adding another
that point, users of virtual environments needed level of definitions. What is the Virtual? Pierre
a movable image that represented themselves in Levy gives a brief response to this question by
this fictitious reality: the avatar. proposing a wider vision of the phenomenology
During the 1980s, new research area was with the following definition:
founded: the area of virtual reality. The Virtual
Reality is usually defined as a result of particular “...it is the transformation from a being modality
technological systems. Those systems include a to another being modality.” Therefore, “...simply,
computer with suitable computational capacities, one of the possible being modalities, opposed not
controlled by a set of linked devices. The following to “Reality” but to “Actuality”....”. It is a part of
paragraph introduces some examples of Virtual human experiences and in these terms we should
Reality definitions: consider the best possible way of understanding
it. The goal of Virtual Reality is resumed within
• “The terms virtual worlds, virtual cockpit, creating experience which should be of remarkable
and virtual workstations were used to de- quality as real world’s experience, or an unusual
scribe specific projects... In 1989, Jaron situation “proposed differently” or impossible to
Lanier, coined the term virtual reality to experience in Reality (Levy,1997)..
bring all of the virtual projects under a single
rubric. The term therefore typically refers to The philosopher Karl Popper defines three
the three-dimensional realities implemented kind of world’s experience of society:
with stereo viewing goggles and reality
gloves” (Krueger, 1991); “First, there is the physical world – the universe
• “Virtual Reality is electronic simulations of of physical objects...this is I will call World 1.
environments experienced via head mounted Second, there is the world of mental states; this is
eye goggles and wired clothing enabling I will call World 2. But there is also a third such
the end user to interact in realistic three- world, the world of the contents of thoughts, and,
dimensional situations” (Krueger, 1991); indeed of the products of the human mind; this I
• “Virtual Reality is an alternate world filled will call World 3” (Popper, 1977).
with computer-generate images that respond
to human movements. These simulated
5
The aim of the virtual reality is also to create a every individual. Perceptual states are influenced
conceptual “world-in mind” (World3) experience with different contents of mediated environment,
through high technology systems. The human its entities’ types and interactions levels. The
perceptions and cognition are the links between term “Presence” identifies personal impressions
the real world (World1) and this conceptual worlds induced by complex expressions of sensorial
(World3) (Kunii, 2005). The artists, as we have paths, unified with previous memories of the same
seen it in the previous paragraph, with their own experiences (Gibson, 1996). This terminology is
artworks create conceptual “world-in mind” reali- used to describe a mediated experience within a
ties like many “World3”. The conceptual world physical environment. Shapiro and McDonald
modeling requires “to integrate art, science and (1995) distinguished between “reconstructed
technology to create integrated culture”. reality” created with lots of personal information
Therefore, in what terms is it possible to define through presentations of experienced events and
more precisely Virtual Reality without referring “constructed reality” where everything is founded
to particular computer hardware conditions? The on the way humans accept the presentations of
fundamental and perceptible experience within events as reality. Heeter (1992) describes three
these artificial environments is the sensation of distinct presence typology or “Being There”:
“Being There” in this unknown World. personal subjective experience, social presence
In 1992, Jonathan Steuer argued his prefer- and personal objective experience. The emotional
ences in indicating virtual reality through notions situation described as “Presence” refers to natu-
of “Presence” and “Tele-presence” where “Tele- ral perceptions induced by virtual environment,
presence” was defined as “a mediated perception Steuer, instead, intended “telepresence” a medi-
of an environment” (Steuer, 1992). Gibson stated ated condition. The concept of “telepresence”
his concept:” ...the essence of being in an envi- refers to every medium that induces in the self a
ronment” (Gibson, 1992). Sensorial immersion sense of presence. This concept has been intro-
in simulated worlds exclude the user from real duced by Marvin Minsky (1980) with his referring
world with inducing psychological phenomena of to teleoperating systems, on remote manipulation
disembodiment. This phenomenology announces of objects. The previous concept of telepresence
the possibility of freeing the body and becoming has been widened with redefining “Virtual Real-
another living being: a Cyborg. The concept of ity” without any need of referring to hardware
cyborg, of extended body and post humanity systems:”Virtual Reality is defined as physical
are frequently used in Digital Art. Stelarc is a or simulated environment where is perceived a
performance artist that made numerous artworks telepresence experience”(Marvin Minsky, 1980).
which propose different systems of prostheses- Nowadays, this kind of situations are “normal”
interfaces which unify humans to machines as for many users. There is a possibility to talk to
Exoskeleton (1998). somebody who is not physically present in the
It is a compressed air system with six telescopic same room. The movie “Being There” (Ashby &
legs that the artist uses for his movements within Kosinsky) reproduced it in 1979. We need other
its installation. Stelarc did other experiments concepts for giving a definition to every charac-
for the development of a muscular stimulation teristic of this phenomenology .Multimedia artist
system that permitted to the audience a remote Michael Naimark defines these characteristics
control of his body. Moreover, Virtual Reality is as “realness” and “interactivity”. Brenda Laurel
defined within our individual consciousness; in (1990) and Rheingold (1991) made similar distinc-
fact it’s related to various factors needed to the tions. These are some of the principal definitions:
creation of a sense of presence, which differs in
6
• Vivacity: This term defines a medium’s and body movements. The breathing and the
capacity to produce sensorially rich participant’s movements create their own paths
environments; within a forrest representation. Davies’s artwork
• Interactivity: This term defines a range is very impressive because of its realization with
of interaction possibilities at user’s dis- transparencies and luminous fluxus and it gives
posal, capable to create relations and to an oneiric dimension to the staged virtual space.
influence form and content of the mediated The spectator-”immerse-ant” achieves his new
environment. breathing function that makes him navigate in this
artificial environment and returns to real world.
Sutherland (1965) indicated that virtual real- Jeffrey Shaw, Agnes Hegedus and Bernard
ity is the ultimate simulation. He enthusiasti- Lintermann installation “conFIGURING the
cally described his physical immersion in the CAVE”(1996) uses an environment called
electronic space which he called “mathematical CAVE(Cavern, acronym of Cave Automatic
wonderland”. This kind of Reality couldn’t be Virtual Environment) developed by researchers
reproduced in its physical form in actual three- of the Electronic Visualization Laboratory (EVL)
dimensional space, “There’s no there there” but at the University of Illinois, Chicago. CAVE en-
only in the Place, difficult-to-define within the vironment simultaneously represents the virtual
computer, which William Gibson (1984) a science scene on four surrounding and transparent walls,
fiction writer defined Cyberspace. staged with an audio system. The name of this
There are many studies that try to define artificial environment refers to one of the best-
individual factors which contribute to a forming known allegory of the Cave in Plato’s Republic
of perceptions, experienced in the virtual envi- (Book VII). This allegory has been developed on
ronment. Most of the researches are related to a the concepts of reality, representation and their
sense of presence or self-consciousness of being perception through the image of the Prisoner de-
in virtual environment. It becomes a place where tained within a cavern, where his perception of
mediated communication happens. Discussions the world’s reality is re-assumed with Shadows
and trials searched for elements from natural on the Walls of Dancing Flames. ConFIGURING
environments which should be reproduced or the CAVE creates an immersive environment with
modeled to facilitate our consciousness of “Be- projecting the synthetic images on the walls. The
ing Present” (Lombard & Ditton, 1997). The user with moving his head and body, explores
advances in scientific areas dedicated to mediated and modifies the elements of audio-visual space.
experiences are closely related to the technologi- Installation Memory Theater VR (1997) of
cal improvements and to the Human Computer Agnes Hegedius, uses the virtual reality from a
Interface developments. Steuer with the definition different, more conceptual and historical point of
of Vividness and Interactivity indicated them as the view. The visitor controls the projection onto a
basic elements which contribute to the immersion large, cylindrical screen of four interactive film
level in a CMC communication channel(Computer scenes, that represent the history of imaginary
Mediated Communication)(Steuer,1995). space visualizations. The installation’s idea
It’s useful to introduce and understand some explicitly relate to the ancient concept of the
meaningful examples of immersive environments memory theater, re-adapted to actuality with a new
typologies. Char Davies’s installation “Osmose” consideration of architectural space as a digital
is important because the spectator-”immerse-ant” information space. The concept of information
is equipped with head-mounted video device and space returns to the originary idea of Memory
a jacket with sensors that registered breathing Palaces or Method of Loci and other mnemonic
7
arts technique used in ancient history. Cicero in Generator (1996-97) with Gideon May offered to
2 century BC imagined to associate diverse dis- its participants the possibility of construction and
course elements to different parts of an imaginary exploration of virtual worlds. The World Generator
city and go from one place to another of that city created a complex space of semantics combina-
while he was making a speech. This mnemonic tions with 3D objects, images, poetic phrases,
technique is founded on the idea that our memory film, sounds selected by users. The concept of
functions with a spatial analogy. this artwork installation is directly linked to the
In the XVI century, a system of signs and OULIPO’s art movement. Maurice Benayoun in
physical structures stopped to give storing indica- World Skin (1997) places the spectators in the
tions about a transcendent wisdom of the world. center of a battle, with a camera that registered
Giulio Camillo (1480-1544) started with the idea their experiences and reflected on representations
of a Palace of Memory and he built a Memory acts. The interaction of physical and virtual ar-
Theater structure exhibited in Paris and Venice. chitecture happens in Hani Rashid and Lise-Anne
The building was composed of columns with im- Couture Asymptote (1987) with trying to transfer
ages, characters and ornaments on them that should virtual properties into reality and enriching the
have represented all the Universe’s Wisdom, with perception in physical space. Architect Marcos
allowing the visitors to have all their questions Novak (1998) with his virtual worlds, interprets
answered with the help of Cicero’s wisdom. In the cyberspace as a liquid architecture with all pro-
VR Memory Theater, Hegedus used this example grammable structures, transcending real space
from the ancient history to recreate it in the con- and making it capable of intelligent interactions
temporary imaginary space and understand the with the spectator.
history of Virtual Reality.
John Klima’s 3D virtual world Glasbead
(1999) uses the model of multi-user gaming. THE VIRTUAL EXPERIENCE
It is a multi-user virtual environment, made in
spherical form and composed with musical in- Interactive environment design analyzes cogni-
struments that could be played from distance and tive involvement of user’s experiences during
composes many environments of sounds. Virtual the last decades. The human user or participant,
environment “The File Room” (1994) of Antoni as virtual performer, emerges in his corporal,
Muntadas uses its three-dimensional space to emotional and social entity. The complexities of
create an evolutive encyclopedia realized through these entities are used in actual socio-technical
continuous collaboration, by following the model networks and through their intersections, they
of “work in progress” with the goal of free infor- establish cultural networks of meanings. Nowa-
mation’s diffusion necessity. TeleGarden (1995) days, subjective experiences of user’s interaction
installation made by Ken Goldberg and exposed in virtual environments have been investigated also
at Linz’s Center Ars Electronica, explores the in psychological research fields. These research
theme of telepresence with connecting the specta- studies use the concept of “Presence” percep-
tor’s real space with installation’s remote space. tion in virtual reality. This psychological human
The connected “internauts” interact with plants state is generally defined as a user’s subjective
in a garden and they could see the consequences sensation of “being there”, a part of the scene
of their action in real time. The phenomenon of developed by the medium (Barfield W., 1995).
dematerialization enters the arts of staging with The concept of presence is relevant for designing
digital choreographies where dancers interact and evaluating the virtual media. It is the key for
with their virtual double. Bill Seaman in World understanding virtual reality’s experience, but it
8
isn’t the only parameter. The user’s emotions are is an extension that is used to evaluate user’s par-
essential for understanding how humans inter- ticipation level under which he could modify the
pret virtual worlds and how to obtain important forms and contents of media environments in real
implications for conceptual understanding of time. Laurel (1990) explicitly discussed Interface
virtual experience (Hang, 1999). The process of Design, emphasizing the importance of natural
adaptation to artificial environments provides us experience of ours’ interaction with technological
with knowledge of biological features, creation media (Laurel, 1990). She describes a medium in
of interaction, building artifacts, behavioral rules terms of Mimesis, imitation or representation of the
and development of new culture. The parameters sensible world aspects, especially human actions,
of mediated experience compose the structure in literature and art, as relations between user and
of Virtual Medium. Virtual Environment in its technology from acting to gaming. The Engage-
general composition function could be defined ment, emotional state described by Laurel, serves
with its peculiar characteristics, which differs as a critical factor in personal relations. Virtual
from other media, like Communication Systems. environments have been diffusely represented in
Communication systems are composed with a science fiction literature rather than elsewhere.
group of functions that are identified with a main Cyberspace, an electronic reality was described
interface, communication channels and organi- by William Gibson (1984) in his Neuromancer,
zation infrastructures. McLuhan (1964) clearly where he offers a slightly different vision of an
defines that this is a prototype of Communication interactive and multisensory environment. He
System and the physical world is his content. “All unifies the “real reality” with “synthetic reality”
Media are human sensorial extensions” (McLu- within an information matrix directly linked
han,1964).Researchers of Virtual Reality have through a neural system to the media environ-
proceeded into developing new sensorial exten- ment’s hardware. This way a mediated experience
sions and their interfaces. Confronting Virtual links body’s sensorial organs, where given stimuli
Reality developments with other communication receive responses directly from the brain, causing
media like Television, Computers and Telephone, extreme sensations of fullness and profoundness.
VR emerges as a relevant meta medium (Kay & Gibson distinguishes one kind of cyberspace’s
Goldberg, 1997). “It isn’t only a technology but experience from another non-interactive, and he
it is a destination” (Biocca, 1995). defined it “simstim”, also experienced through
The final goal is, in fact, making a “full im- neural interfaces, but passive as traditional media.
mersion of the human sensorimotor channels into The phenomenology of Virtual Realities could be
a vivid experience” (Biocca,1995). In this ideal critically analyzed through a definition of gaps,
system, human body is immersed in the commu- expressed in three different modalities. The first
nication process with Information. Other media examination offers a point of view based on the
also include us in their environment: radio and technology which suggests that the best way of
television stimulate our imagination and obser- understanding a “VR system” is to find out the
vation, but they don’t immerse our senses inside presence or absence of a minimum hardware re-
their environments. quirements. This modality of definition doesn’t
identify a conceptual analysis unit necessary for
virtual reality. If the virtual reality consists with a
THE VIRTUAL MEDIUM set of machines, how could we identify a singular
virtual reality? The third problem is: when and how
Communication Media are classified regarding to VR is losing its theoretical dimensions? When and
their level of interaction. Interactivity parameter what are the conditions under VR cannot exist?
9
When a system that has the minimum required ontological regions which are not threatened by
hardware is a VR system and when it isn’t? In common risks.”
lacking of a clear definition, probably the most
efficient solution would be the changing of actual Art follows this tendency and therefore “vir-
definition to a broaden theoretical vision. The ac- tualizes the virtualization” because Art traces its
tual terminology has all possible uses in academic path “Here and Now” with emphasizing sensual-
and popular fields where every “non-real” aspect ity. The Abstract Art is considered to be a form of
or situation becomes “virtual reality”. This attitude language (Levi-Strauss, 2007).
induces even more confusion and impoverishment One of the principal models of Abstract Art has
in understanding virtual reality’s phenomenology. been music and language in a very close relation.
The actual tendency is to define VR in terms of Art languages through their own plastic signs
“experience” instead of “set of hardware”. The compose a visual semiology through abstraction
definability of Virtual Reality in these terms al- from figurative art representation. Even within
lows a better possibility of analysis where a set of Reason’s philosophers, the explanation of the
dimensions indicates a range within virtual reality abstraction phenomenology could be introduced
could change its meaning related to other types of from their Encyclopedie as follows:
mediated experiences. This chapter indicates the
research areas for developing new definitions of “Abstraction is a Spiritual Operation which we
virtuality in relation to interdisciplinary areas of use to describe Impressions on external objects,
Metaplastic Design. One of the goals for VR is or of our Sensorial experiences within our Minds,
to create a sense of realness within these research where we develop our particular images of a
areas by combining high resolution and complex specific Figure and which we separately store
computer graphics. It is displayed with particular and maintain in our Minds[...] and because we
devices capable of objects’ manipulations and cannot share our thoughts with others but verbally
navigating within created environment. Previ- describing them, this need and ours use to give
ous experiences from all over the world largely specific names to real objects, we use it even to
remain with unsolved issues. How to efficiently define metaphysical concepts with our own words”
use virtual reality and moreover what is the lan- (L’Encyclopedie, Diderot).
guage typology that should be used within these
artificial realities? The poetic model of abstract Art within its
relations with natural, human language substitutes
a denotative function of words with expressive
ABSTRACT LANGUAGES and emotional forces of plastic images.
As the Poetry represents language in its purity,
The Art is a form for public expression of emotions so does abstract art and its pioneers with the “Art
and feelings from deep inside of our subjectivity. Purity” within abstract art conception. Form and
Art arises emotions into autonomous space-time color are used only to express their pure proper-
entities, which induce us emotions and it becomes ties, not to describe figures or objects (Kandisky,
a high quality and subjective experience (Lévy, 1968). The Russian’s Cubism-Futurism Art Move-
1997). ment is very interesting because of its particular
Lévy continues with these words: mixture of poets and painters. They unified Poetry
and Painting in a unique language, a specific
“With researching safety and control, we are look- model for abstract art pioneers. They elaborated
ing for The Virtual because it leads us towards a methodology for construction of an abstract art
10
grammar composed with an alphabet, a syntax and Content level). They are two independent signs,
a semantics. There are opinions, even nowadays, but often in interaction. The merit of the Groupe
that abstract art cannot contain signs, because it µ (1992) is the disambiguation of the iconic sign
doesn’t denote a meaning and so it doesn’t have the from the plastic sign, by making plastic signs a
value of signs (Bru, 1955, p.43). According to these new typology of signs. This means that it exists
opinions, abstraction is a process of non-figurative the relation between expression and content, and
definition. Umberto Eco (1976) argued by adding signifier and signified(meaning).Because we are
a process of a relation between three elements: talking of signs, the plastic significant is related
Signifier, Signified (meaning) and its Referent. to its signified(meaning) of plastic significant
He indicates the eventuality of signs’ existence (which can vary). It is impossible to anticipate their
without any referents like Pegasus a mythological meaning, but we have to analyze other elements
animal figure. We could observe that the object all together: form, color, structures to understand
or referent it’s not absolutely necessary to have their meaning, and this process should be relational
its sign. De Mauro (1967, pg.83-84) underlines and topological through oppositions (Calabrese,
that: ” ...the linguistic sign doesn’t unify an object 1985). The Semiotics demonstrates that a code is
and its name, but a concept and its acoustical valid even if it is unstable. In conclusion, from
image....”, or respectively a Signified(meaning) this researches it arises that a plastic sign is a new
to its Signifier. Jacobson (1960), on the matter, type of signs. The plastic signs are unstable, not
indicated the importance of the links between predetermined but directly linked to oppositions
Plastic arts and language which suggested the which every artwork determines (Mounin, 1968).
art experimentation of Picasso with his important By analyzing them as indexes and symbols, their
semiotic models. Levi-Strauss (1979) disagreed expressive value is independent from their iconic
by arguing that without an actual referential object content. Feelings, emotions, notions could be
the reasoning becomes an Academic speculation expressive in the sense of the concept of their
on the signifier. Disagreements stand within the plastic meaning:
idea of considering the artwork’s meaning crucial
in identifying actually represented object. Eco “The primary attention to the Significant Dimen-
(1976) suggested his solution by solving the am- sion in the proper plane of the plastic image,
biguity of languages with defining them Codes or organization of forms, colors, lines, which
of expression. The verbal language is considered determine the composition of Artwork should be
to be a particular code with two articulations and carefully considered with operation of Mise en
abstract art language is considered a code with a Discourse by visual description and interactive
simple articulation. Nelson Goodman (2003) suggests simulacra with the Spectator. Klee chose another
that the relation between image and object it’s just way: asked the Painting to demonstrate its semiotic
one of the possible forms of Symbolizations called independence.” (Roque, 2004).
Denotation. The Rhetoric Groupe µ (1992),from
the University of Liegi, within the studies of
Visual Semiotics’ advancements refused the idea ABSTRACT VIRTUAL SPACE
of the visual sign, which uses plastic elements
identified as significant and links the icon and to “The virtual space is the calculated conquer of
its Signified(meaning). They substitute the visual Measure”
sign with two real signs, the iconic sign and the
plastic sign, both constituted with a signifier and a
signified (meaning) (the Expression level and the
11
Virtual Space described with the poetics of Paul To ourselves, the metaphor of our Existence
Klee, found new possibilities of content expres- will be passing in that Point, and we could Become
sion through the attempt of world’s reconstruc- that “Being” in other space-time conditions, part
tion with his qualities values. These results could of That Object (Kafka’s The Metamorphosis).The
be obtained with the operation of information’s images of virtual space cannot be separated from
extraction and their transformation, qualification, reality and every part of it becomes a moment of
a “qualification” of quantity. The search for the being there and existence. In the World of Quali-
World of Quality it’s an intense and dynamic ties, the images are not only representations but
activity to obtain. The Form of these spaces are they acquire Vitality by Conservation the Memory
obtained, as Klee in (Edschmid, 1920) narrates: of Human Beings.
” ...The World of Qualities, which opens more

deeply when you enter it, but it isn’t a World of FROM CREATION TO THE SYSTEM
preexisting Forms, they change in fieri, in the
course of execution, in Gestaltung; it is the World Paul Klee’s “Creative Confession” (Edschmid,
of Infinite and Organic relations, which rise from 1920) is the first document that contains an open
Real encounters and their measure, from the Ef- declaration about his poetics where Human-Artist,
fective Force which every image develops in its Designer use themselves as a cause through Art.
particular Space-Time position...” Paul Klee, with the artist’s Confession, had in-
tended to be world’s Consciousness that becomes
Every infinitesimal element of Space is in the artist’s creations and in his artwork’s be-
naturally, fundamentally defined in the Point. A coming. Art that “doesn’t repeat visible things,
non dimensional Point, neither Warm nor Cold, but renders visible” (Edschmid, 1920) imposes
neither White nor Black, but a generic element to the Artist a necessity to construct Everything
of the artificial space of Pure abstraction: the from Nothing.
Grey Point .It is the principal law of movement
and figuration elaborated through Pure Energy in “For Klee, being able to recognize himself as art-
determined directions. These processes constitute ist, had meant to reuse all the elementary forms
The Idea of All Principles (Cherchi, 1978).Humans of vision to justify with their genetic process of
in Virtual Space are Dynamic Centers surrounded becoming. Here, in his painting which is becoming,
with Up-Down-Front-Back-Left-Right (to be in the universe that is becoming in its physiognomy,
noted similarities with the philosophies of Hus- converge on hidden reasons of “being” and with
serl and Heidegger) spaces. Objects, within their its Intelligence cannot be given with irrelevance
nature of continuous transforming and dynamics or with gratuity.”.....” There is no Universe of
in these Spaces become: Forms to decompose, with syllogistic geometry
deduction a predefined drawing of combinations,
“... Object isn’t certain anymore, it could have but exists a necessity of becoming to primordial
existed or not, it could still exist, to be or not elements from which Constructively, with spon-
to be: Being, definitively, only the encounter of taneous movement, creates Physiognomy of the
Coordinates, a luminous point within obscure World which enfolds us.” (Cherchi, 1978).
extension of Possible Space-Time, could always
mutate into another Subject, which trajectory Klee’s reality is an experimented reality
could pass through that Point.” Paul Klee in through a qualitative translation both in a conscious
(Edschmid, 1920) and unconscious way. His analysis of the plastic
12
syntax would never be Pure and Morphologically as a need that the artist realizes between natural
distant description of its types and technical con- order and artificial order.” (Boulez, 1984).
ditions, property of Painters, but it would always
be those types and conditions as vital interaction The dispute between two Orders is recursive
of the artists and their experiences of the world. with Klee, and the order between “visible” and
“invisible” (Edschmid, 1920) contains it very
“A sort of Logical Formalism seems to be imposed clearly: that dichotomy is constantly analyzed.
as Equilibrium in Chaos of Sensations, at least The artificial order seems reasonable compared
in a sense that they are significant choices and with rational geometry that seems untruthful: but
predisposed to a verified effect or to be verified.” it’s a contradiction, because Klee uses geometry
(Cherchi, 1978). and underlines its practical value (Cherchi, 1978).
The natural order doesn’t represent a positive
The Figuration or Gestaltung is a “tool” used category versus a negative category of artificial
by Klee to configure, because apparent emptiness order. This discussion converges more on specula-
of Chaos is becoming a world of Form’s phenom- tions on the nature of speculations than making
enology. Following the theories of Paul Klee, the deductions about order.
action of vital forces that animate Universe, act
in a universal state of tension within polarity of “If our senses are linked to the condition of finite-
Chaos-Cosmos. Cosmo-logically, that polarity is ness, the natural order is the world of Invisible,
explained as a duality of “being or not being” of the world of Genesis, of relativity, of movement:
All, which follows physical and biological laws. every sensorial definition or definition with prac-
Authentic chaos figuratively corresponds to the tical proofs, couldn’t be schematized and lose
concept of the Point (not mathematically) and its richness by achieving clarity of the artificial
the concept of the grey color: the grey point. The order.”(Edschmid, 1920)
a-dimensionality of the point and the neutrality
of grey, live their critical equilibrium, balanced These Klee’s specific evaluations are neces-
between Being and Non-being. sary to be introduced because they refer to the
Metaplastic Dynamic Forming which will be
“Existing has a sense that etymologically resem- introduced in the chapter “Metaplastic Virtual
bles to Klee’s cosmogony hypothesis: Ex-sistere, World” that follows within this book. Accord-
to exit the chaos towards an essential order. ing to Klee, when natural order determines its
Because of that assumption the general tension internal flows, its dualities as movement and
of ambivalence that initiates and concludes in anti movement reciprocally counterbalanced,
authentic chaos, it contra-poses the chaos as an- the artificial order fixes its dynamical flows and
tithesis which prefigures the perfectible possibility computation in a gradual quantification. On one
of Cosmos as order. This antithesis indicates the side, there is Self-consciousness, but oriented
need of a process which couldn’t be developed into formalistic adventure which is progressively
without being involved into dramatic choice, the distanced from the organic content to be applied
active or passive selection: certain forms are to. On the other side, it consists with needs for
assumed not others, this or that form is chosen, ordered Self-actualization, immediately and liv-
but the important thing is the becoming of being ingly, to follow the “Creative Confession” of
explained as a conscious duty of order. This order Form In Fieri. “Creative Confession” means in
has no need for explanation of organic mediation fact, organic consciousness of natural order, and
by understanding it and controlling it through
13
analytical experience, its polyvalent states and Metaplastic discipline is composed with different
Cosmic forces surpass the limits of Erlebnis transdisciplinary fields coming from Art, Design,
(lived non-conceptualized) (Edschmid, 1920). Architecture, Cybernetics, Psychology, Semiotics,
These polarities within their alternating meanings, Artificial Intelligence and Computer Sciences.
often determine contradictorily emotional states Metaplastic discipline defines proper goals
in human mind. Klee was even more sensible on characteristics with derivation from its originary
issues linked with Visual Language codification, disciplines as:
by dictating his rules in theoretical essays, and
as a theorist of Gestaltung he felt the need for a • Interdisciplinarity of existing rela-
construction of a system that would be useful for tions between Art, Design, Science and
the Images’ perception. He translated images into Technology;
Representations through rationality of tools for • Dematerialization of artworks and its pro-
Communication and rendered them intelligible cesses from their disciplines;
with its peculiar aesthetic experience. • Hybridization between Aesthetics and
Technology(hybridization type 1) becomes
re-definition of sensible forms produc-
METAPLASTICA tion practices; it becomes in socialization
through artworks and in different levels of
“Here is learned how to organize movement in interaction modalities: between artwork,
logical relations” Klee author and spectator(hybridization type 3)
and between society, science and technol-
ogy (hybridization type 2);
The earlier plastic art movements characterized • Interactivity as a fundamental paradigm of
the conceptual and structural basis of the virtual dynamic relations occurred among author,
media with the spatial and kinetic methodologies spectator and artwork;
activated by the user during its interaction pro- • Synaesthetic immersivity of spectator
cesses. The conceptualization of Klee’s logical- through his sensorial and psychological
plastic formalism indicates the possibility for a involvement coordinated in the interactive
definition of virtual space theoretical Metaplastic representation;
model. It is defined through composition rules of • Communication of Wisdom as a cultural
abstract art languages. The plasticity, concept in goal to be obtained through the creation of
opposition with elasticity, in digital media terms new metaplastic media.
is a characteristic of the user’s activities that
within its own interaction process can create, Digital Metaplasticity describes plastic
modify and perform every form and content of qualities of digital media configurations and its
the newer virtual media. The increased plastic- expressions through the applications of abstract
ity of the post Web 2.0 digital media include the art languages and methodologies to computational
social dimension as another level of potentiality symbolic systems. The metaplastic media, one
to extend human communicative and creative of discipline’s objects, within its own aesthetic
possibility for the new virtual communities. The and semantic codes define a new culture of the
term metaplasticity is defined within the neurosci- representation. Interaction processes defined with
ence or in an algorithmic sense of plasticity which metaplastic codes, trace behaviors and plastic
are different point of view from a definition that multisensorial qualities.
would be given in the metaplastic discipline. The
14
Metaplastic languages or codes are meth- tion”. Every field mentioned before, was defined
odologies based on abstract art languages rules with more subfields. The parameters were placed
applied to digital symbolic systems needed for on the conceptual map axis, each for every field
the construction of Metaplastic media Entities. through a qualitative evaluation to define a digital
The following definitions introduce some other communication media. The two external zones
necessary levels of theoretical definitions: were defined, respectively, as the “Private space”
and the “Social space”, within the use of media
• Metaplastic Entities are complex ob- and its cultural content. The internal circle’s
jects of any present and future typology, width, visually indicated the conditions of being
which directly act and interact within the part of the media included or not included in the
applied metaplastic metalanguage rule social spaces. Defining that media property, we
configurations; defined different reality conditions: virtual reality,
• Metaplastic Virtual Worlds are digital extended reality or mixed reality.
spaces typology of Metaplastic Entities; The level that described the “emotional in-
• Metaplastic Metaspace is a cyberspace volvement” area, indicated which conditions had
composed with a network of Metaplastic improved to create an immersive reality. The ap-
Virtual Worlds. plication of the methodology to the laboratory
projects, defined their quality and made it visible
for different categories and various relations
METAPLASTIC VIRTUAL MEDIUM levels. The resultant models of the virtual media,
offered useful indications about the shared infor-
The development of a theoretical meta-model for mations; the definition of the user’s activity; the
virtual media definition is based on the metaplastic interaction modalities with the information and
ontology (Figure 1). This model is a conceptual with other connected users. The visual language
map described within three fundamental study model had confirmed the importance of the aes-
fields: the information field for the “Construction thetic value as a meaning element and to empha-
of knowledge”; the sensorial field for “Emotional size the emotional intensity of the medium.
involvement” and the area of “Social Participa-
Figure 1. Ontologies: (Left) Metaplastic discipline; (Right) Metaplastic Media. ©2010 Gianluca Mura
15
Figure 2. The Metaplastic Media Model. Use this

THE METAPLASTIC MEDIA
map for media planning. ©2010 Gianluca Mura.
MAP PLANNING TOOL
This paragraph describes a visual methodology for

the definition of metaplastic media. The method
is shown with valid parameters of a virtual envi-
ronment project. Each value in the Media char-
acteristics map, determines its polar coordinates
(value, angle) within the Figure 2. This way, it is
defined media’s different characteristics and their
values of planned media hypothesis. It is useful
to obtain every media’s quality value with the
application of following function:
Metaplastic Media f = (S, St, P, Iv, Cg, If, Sm,

A, E, K, SK, SE);
fruition; Sm = semantic meaning; A = aesthetic
value; E = emotional content; K = structured
where are used the following properties: S =user’s information contents; SK = Social-Knowledge
social participation; Cg = cognitive property; St content value; SE = Social-Emotional content
= space-time ubiquitous connectivity (mixed and value; X,Y = map values in polar coordinates.
augmented reality); P = playfulness; lv = emo- (Table 1)
tional involvement; If = information contents
Table 1. Metaplastic media form. Use for calculating metaplastic virtual media hypothesis.
Metaplastic Media Planning Form Metaplastic Media f = (S, St, P, Iv,Cg,If,Sm,A,E,K,SK,SE);

Value X in[ 0..4 ] grade evaluation (Low/High) Value Y in [ 0.. 360° ]
grades: 0 = Low …. 4 = High
St Space-time connectivity Grade [0..4] …..... * 0,25 = …............. Y= 90° (social axis)
P Playful Grade [0..4] …..... * 0,25 = …............. Y= 337,5° (playful axis)
Iv Involvement Grade [0..4] …..... * 0,25 = …............. Y= 307.5° (involvement axis)
Cg Cognitive Grade [0..4] …..... * 0,25 = …............. Y= 232,5° (cognitive axis)
If Informative Grade [0..4] …..... * 0,25 = …............. Y= 202,5° (informative axis)
Sm Semantic meaning Grade [0..4] …..... * 0,25 = …............. Y= 180° (semantic axis)
A Aesthetic values Grade [0..4] …..... * 0,25 = …............. Y= 0° (aesthetic axis)
S Social Connectivity (St + …..... …......) / 2 = …....................... Y= 90° (social axis)
E Emotional (P + Inv + …........) / 3 = …............... Y= 15° (emotional axis)
K Knowledge value (Cog + Inf + …......) / 3 = ….............. Y= 165° (knowledge axis)
SK Social-Knowledge (S + K) / 2 = …....................... Y= 112,5° (social knowledge axis)
SE Social-Emotional (S + E) / 2 = …....................... Y= 22,5° (social emotional axis)
Space Social space S <= 0.5 (Yes=4 No = 0) (social axis)
Private space S > 0.5 (Yes=4 No = 0) (social axis)
16
Every coordinate pair (x,y) of calculated val- Simultaneously through a web blog there was a
ues are obtained in the Media planning form, continuous debate and elaboration on the proposed
Table 1. The obtained values are drawn on respec- projects. As results, the workshop offered differ-
tive radial scale and it is unified to give proper ent exposition models with significant examples
map fields that illustrate desired media’s proper- developed through the media map methodology
ties (see example in Figure 3). within the student laboratory. The complexity of
digital media for expositions, requested a particular
The “Virtuality in Arts and Design”: attention to describe the relations between visitor
Virtual Exhibition Projects’ and interactive devices. The analysis of those rela-
Experience tions solved conceptual problems about the com-
munication of cultural content. For that purpose,
The workshop discussed themes linked with cre- it was proposed that the designer-planner should
ation and application of the virtual reality in the have suitable competences and high sensibility,
Arts and Craft for producing and communicating regarding elements for discussing cultural com-
cultural content. The event gave an occasion to plexity. The international workshop offered an
express and discuss different combinations of important occasion for interdisciplinary collabo-
art languages and industrial design planning. ration and analysis of the phenomena at various
The activity was developed in two different but levels with consequential elaborations of methods
interactive levels: the student laboratory and the and tools on related themes. The “Virtuality in
discussion forum about inherent themes. The Arts and Design Workshop”, during its sessions
meetings were held between the professors and took into consideration different media typolo-
students at the Ecole du Louvre with Professor gies and their inherent problems. The workshop
Xavier Perrot and Gianluca Mura of the Politecnico had experienced the encounter of museology and
di Milano University, Industrial Design Faculty museography disciplines with industrial design,
(Perrot, Mura, 2005). using theoretical instruments to develop unifying
project practice. The final results were considered
Figure 3.Metaplastic Media Map example of a virtual environment project. ©2010 Gianluca Mura.
17
helpful as a comparison base for successive di- The philosopher Gaston Bachelard in his book
dactic improvement (workshop website at http:// “The poetics of space” examines the potential of
workshop.artsmachine.com). The workshop had psychological transformation of “real” places like
obtained the High Patronage of the Italian Ministry deserts, valleys and deep sea, open spaces differ-
of Foreign Affairs for cultural exchange. ent from urban spaces to which we have used to:
“By changing space, by leaving the space of one’s

DESIGNING POETICS IN usual sensibilities, one enters into communication
IMAGINARY SPACE with a space that is psychically innovating. For
we do not change place, we change our nature”
The conceptual activity of designing Metaplastic (Bachelard, 1966).
Virtual Environments (VE) poses a number of
problems to solve in different ways, through a Other significant examples could be found
direct relations between the visitors’ psycho- in the work of artists as Jeffrey Shaw and Petra
logical being and both the embodying interface Gemeinboek with “Uzume” and many others.
and the mediated content. The design’s process Open virtual environments offer individual and
complexity involves several fields of knowledge collective access with different types of experience
like technical and scientific information, social, construction which stimulate emotions, introspec-
cultural and psychological factors. The abstraction, reflection and consideration on surrounding
tion levels and the construction of meaning for space. Virtual reality immersive systems need new
multidisciplinary analysis requires the develop- definitions of concepts and space movements,
ment of a multidimensional knowledge system with logical test and aesthetic values defined
(Mura, 2007). within user’s interactions. Planning of dynamic
processes within virtual environment require a
“The medium of ‘immersive virtual space’, or vir- particular sensibility for dialog construction be-
tual reality as it is generally known has intriguing tween user’s extended senses and his surrounding
potential as an arena for constructing metaphors immaterial space. This metaphysical space is a
about our existential being-in the world and for metaphor of the post-modern society which is
exploring consciousness as it is experienced sub- completely immersed into globalized information
jectively, as it is felt”(Davies, 2001,pp 293-300). fluxus. Metaplasticity tries to give an opportunity
of redefinition of “user-human scale” condition,
The research about the human hybridization becoming an independent actor of its personal
with the virtual space has been developed in vari- political and social knowledge dimension.
ous artistic currents like the Body Art, Fluxus and Fluid immersive multidimensional space is,
the most recently NetArt. From these analyses in fact, a landscape of knowledge where the user
emerge the need for suitable communication space. could make his abstract surrounding experience.
Canadian artist Davies realized it with her work The interactor, user or Virtual Performer redefines
a new kind of spaces. his role within its abstract space immersion. This
enables him to interact with the environment and
“Through which our minds may float among make new forms of data creations, also with other
three-dimensionally extended yet virtual forms connected users. The user in his relation with the
in a paradoxical combination of the ephemerally synthetic environment realizes different level of
immaterial with what is perceived and bodily felt participation/inclusion within the system, which
to be real”(Davies, 2001) changes his role from spectator to interactor and at
18
the end “immersant”, defined with Char Davies’s ary model of “museums without walls”(Malraux,
words in her installation “Osmose” (Davies, 2001). 1957).For better understanding a phenomenology
The volume forms develop into a system maps relative to these developments, we have to resume
and has a route orientation function. The orienta- museum’s definitions. The official museum defini-
tion in the system is possible through signs which tion is the following:
indicates to users the possible options. The remote
presence of the user’s body and his extended “A museum is a non-profit making, permanent
senses, like analogue/opposite field polarity in the institution in the service of society and of its de-
immaterial-materiality of sound, light, form and velopment, and open to the public, which preserve,
colour produce various space aesthetic effects. The acquires, conserves, researches, communicates
user in these new plastic spaces could explore and and exhibits, for purposes of study, education and
interact with information and contribute to change, enjoyment, material evidence of people and their
delete or recreate it in different conceptual land- environment. (...)” (ICOM, 2009).
scapes. User’s results give important information
about the conceptual expression of his artwork Another definition:
and resulting knowledge maps, and their dynam-
ics within the virtual environments. Interactions “Museums are gathering places, places of dis-
in performance, produce aesthetic effects of the covery, places to find quiet, to contemplate and
virtual environment with transforming the entire to be inspired. They are our collective memory,
system into a new artwork (Figure 4). our chronicle of human creativity, our window on
the natural and physical world”(Ambrose, 1993).
IMAGINARY MUSEUMS The role and knowledge transformations

happened within museums not only because of
Technologies of Virtual Reality have irreversibly technology. The transformations have their origins
changed a sense of historical, philosophical, and inside the same causes of museum’s becoming,
technological role within museum’s institutions, in fact:
not only by changing their technologies, but with
changing institutional structures and cultural “Museums have their roles in our relations with
organization. They have permitted museum’s to artworks, which we think that don’t exist, have
open doors for mass media society of the Global never existed, where is ignored or was ignored
Village(Mcluhan, 1962), with realizing a vision- the modernity of European civilization; which ex-
Figure 4. Metaplastic abstract spaces. Xense project. ©2010 Gianluca Mura.
19
ists for less than two centuries. The 19th century This definition excludes most of Institutions
lived of museums; we still live with them, but we that don’t acquire, conserve or research materi-
forget that they have imposed to the spectators als despite they might have a service to Society’s
a new relation with artworks” (Malraux, 1957). functions and its development. These Institutions
and their evolution could be linked with research/
Malraux stated that the phenomenology of studies motives, educational and ludic functions,
museums’ changing functions and meaning are physically or virtually accessible for the Public.
strictly related with artwork’s exposition and to Virtual Museums with these new redefinitions
museum’s spectators-visitors roles. The act of in museum’s cultural areas has been accepted
sharing artifacts have transformed their aesthetic as a new museum’s typology. D. Tsichritzis and
value. New possibilities of communication allow Gibbs (1991) were among the first to use the
museum’s spectators-visitors the construction of term “Virtual Museum”(McKenzie,1994) even
personal paths of museum’s visit adapted to their if the first conceptual description was made by
own knowledge levels. Malreaux (1957) with the introduction of the
concept “Museum without Walls” or “Imaginary
“the technological museum is able to become an museum”. Within actual research context has been
augmentation system of human capabilities, help- accepted this definition:
ing men to facing with the complexity of the actual
society”(Engelbart, 1963) “and with complex “Virtual Museum is a collection of digital artifacts
problems in order to understand them”(Perrot, and information resources and virtually staged
1993). with a possibility of virtual visits and fruition by
the visitors-users”. (Malraux, 1957)
Therefore, the definition of Cultural Heritage
would be: The concept of Virtual Museum has two slightly
different definitions:
“Any concept or thing, natural or artificial,
which is considered to have aesthetic, historical, 1. Indicates a digital version of existing col-
scientific or spiritual significance”(ICOM, 2004). lections, which could be defined as digital
museum;
Recently, there has been further developments 2. Indicates an imaginary museum which
of Museology’s Disciplines. In fact, the ICOM doesn’t have real museum correspondent.
has included specific conditions:”Museums has
to have a Collection, which has to be properly The difficulty of exact functional and topo-
stored, conserved and archived”. Exceptions of logical classification for Virtual Museums is
those conditions are: founded in their characteristics of immateriality
and adaptability. Initially, a diffused opinion was
“Museum with a Unique Artwork, Naval Museums that Internet would be used only to attract new
or House-Museums with culturally linked objects; interest for real museum’s collections and that
Art Museums which apparently haven’t acquired a it would be used only for marketing purposes.
Permanent Collection, Science Museums or Chil- The characteristics of the surrogate visit doesn’t
dren’s Museums without Collections and Virtual replace a real visit because the real museum visit
Museums with Virtual Artifacts”(ICOM,2004). is on the contrary amplified, extended, enriched.
If it is true that Virtual Museums cannot re-
place real artifacts experience, they should fulfill
20
the following aspects described by Valentino and ing accessibility barriers for disabled visitors. It
Mossetto (AAVV, 2001): is an accessible museum for all, and a precious
occasion to learn and educate, as in for example
• Stimulate the public to go and see the orig- SFMoma with their “Learning how to look at a
inal artwork in museums; picture”, where artworks are explained with high
• Include other sensory experiences other educational methods. Education is the most im-
than vision: sound, touch, or even olfac- portant goal and function within a museum and
tory, which should be inappropriate in a it assumes diverse forms related to the place and
real museum (http://elteatrocampesino. circumstances. Virtual Museum gives a possibility
com, 2010); to researchers with their researches divulgation.
• Give a sense of orientation in order to eas- This new cultural phenomenon has an important
ily find exposed contents; area within museum activities.
• Contextualize the artifacts; For example, ICOM (International Council of
• Visualize techniques used by artist for their Museums) and UNESCO uses many resources to
artworks; investigate and report these new activities. This
• Provide restoring and virtual reconstruc- process is irreversible, but we shouldn’t forget
tion of artworks and sights of cultural that many museums don’t have their websites.
interest; Moreover, most museums don’t have important
• Create new representations in imaginary international supporters, for example. Most of
space of artifacts that could be only virtu- them have their website similar to a brochure and
ally unified when a museum cannot expose others are investing more resources in creation
them together (Malraux, 1957); of their website contents. The Hermitage in St.
• Offer museum’s and its exhibitions history Petersburg, which has one of the best museum’s
in virtual space; website of the world is created by IBM. An excel-
• Exhibit collections to wider, global lent example within their website is a Visual Search
audience; Engine named QBIC(Query by Image Content)
• Show sights not exposed to public. (http://www.hermitagemuseum.org,2010).With
choosing a criteria of research, color for example,
Virtual museum visit is more than a series a selection of artwork appears where that color
of instructions’ execution and extends a limit of is used. This search engine permits a particular
a simple display of photography. By looking at kind of search by shape/form visual quality. The
computer monitor, we can walk through artifacts actual tendency within museums community
in a gallery, look closer to its details and we could is to experiment new types of interaction and
save it and print it for personal use or obtain exposition, trying to link and involve the largest
further information on artist’s bibliography. In audience possible. Another example to consider
most cases, it’s possible to participate to a guided is the virtual space project for the Guggenheim
tour, accompanied with voices and sounds. Pho- museum: the Guggenheim Virtual Museum. This
tographs or digital reproductions aren’t original project shows an augmented environment for
artifacts, but copies on different digital devices. the exploration and the development of cultural
Malraux never thought of Imaginary Museum experiences within the cyberspace.
as a substitute for Real Museum, but as its par-
ticular extension, with proper specific functions “The museum deeply changes with interactive pro-
and important historical researches. Museums cesses and becomes a “multiple museum” where
on the Web offer new opportunities for eliminat-
21
Figure 5. Metaplastic Virtual Museum. Front and side views. ©2010 Gianluca Mura
multimedia allow a superior degree of mediation of virtual museum project has new goals with this
with the artworks” (Perrot, 1999). particular typology:
According with Perrot (1999), the role of mul- • The System of Interpretations has the func-
timedia within museums should be different from tion of exhibition setting with the criteria
the real museum exhibition. Digital multimedia of staged digitalized artifacts collection;
should offer a different criteria for museum’s vis- • The System of Relations provides a feed-
its, by avoiding that the virtual museum becomes back function to visitors and among
a simple reproduction of the real museum. The visitors;
virtualization of the museum shouldn’t start from • The System of Coordination provides
a conceptual opposition between real and virtual a function of ordering for staging the
museum but it should contain both spaces simul- collection.
taneously within the same institution. Therefore
virtual museum becomes a media with augmented This virtual museum typology adds new
artworks’ documentation. Malraux, at last, imag- structures: archiving, exhibition setting, digital
ined the possibility of creation of a unique global collection and social function. The following
“Museum without Walls” that nowadays could be properties and roles define new system’s parts:
seen as the Net of nets (Internet). Social networks
platforms extend interactive cultural mediation • Digital Collection: coded information of
with artworks through the creation of self media collected artifacts;
networks. • Ordering: museological criteria for classi-
These new digital networks follow the idea of fication of exhibition collection (Figure 7);
Paul Valéry (1928) in “The conquest of ubiquity” • Exhibition Design: museographic criteria
(“La conquête de l’Ubiquité”) where he anticipated for exposition composing;
long before nobody could even thought about the • Museum Experience Design: identifies
new possibilities of cultural improvements that visitor’s cultural and social interactive ex-
will be offered by Internet and its social networks perience level (Figure 6).
half a century after his essay. The main structures
22
Figure 6. Visitor experience model ©2005 Xavier

project is a virtual space that contains cultural
Perrot. Used with permission
objects as “information-avatar”, which represents
3D-artwork signs linked with its own remote data.
The visitor can navigate and explore the meta-
plastic virtual museum and get the cultural infor-
mation simply by touching the represented objects.
The virtual environment guides the visit with
audio-visual signs to create a high comfortable
museum’s exploration. The project has been ex-
posed before at the “Museums and the Web”
ICHIM International Conference at the Ecole du
Louvre in Paris.
CONCLUSION
The Metaplastic discipline re-discover its funda-

mentals within artistic and scientific experiences.
This scheme offers several combinations pos- Definitions of virtual worlds are based on their
sibilities which would be used to create combina- artistic archetypes in art theorisations. Within
tions of Virtual Museums. These configurations the interdisciplinary encounter between artistic
will be used within the Metaplastic language. The research and digital technologies, it is determined
Metaplastic Virtual Museum project (Figure 5) is the possibility for metaplastic languages to con-
a particular metaplastic virtual world model built struct new visions and methodologies applied to
as a web museum (Gianluca Mura,2008) which digital media developments. It has been shown
offers a complete immersive experience into the first hypotheses of metaplastic media develop-
cultural information contained within it. The
Figure 7. Virtual Museum. Museological Path of Design objects could be explored within different theme
paths, even in mixed navigation of various themes©2010 Gianluca Mura.
23
ment with starting from virtual heritage and their Bush, V. (1945). As We May Think. Atlantic
multimedia applications. These typologies of Monthly, 176(1), 101–108.
virtual media models conducted to the definition
Calabrese, O. (1985). Il luogo dell’Arte. Milano,
of the metaplastic virtual worlds and they would
Italy: Bompiani.
be widely described within the next chapter.
Cherchi, P. (1978). Paul Klee teorico. Bari, Italy:
De Donato.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Coates, G. (1992). A virtual show. A multimedia
performance work. San Francisco.
This chapter is based on the doctoral dissertation
of Gianluca Mura,”Un modello di spazio virtuale Couchot, E., & Hillaire, N. (1991). L’Art Nume-
del Design” developed at the Politecnico di Milano rique. Paris: Ed. Flammarion.
University,Italy.
Davies, C. (2001). Multimedia: from Wagner to
I would like to thank Dr. Nataša Duboković
Virtual Reality (pp. 293–300). New York: W.W.
for her collaboration in writing this chapter.
Norton & Company.
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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
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Van Nostrand Reinhold. Metaplastic Virtual Museum.
Metaplastic Interactivity: Interaction process
Rheingold, H. (1991). Virtual Reality. London: defined with metaplastic codes, traces behaviors
Secker & Warburg Limited. and plastic multisensorial qualities of the virtual
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Italy: Donizelli. Metaplastic Language: Conceptual model
based on abstract art languages rules applied to
Steuer, J. (1992). Defining virtual reality: Dimen- digital symbolic systems.
sions determining Telepresence. The Journal of Metaplastic Metaspace: A conceptual cyber-
Communication, 42. space composed by a network of web metaobjects
Sutherland, I. (1965). The ultimate Display. Pa- (Metaplastic Virtual Worlds). The dynamic rela-
per presented at the IFIP Congress, 65, 506-508, tions between each own network nodes and the user
Information Processing. establish the metaspace meaning representation
through its shapes and behavior.
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Virtual Museums and Virtual Realities. In Proc. Metaspace/Virtual World as Virtual Museum.
Intl. Conf. on Interactivity and Hypermedia in Metaplastic Virtual World: A complex digital
Museums, Pittsburgh, USA. space which directly interact and act behaviors
Valéry, P. (1928). La Conquete de l’ubiquite. In within the applied metaplastic metalanguage rule
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du Tambourinaire. Museum Without Walls: Virtual Museum
from Malraux’s definition.
Wiener, N. (1948). Cybernetics or Control and Virtual Museum: A collection of digital
Communication in the Animal and the Machine. artefacts and information resources and virtually
Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. staged with a possibility of virtual visits and frui-
26
27
Chapter 2
The Metaplastic Virtual
World Theory
Gianluca Mura
ABSTRACT
This chapter introduces a methodology of metaplastic discipline for the realization of new virtual world.
It explains the theoretical and artistic background of metaplastic virtual worlds evolutions, from their
archetypes to their definition. The union between the plastic elements and the fuzzy logic systems, found
its expression with new metaplastic aesthetic values. The virtual media acquire form and meaning through
its process of conceptual interpretation. The metaphor of the artistic machine finds its new realization
where the machine itself becomes aesthetic expression of the virtuality. The following paragraphs use
metaplastic definitions within Art and Sciences application fields. In the conclusion of this chapter, two
practical examples will be introduced.
ARCHETYPES OF VIRTUAL MEDIUM machines visions. It is also a search for aspects of

artistic machines which had led to the definition of
The poetics of artistic machine indicated different original characteristics of the metaplastic virtual
hypotheses of evolution within the Avantgarde worlds. The Manifest of Futurist Reconstruction of
movements’ ideas from the beginning of the 20th the Universe wrote by Balla and Depero in 1910,
Century. Therefore, it is necessary to introduce emphasized the particular interests of the Futurists’
several historical moments of artistic and scien- movement which suggested a future fusion of Art
tific thoughts that have conducted to actual media and Science. Boccioni, one of the major Futurist’s
developments. This paragraph on Art History exponents, aimed to represent the Space of Soul
would introduce and follow a conceptual path and he has tried to decompose the object-painting
of different notions exploration about artistic to explore the Pure Becoming of Perception. He
places the spectator at the center of the painting as
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-60960-077-8.ch002 in his artwork “The Matter” (1912), where the idea
Copyright © 2011, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
The Metaplastic Virtual World Theory
of plans interpenetration, reaches up remarkable ment has been added to plastic figures. Calder
levels. With that painting, he obtained the objec- accomplished that in his creations which reached
tive that would made the spectator and the entire a dynamic equilibrium between their weight and
scene eternal, nearly a possible virtual space-time levity. The equilibrium is the most important
(Boccioni, 1971, reprinted). It is the light that gives quality of his abstract sculptures: equilibrium
Life to the Shape, for artists and in this concept are balances of statics and dynamics; statics in
he seems to relate to secret relations that exist “mobiles” and dynamics in “stabiles” (AAVV;
today between digital images and coded artifacts, 2004). Kinetic researches started from concepts
which regulate movement in the computer space. perceptively static (Optical art) and it has changed
The Constructivism becoming and diffusion, co- to dynamical perceptions by using infinite pos-
incided with the Futurist’s-Machinist’s aesthetics sibilities offered with the union of dynamic and
development, which assumed their own inspiring luminous effects. Moholy-Nagy in 1922, started
models from the technological and the Industrial his researches on light, space and movement.
worlds’ achievements. In the Bauhaus artistic He constructed his machine, the “Lichtrequi-
movement, we find correspondence with these sit” (Space-Light Modulator), introduced at the
topics, in the theories of Laszlo Moholy-Nagy international exposition of Paris, in 1930, with
expressed in “Theater der Totalität” and those describing it as “half-sculpture and half-machine
of Walter Gropius in his article “Totaltheater” of construction”. The construction was depicted by
1927. Moholy-Nagy wrote: the author as:
“It is time to develop activities which will not “a superficial reflecting machine, in motion, on
allow the masses to remain spectators,whichwill a circular base in which three cells create the
not only move them inwardly, but seize them, make movement in the given space. The rectangular
them participate, and in the highesttransports of metallic pieces move in irregular and undula-
ecstasy, allow them to enter the action on stage” tory way. The second part made of perforated
(Moholy-Nagy, 1922). metallic discs complete a verticalmovement from
above to the bottom, that frees one small black
Moholy-Nagy reinterpreted the ideas of Rich- ball, which crosses this space. In the third cell, a
ard Wagner, famous composer, with reducing the spiral glass produces a virtual conical volume.
importance of the spoken word in a synthesized The construction, moved by an engine, is fortified
vision of space, movement, sound, light, composi- with hundreds of electrical light bulbs in vari-
tion and increased different artistic expressions ous colors, connected and controlled by number
with technical equipment. He demanded complete of coils which create a complex light show”.
mobilization for all artistic forces to create the (Moholy-Nagy,1947).
Gesamtkunstwerk (the universal artwork).
Munari in his Machinist’s Manifesto in 1927
wrote:
MACHINISM
“The artists are the only one to save our civilization
New phenomenology in Contemporary Art was from that danger. The artists need to learn about
a creation of Mobiles, developed by Alexander machines, to abandon their romantic brushes,
Calder. Mobiles are abstract sculptures, made of palettes, canvas, frames andstart to understand
metal plates, plastics, wood, capable of movement mechanical anatomy, the machine language, to
with air breezes. It was the first time that move- understand the nature of machines by making them
28
function irregularly and using them to become The “Arrhythmic Machines” need to be
artworkthemselves, with their own means....” switched on by spectators. For Munari (1951), the
machine has a human and emotional component
He wrote that: “The Machine has to become because they are in their “identity crises” and
Artwork”(Munari, Eco, 1962). The “Useless questioned their own “existence” but reached
Machines” of Munari founded the precise need equilibrium, where rules and randomness was
of “liberating abstract forms from the “staticity” accomplished.
of painting and suspend them in the air to live
with us, in our environment” (Munari, Eco, 1962). “Rule is monotonic and randomness is uncertain.
The machines of Munari anticipated Kinetic The combination between rules andrandom-
and Programmed Art with his concept invented ness it’s life, it’s fantasy, it’s equilibrium “.....”
for the exhibition of Olivetti group in Milan in The merry-go-round is kinetic andprogrammed
1962. Umberto Eco defines Kinetic art: artwork. Kinetic because it moves, rotates, but
every rotation is a repetitionand every repetition
“It is the plastic art where Form movements of is a constant. The variants are people that goes
colors and plans unify in a mutational set. The on and off withchanging composition of whole”
goal of kinetic art isn’t to obtain a fixed and de- (AAVV 2004).
finitive artwork”. (Munari, Eco, 1962), and Eco
(1962) introduced concepts of “open artwork” Francis Picabia another important artist of
(opera aperta). According to Enzo Mari (1963), Avantgarde movements, paints in his artworks
a researcher should experiment programming the absurd machine, symbol of industrial society
methods to “modulate” elements. It would be and wrote:
necessary to find a series of rules or programs
where it is possible to create with great liberty of “..the genius of the Modern World is the Machine,
composition. This programming depends on the and within machine, Art could find itsvivid expres-
fact that the spectator sees only elements of art- sion” (Camfield,1979).
work but not the Whole of artwork (Mari, 1963).
He questions the concept of Artwork, conceiving His intention wasn’t to create absolutely new
that interactions between artwork and its creator forms, but significant images of real light flows.
through programming, indicate to the user its In 1924, Archipenko realized a real machine that
profound social meaning. Munari, in his complex was conceived in a way that creates the illusion
researches, created “kinetic objects with variable of pictorial subject’s movement, analogously to
structures” which have mechanisms/engines simi- slow-motion in the Cinema. Each side has several
lar to small watches. Munari in his “Arrhythmic thin metal strips, overlapped as in a Venetian blind.
Machines” (1951-83) artworks realizes: Pieces of painted canvas, successively move in
front of the spectators, due to an electrical engine. It
obtains the real movement effect, and Archipenko
“researches of arrhythmic mechanics are linked underlines that the invention’s essence and its
to unknown energies,which are generatedby origin shouldn’t be given importance, but to the
mechanisms’ functioning with regular rhythms”; subject’s becoming in its mutation (Popper, 1970).
with machine’s irregular functioning in a sort of
progressive humanization and anthropomorphic
tendencies.
29
THE CELIBATE MACHINES his most important artwork is “Eureka” exposed

at the Swiss National Exposition in Lausanne,
Marcel Duchamp conceived one of the most in 1963.
enigmatic metaphors of artistic machine and its
relations with human experience and artificial
creation of technology: the celibate machines. CYBERNETIC MACHINES
They are based on visual anamorphosis, where
mechanical, optical and technological implica- Nicolas Schöffer uses different concepts of space,
tions relate to ambiguous biological forms: the time, light, shadows and movement in his creation
interchange between human and machine, which process with the theory of information. His cre-
as a cruel initiation links the machine to its meta- ations use art languages as parameters of living
physical desire and subconsciousness. This is a mechanisms systems with rethinking to electronic
description of his creative process: models of Artificial Intelligence. Cybernetics is
a natural order that maintains the equilibrium of
“He took an ordinary and existential element elements’ forces and in physiology, which is con-
and placed it with its utilitarian meaningdisap- cerned with organism functioning, this biological
peared under a new title and a new point of view principle is called homeostasis and it is applied
- had created a new concept of thesame object” to technological world.
(Marcel, 1959) The human brain has been used as a model by
cybernetics pioneers in their first calculus and ho-
His artwork La Mariée mise à nu par ses céli- meostatic machines. They became artificial organs
bataires, même (The Bride Stripped Bare by Her that can receive, process and emit information
Bachelors, Even; The Large Glass), it’s a prototype within computers. Ross Ashby’s cybernetic ho-
of his celibate machines. meostatic model has been developed in the 1940s
of the last Century, which is a regulatory system
that permits to compare values and to adjust its
METAMATICS internal equilibrium(Wiener,1988,reprinted). It
simulates human organism’s correspondent based
Jean Tinguely’s experiments are mainly on mo- on its complex mechanism that keep us alive with
tion and how to obtain it from mechanical means. maintaining the exact level of sugar in the blood
His experiences realized a metaphorical devel- or with simulating the capacity of maintaining the
opment of mechanisms’ symbolic value, where constant body temperature of 37 Celsius degrees.
the mechanisms found their anthropomorphic These new relations between nature and culture
semantic value and reach their auto-destruction. have the necessity of various confrontation and
Significant artworks were his “Meta-matic” and regulation, complex activities of modern life.
“Cyclograveur”, that with the mode of their au- Schöffer constructed a sculpture called CYSP1
tomatic writing create a “ghirigoro”(dadaistic) in 1956, and the acronym means Cybernetics
signs, which resemble the naturality of children’s and Space Dynamics(spatiodynamique) more
drawings. Tinguely’s meta-matic artworks in similar to a robot than to a sculpture. The Cysp1
their complex movement, become “alive” with project(Cybernetic and Space Dynamics) is a mov-
their motion and sound, always with elements of able orthogonal construction that is guided with
surprise, defined by the artist “functional usage a computer hidden within a black steel and poly-
of randomness”. They intend to scare and surprise chromatic aluminum roof. It possesses movements
spectators of his artworks (Tinguely,1982). One of capacity which could be seen as a choreography.
30
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
con el Lazarillo y con el Cancionero de Horozco. La obra es algo
posterior, pero del mismo reinado de Felipe II, en que Horozco vivía.
Del cual fué muy propio hablar de pupilos y más de capones (págs.
16, 39, 232), de los cuales tratan rarísimos autores. Dos veces nada
menos se cita el Lazarillo en esta novela: "Cap.: ...luego me
contaréis vuestra vida, que tengo gran deseo de saberla, y por qué
queríais huir de mí al principio, que no puede ser mala la historia.—
Velasquillo: ¿Mala? No fué tal la de Lazarillo con mil leguas".
(Capón, fol. 55 v.).—"Velasquillo: ...saldré quando la hambre me
diere garrote hacia la venta del Moral ó á Azuqueica y
encomendarme á Dios y á la buena, gente como Lazarillo de
Tormes, que nunca nadie murió de hambre". (Capón, fol. 52).
¿Escribiría Sebastián de Horozco el Diálogo del Capón en los

últimos años de su vida, cuando, por el continuo uso, se hubiera
soltado más en la prosa? ¿Ó fué su autor el Luna, que escribió la
Segunda parte del Lazarillo, pues en el estilo y lenguaje hay todavía
mayor semejanza? De todos modos, las circunstancias externas, y
mucho más el estudio interno, llevan al ánimo la persuasión de que
Sebastián de Horozco fué el que escribió el Lazarillo, mientras
nuevos documentos, con testimonios claros, no convenzan otra
cosa. De esta fuerte probabilidad, que es cuanto puede esperarse
del estudio interno de una obra, participan los grandes eruditos
españoles don Francisco Rodríguez Marín y don Adolfo Bonilla y
San Martín, como de palabra me lo tienen comunicado, y con cuyo
autorizado parecer he querido dejar aquí corroborado el mío.
El Lazarillo fué traducido al francés en 1561 por Jean Sangrain; al

flamenco, en 1579; al inglés, en 1586, por David Rowland; al
alemán, en 1617, por Nicolás Ulenhart; al italiano, en 1622, por
Barrezzo Barrezzi; al latín, por Gaspar Ens, en la traducción del
Guzmán.
Vida de Lazarillo de Tormes, ed. R. Foulché-Delbosc, Bibliotheca

Hispánica, t. III; ed. H. Butler Clarke, London, 1897; Bibl. de Aut.
Esp. [donde el libro se atribuye á Diego Hurtado de Mendoza], t. III;
ed. J. Cejador, con introducción y notas, Madrid, 1914, véase
Literature Notes, marzo, 1915. Consúltense: A. Morel-Fatio, Études
sur l'Espagne, 1ére série, 2e ed., París, 1895, págs. 109-166; R.
Foulché-Delbosc. Remarques sur Lazarillo de Tormes, en Revue
Hispanique (1900), t. VII, págs. 81-97; F. De Haan, An outline of the
History of the Novela picaresca in Spain, The Hague-New-York,
1903; F. W. Chandler, The literature of Roguery, Boston, 1907; W.
Lauser, Der erste Schelmenroman, Lazarillo von Tormes, Stuttgart,
1889; A. Schultheiss, Der Schelmenroman der Spanier und seine
Nachbildungen, Hamburg, 1893; H. Rausse, Zur Geschichte des
spanischen Schelmenromans in Deutschland, Münster i. W., 1908;
A. Bonilla y San Martín, Una imitación de Lazarillo de Tormes en el
siglo xvii, en Revue Hispanique (1906), t. XV; Le garçon et l'aveugle;
jeu du xiiie siècle, ed. M. Roques, París, 1912.
177. Novela picaresca es la real ó fingida

autobiografía de un pícaro, esto es, de uno que, no
queriendo sujetarse á trabajar ni someterse á nadie,
gusta de buscarse la vida á costa de los demás.
Como parece que á semejante briba le lleva en parte
la misma sociedad, ó al menos se lo permite, satiriza
el pícaro, irónica é indirectamente, á la misma
sociedad en que vive. Como, por otro lado, va
arrastrado por su genio y carácter y el público goza
de ver pintada la manera de ser de tantos que así
viven, resulta que todos reconocen sin querer ser el
modo picaresco una de las cualidades de la raza
española, que, por demasiados humos, quijotismo y
sentimientos nobles, llevados al extremo, prefiere
padecer por no someterse ni trabajar, hallando un
particular goce en ostentar la sutileza del ingenio, en
darse maña cómo poder vivir á sus anchas á costa
de los demás. Es género novelesco enteramente
español, que comenzó con el Lazarillo, dejóse de
cultivar en el severo reinado de Felipe II y volvió á
brotar al comenzar el de Felipe III con Guzmán de
Alfarache, de Mateo Alemán, que le añadió las
moralidades propias de aquella más grave época.
Cervantes inventó un nuevo género: la novela
rufianesca y hamponesca. Quevedo urbanizó la
picaresca, haciéndola novela de buscones con este
nuevo matiz de la picardía urbana, y fué cultivada
variamente después, aunque más raramente, hasta
nuestros días.
178. A. Morel-Fatio, prefacio al Lazarillo, París, 1886: "Deux
procédés ont concouru à la formation de ce genre...: le récit
autobiographique et la satire des mœurs contemporaines". La
autobiografía puede y suele ser fingida en la mayor parte de los
casos; pero está tan fundada en la realidad de la manera de vivir de
muchos y llevamos los españoles tan en el corazón esta manera de
ser, que las novelas picarescas parecen verdaderas autobiografías,
aunque sólo haya de hecho en ellas algunos rasgos y
acontecimientos de la vida de sus autores, exagerados é idealizados
con lo que en los verdaderos pícaros ven alrededor de sí. Todo ello
lo hallamos en el Lazarillo, "el verdadero padre de los libros
picarescos" (Navarrete, Bosquejo histórico sobre la novela española,
pág. 67). Morel-Fatio (l. c. pág. 2): "L'histoire littéraire voit à juste
titre dans notre roman le prototype de la nouvelle picaresque; elle
fait du Lazarille le père de toutes ces gueuseries". M. Pelayo
(Heterod., t. II, pág. 518): "el Lazarillo de Tormes, príncipe y cabeza
de la novela picaresca entre nosotros". El pícaro es el verdadero
héroe en esta novela, porque para los españoles el ideal y dechado
de la vida es el pícaro, el ser tan agudo y tracista, que, sin
someterse más de lo que uno quiera y sin trabajar, se dé maña para
vivir á sus anchas. En otros pueblos donde eso fuera deshonroso no
se tendría por héroe al pícaro, y no habría literatura que le
ensalzase. La voz pícaro aplicóla el vulgo á Guzmán de Alfarache,
sin habérselo llamado su autor, lo cual comprueba lo nacional que
era el fundamento de este género literario y cuanto acabamos de
decir. Pícaro, como picaño, es el holgazán ducho en la briba, en vivir
á costa de otros mediante su ingenio. La primera vez que sale el
nombre en la novela picaresca es en el Guzmán (1, 2, 2, 3):
"creyeron ser algún pícaro ladroncillo". Rinconete: "muy descosidos,
rotos y maltratados... la ventera admirada de la buena crianza de los
pícaros". Il freg.: "en Carriazo vió el mundo un pícaro virtuoso,
limpio, biencriado". Tan español es el ser pícaro, tan gustoso y
honroso le parece serlo, como Cervantes lo pinta en el noble
Carriazo, que de propia voluntad se desgarra de su casa y se da á
la picardía. Claro está que pícaro se llamó antes al que ayudaba en
la cocina y en el traer como ganapán bastimentos y otras cosas para
ella, y díjose del picar y tomar en ella golosinas; pero generalizóse
para el desharrapado que vive picando acá y acullá, y luego para
designar al bribón que anda á la briba. Fué primero el ganapán, de
los hermanos del trabajo, y pinche de cocina; pero del picar y
pinchar salió el valor que tiene en la novela picaresca y en el uso
hoy corriente. Covarrubias, Ganapán: "Ninguna cosa da cuidado al
ganapán, no cura de honra, y así de ninguna cosa se afrenta: no se
le da nada de andar malvestido y roto, y así no le ejecuta el
mercader... come en el bodegón el mejor bocado y bebe en la
taberna donde se vende el mejor vino, y con eso pasa la vida
contento y alegre": es pintura puntual del pícaro. Guzmán: "comencé
á tratar el oficio de la florida (astuta) picardía; la vergüenza que
tuve... perdíla por los caminos...; era bocado sin hueso, lomo
descargado, ocupación holgada y libre de todo género de
pesadumbre". Mateo Luján: "eché de ver en mi vida picaresca que
muchos hijos de buenos padres que la profesaban, aunque después
los quisieron recoger, no hubo remedio: tal es el bebedizo de la
libertad y propia voluntad". Véase La vida del pícaro (1601). La
etimología de pícaro, en Cejador, Tesoro, Labiales, I. Sobre la
inclinación española á la vida aventurera y picaresca, véase
Navagiero, Viajes por España (Libros de antaño, t. VIII, años 1525-
1528): "Los españoles, lo mismo aquí (Granada) que en el resto de
España, no son muy industriosos, y ni cultivan ni siembran de buena
voluntad la tierra, sino que van de mejor gana á la guerra ó á las
Indias para hacer fortuna por este camino más que por cualquier
otro". Conviene la novela picaresca con el Libro de buen Amor, con
La Celestina, con El Quijote, con el Criticón, en ser obra satírica,
que critica las costumbres sociales, de intento moral, que es la nota
de toda la literatura española. Desde Séneca y Marcial hasta Juan
Ruiz sobresalió España en la sátira, y Juan Ruiz es el progenitor
español de la ficción picaresca, siguiéndole Rojas en la pintura que
en La Celestina hace de la gente baja. La filosofía de la novela
picaresca es la filosofía española, la manera que tienen los
españoles de ver la vida. Los pícaros de nuestra literatura "son otros
tantos filósofos estoicos, con sus puntas y ribetes de cínicos, dice
Bonilla (Hist. filos. esp., t. I, pág. 159). El pícaro, aunque hombre de
sutil ingenio, es poco amigo de estudios doctrinales; también el
cínico rechaza como un mal la ciencia y la cultura. El cínico
desprecia las reglas artificiosas de la llamada urbanidad, y es un
rebelde contra las leyes del Estado; también el pícaro es autónomo
é individualista, y no respeta nada que no sea su particular
provecho. El estoico desprecia las especulaciones demasiado
abstractas, y entiende que no es ciencia la que no sirve para la vida;
el pícaro no tiene tampoco otra filosofía que ésta que se aprende en
la ruda y dolorosa escuela de la experiencia, á fuerza de caídas y de
tropezones. El estoico es, ó procura ser, impasible; el pícaro no llora
jamás, ni se altera en demasía por los sucesos de la vida, porque,
como Guzmán de Alfarache, cree en la predestinación, y, como Don
Pablos, entiende que la Fortuna gobierna y rige el mundo. Por eso,
al leer las reflexiones de Guzmán, parécenos tener á la vista los
pensamientos y las sentencias del autor de los libros De beneficiis.
La filosofía picaresca (que filosofía es, y tan alto nombre merece) es
una derivación del cinismo; su entronque español no es otro que
Séneca". Fouillée, en su Esquisse psychologique des peuples
européens, ha escrito: "El genio áspero de los españoles, como el
de los romanos, es acomodado á la sátira; pero por ser de su
natural graves gustan de burlarse con amarga socarronería. El
despiadado realismo de sus novelas picarescas no nace de lástima
que tuvieran de los desgraciados, sino de puro desprecio". Aviesas
entendederas, por cierto. ¡El autor del Lazarillo, según esto,
despreciaba á Lazarillo! ¡Y se ha creído que es autobiografía!
Cervantes debía de odiar á Rinconete y Cortadillo, á Lope, el rufián
dichoso, á los galeotes, á maese Pedro. ¡Espinel despreciaba al
escudero Marcos de Obregón, y Mateo Alemán, á Guzmanillo!
También estas dos obras tienen no poco de autobiográficas. ¿Es
posible que se despreciasen estos señores á sí mismos, ni á las
pobres criaturas que nos pintan tan simpáticas, listas, agudas, tan
buenas, en una palabra, á pesar de sus picardihuelas, hijas de la
necesidad en que se hallaban? Sólo escritores tan ligeros de
cascos, como lo estuvo Fouillée al escribir semejante cosa, pudieran
despreciar á esos pobres muchachos. En varones tan graves de su
natural como aquellos autores españoles no cupo tal desprecio.
¡Valiente manera de despreciarlos, haciéndolos amables á los
lectores! La amargura de la burla sobre quienes recae en la novela
picaresca es sobre los demás, que tan mala vida daban, por
razones sociales, á los infelices mancebos, y cabalmente para que
el mal proceder de la sociedad resaltase más, los pintaron á ellos
tan agradables. Fouillée no ha leído ó no ha entendido nuestras
novelas picarescas. Pero aun sin leerlas, bien se le podía haber
ocurrido que sus autores no iban á ser tan zafios y desmañados que
despreciasen á sus héroes y los hiciesen despreciables. Se figuró
sin duda que los pícaros españoles eran como los personajes ruines
y de malas entrañas del teatro de Shakespeare, ó que en nación tan
cruel, como los franceses suponen serlo España, la hez de ella, los
golfos de la calle, serían crueles y los más dignos de desprecio. No
sé yo que haya español que no se lastime, y hasta quiera y cobre
cariño á los golfillos esos de por ahí. Pues ésos son los pícaros que
nuestros autores quisieron pintar, y nuestros autores fueron de tan
blandas entrañas por lo menos como los españoles de hoy, que
hasta nos encariñamos con los golfos. La igualdad y democracia
española no cabe en la cabeza de franceses y demás gentes de
raza germánica, entre quienes encajó el feudalismo y donde es
imposible se dé la familiaridad de trato entre altos y bajos que aquí
se dió siempre y quedó retratada en la que hubo entre don Quijote y
Sancho. El realismo de la picaresca pintó lo que España era, con el
natural propio de la raza; pero nuestra raza debe de ser tan
incomprensible para los franceses, que ni la han sabido ver pintada
en la picaresca. El pícaro español encierra sentimientos nobilísimos;
lleva metido en su corpezuelo un espíritu de rey; jamás hace el mal
por serlo ni por aviesas y torcidas intenciones, sino por chunga,
tomando á broma las miserias del vivir y convirtiéndolas en fuentes
de donaire. Guzmanillo se hacía querer de todos, hasta de los que,
antes de conocerle, le hacían sufrir teniéndole por malo. Y este
desengañarse de las gentes, ó por lo menos de los lectores,
respecto á los pícaros del arroyo, que pareciendo escoria de la
sociedad, son almas de oro, que la suerte arrastra por el fango, es
una de las fuentes de la filosofía y de la belleza que encierra la
picaresca española. Cornudo y todo, se deja y se hace querer
Lazarillo de cuantos le conocemos, cabalmente porque somos
graves los españoles y distinguimos lo que pueden las
circunstancias y apuros en que los pobrecillos se ven. Acaso
algunos franceses, más cercenados de colodrillo, los desprecien y
tengan por basura y canalla, que así suelen juzgarlos algunos
infatuados señores, halagados de la fortuna, de allende. Por España
no suele gastarse tan soplada fatuidad ni la gastaban nuestros
nobles de antaño, ni aun los hidalgos, con todos sus humos y
linajerías á cuestas. Dígalo, si no, don Quijote.
Sobre la novela picaresca, consúltense: Aribau, La novela

picaresca, en el Discurso preliminar, vol. III de la Bibl. Autor. Esp.,
Madrid, 1846, págs. 21-28; F. Wolf, en Jahrbücher der Literatur,
Band 122, Wien, 1848, págs. 98-106; Ernest Lafond, Les humoristes
espagnols, en Revue Contemporaine, 15 junio 1858; Karl Stahr,
Mendoza's Lazarillo und die Bettler und Schelmenromane der
Spanier, en Deutsche Jahrbücher für Politik und Literatur, Bd. III,
Berlín, 1862, págs. 411-444; Emile Chasles, L'Espagne picaresque,
en Miguel de Cervantes, par E. C., 2ème ed., París, 1866, págs. 254-
286; (anónimo) Picaresque Romances, en The Southern Review,
vol. II, Baltimore, 1867, páginas 146-171; O. Collman, Gil Blas und
die Novela Picaresca, en Herrig's Archiv, vol. XLVI, 1870, págs. 219-
250; A. Morel-Fatio, Préface á la Vie de Lazarille de Tormes, París,
1886, págs. i-xxii; D. Jan ten Brink, Gerbrand Adriaensz, Bredero,
vol. III, De Kluchten en de blijspelen, Leiden, 1889, págs. 182-212;
A. Morel-Fatio, Lazarille de Tormès, en Études sur l'Espagne, 1ère
série, págs. 114-140, 171-176; Dr. Juan ten Brink, Dr. Nicolaas
Heinsius Jun., eene studie over den Hollandschen schelmenroman
der 17e eenw., Rotterdam, 1888; Karl von Reinhardstöttner, Aegidius
Albertinus, der Vater des deutschen Schelmenromans, en Jahrbuch
für Münchener Geschichte, II, Jahrgang, 1888, págs. 13-16; Arvède
Barine, Les gueux d'Espagne. Lazarillo de Tormes, en Revue des
Deux Mondes, 15 Avril, 1888, págs. 870-904; Léo Claretie, en
Lesage romancier, París, 1890, páginas 175-425; José Giles y
Rubio, El origen y desarrollo de la novela picaresca, discurso leído
en la apertura del curso académico de 1890 á 1891, Oviedo, 1890;
Wilhelm Lauser, Der erste Schelmenroman, Lazarillo von Tormes,
2nd ed. Stuttgart, 1892; Albert Schultheiss, Der Schelmenroman der
Spanier und seine Nachbildungen, Sammlung gemeinverständlicher
wissenschaftlicher Vorträge, Heft, 165, Hamburg, 1893; F. W.
Chandler, Romances of roguery. Part. I. The picaresque novel in
Spain, 1899; Fonger de Haan, Pícaros y ganapanes, en Homenaje á
M. Pelayo, Madrid, 1899; íd. An outline of the History of the novela
picaresca in Spain, The Hague-New-York, 1903; Revista España
Moderna, Madrid, 1913, enero, pág. 76; febrero, pág. 5; marzo, pág.
51; abril, pág. 157; mayo, pág. 85; donde hay un concienzudo
estudio sobre La novela picaresca en España, de Wadleigh
Chandler (Franck).
179. Año 1554. Lope de Rueda (1510?-1565) nació
en Sevilla, tuvo por padre á Juan de Rueda y fué de
oficio batihoja, ó sea fabricador de panes de oro. Era
cuando Oropesa, Hernando de Vega, Juan
Rodríguez y otros actores recorrían los pueblos
haciendo sus églogas, farsas y coloquios, de Juan
del Enzina, Lucas Fernández, Gil Vicente, etc. Á
alguna de estas compañías se pegó Rueda, y no
contento con ser actor se hizo autor, variando
primero las piezas y haciendo luego otras originales.
El nombre de comediante se halla por primera vez
en una pragmática de Toledo, 9 de marzo de 1534,
por don Carlos y su madre doña Juana, mandando
que vistan de suerte que se les distinga á los
comediantes de los demás, lo cual indica que se les
tenía por gentes de mediana fama, y de hecho sus
costumbres no eran muy de alabar, aunque habría
excepciones, como Rueda, elegido en 1554 por el
conde de Benavente, don Antonio Alonso Pimentel,
para realzar las fiestas que hizo al pasar Felipe II por
Benavente al embarcarse para Inglaterra. Era ya,
pues, autor y director de compañía y hacía piezas
bastante largas, aderezadas con pasos ó escenas
cómicas de costumbres, en que de ordinario salían
el bobo, el vizcaíno, la negra, el rufián, etc. Hacia
1552 se había casado con Mariana, comedianta que
algunos años (1545-1551) distrajo la solitaria
ociosidad del tercer duque de Medinaceli, don
Gastón de la Cerda, que no le debió pagar bien,
pues dió lugar á un pleito en Valladolid de Lope de
Rueda contra sus herederos (1554-1557). En 1558
llamaron á Rueda para fiestas en Segovia, según
cuenta Colmenares. El año siguiente estuvo en
Sevilla y dos años después en Toledo (1561),
representando en ambas ciudades en la fiesta del
Corpus; después pasó á Madrid, donde se había ido
la Corte, y allí estuvo hasta fines de 1561, que se fué
á Valencia, de donde era su mujer, quizá la segunda
que tuvo. En Madrid debió de conocerle entonces
Cervantes, que tenía catorce años de edad; en
Valencia dice Timoneda que Rueda corrigió, al
echarlas, algunas de sus comedias. Con la
valenciana Ángela Rafaela estaba ya casado en
segundas nupcias en 1561. De Valencia pasó en
1564 á Sevilla, y después á Córdoba, donde murió,
hecho su testamento el 21 de marzo de 1565, y fué
enterrado en la catedral, en el sepulcro de su hija. El
librero Juan Timoneda publicó Las quatro comedias
y dos colloquios pastorales del excellente poeta y
gracioso representante Lope de Rueda, Valencia,
1567-1576, reformándolas algo, que no sería mucho,
y añadiendo varios elogios poéticos al autor.
Lope de Rueda. (El Deleytoso, 1567).
180. Viage de Felipe II á Inglaterra, por Andrés Muñoz, Zaragoza,
1554 (Biblióf. Españ., Madrid, 1877, pág. 47): "Y estando algún tanto
despejado el patio (el 1554 en Benavente, en las fiestas del Conde
al Rey) salió Lope de Rueda con sus representantes y representó un
auto de la Sagrada Escritura, muy sentido, con muy regocijados y
graciosos entremeses, de que el Príncipe gustó muy mucho, y el
infante don Carlos, con los grandes y caballeros que al presente
estaban, que eran éstos: Duque de Alba (don Fernando el Grande),
Duque de Nájera (don Juan Manrique de Lara), Duque de
Medinaceli (don Juan de la Cerda), Condestable de Castilla (don
Pedro Fernández de Velasco), Almirante (don Fernando Enríquez),
Conde de Luna, Conde de Chinchón, Conde de Monterrey, Conde
de Agamón (Egmont), Marqués de Pescara (don Francisco Dávalos
de Aquino), con otros grandes que de su nombre no me acuerdo.
Concluído esto, los ministriles tocaron de nuevo con las trompetas y
atabales". "Don Gastón de la Cerda, dice Cotarelo (Pról. á la edic.
de Rueda), nacido en 1504, débil, enfermizo y cojo, y á más
segundo de su casa, fué destinado á la Iglesia, profesando como
fraile en el convento de San Bartolomé de Lupiana. Murió sin
sucesión su hermano mayor, y entonces trató de exclaustrarse, y
aun obtuvo licencia pontificia para ello, y solicitó que su padre le
declarase inmediato superior; pero opúsosele su hermano menor,
don Juan de la Cerda, apoyado por su madre, que no lo era de don
Gastón, y el padre pudo transigir estas diferencias, conviniendo
todos en que don Gastón heredaría la casa y la poseería durante su
vida, pero no se casaría, y á su muerte le sucederían su
hermanastro ó sus hijos. Murió luego, en 20 de enero de 1544, el
duque viejo; entró don Gastón en posesión de los estados paternos,
y á la vez profesó en la Orden de Malta ó de San Juan, siendo Gran
Prior de Castilla; asignó una buena parte de las rentas á su
hermano, que en realidad empezó á representar la casa ducal, y él
se retiró á Cogolludo, donde pasaba su vida, llena de
enfermedades, en recreos y deportes poco fatigosos. En el año
1545 acertaron á pasar por la villa de Cogolludo dos mujeres que
iban camino de Aragón, y, según manifestaron, sabían cantar y
bailar. Oirlo el Duque y mandarlas venir á su presencia fué todo uno,
y satisfecho de la habilidad de la llamada Mariana, le dijo se
quedase en su compañía; aceptó la cómica, y su compañera siguió
el camino que llevaba. Seis años bien cumplidos estuvo Mariana en
la casa del Duque, divirtiéndole en cantar, bailar y "decir gracias"; y
tan imprescindible llegó á serle, que le hizo cortar el cabello y vestir
de paje, "con un jubón y unos zaragüelles á manera de calzas", y
así le acompañaba en las cacerías y viajes, porque "el Duque se
holgaba mucho de vella estar en el hábito de hombre". Respecto de
la habilidad de la dama, todos los testigos del pleito, y todos
competentes, por ser músicos y maestros de enseñar á bailar y
danzar, convienen en que era extremada. Alguno asegura "que la
dicha Mariana es en extremo única é sola en lo que hace". Otro
añade "que era una mujer muy graciosa é gran cantadora é
bailadora". Pero aunque el Duque le había dicho que le pagaría muy
bien sus servicios y aun la casaría de su mano y con buena dote,
falleció sin cumplirlo en su palacio de Cogolludo el 29 de diciembre
de 1551. Salió entonces Mariana de aquella casa, con toda la
servidumbre del difunto magnate, y muy poco después debió de
contraer matrimonio con Lope de Rueda, pues en 14 de julio de
1554 uno de los testigos declara haber ya "más de dos años" que
estaban casados y velados ambos recitantes. Rueda, en demanda
presentada en Valladolid el 6 de julio de 1554, pedía al nuevo
duque, don Juan de la Cerda, los salarios de su mujer, á razón de
25.000 mrs. cada año, y obtuvo tres sentencias favorables, la última
en 16 de marzo de 1557, condenando al Duque á pagarle 60.000
mrs. por todo. Por cierto que dos de los testigos que declaran en
este pleito merecen particular recuerdo. Es el primero Pedro de
Montiel, "hilador de seda", pero que entonces andaba en la
compañía de Lope de Rueda, ayudándole en la representación de
sus comedias y farsas. Montiel era cómico desde 1551, ó antes,
pues dice en su declaración haber representado ante el Duque
(acaso ya con Rueda) "algunas comedias é obras graciosas, é se
las pagó muy bien". En estas funciones trabajaría la Mariana, y
entonces la conocería también Lope. Es el otro Alonso Getino de
Guzmán, "danzante y tañedor", de veinticinco años, casado y
residente en Corte. Este personaje siguió muchos años su oficio de
danzante y maestro de poner danzas en Madrid; fué, por último,
alguacil de la Corte y muy unido á la familia de Cervantes, muy
amigo de éste en 1569 y fiador de su madre en 1576 en las
diligencias hechas para el rescate del cautivo de Argel".
Colmenares, Histor. de Segovia, 1640, pág. 516: "Á la tarde,
celebradas solemnes vísperas, en un teatro que estaba entre los
coros, el maestro Valle, preceptor de Gramática, y sus repetidores,
hicieron á sus estudiantes recitar muchos versos latinos y
castellanos en loa de la fiesta y Prelado que había propuesto
grandes premios á los mejores. Luego la compañía de Lope de
Rueda, famoso comediante de aquella edad, representó una
gustosa comedia, y, acabada, anduvo la procesión por el claustro,
que estaba vistosamente adornado". Rueda otorgó testamento en
Córdoba el 21 de marzo de 1565, y ni aun pudo firmarlo; puede
verse extractado en la edición de sus obras, por Cotarelo. Los
inventarios muestran que Rueda vivió bastante en Toledo.
181. Timoneda publicó en Valencia (1567) las cuatro

únicas comedias, en prosa, que conocemos de
Rueda: la Eufemia, la Armelina, la de Los engañados
y la Medora; además, los dos coloquios pastoriles
Camila y Tymbria, y el diálogo en verso Sobre la
invención de las calzas. El mismo año de 1567
publicó el mismo Timoneda la colección de siete
pasos ó entremeses para intercalar en la
representación de las comedias y coloquios, titulada
El Deleitoso; y en 1570 otra de seis pasos y un
coloquio, Prendas de amor, titulada Registro de
Representantes. Hay mención de otros coloquios. Se
le atribuyen, no con toda certeza, Los desposorios
de Moisén y la Farsa del Sordo; pero parecen ser
suyos el Auto de Naval y Abigail y el opúsculo en
prosa Flor de medicina, donde se burla de los malos
médicos (Ms. de M. Pelayo). Otras muchas obras
escribió Lope de Rueda, hoy perdidas.
Lo que Lope de Rueda trajo al teatro español de su

propia cosecha son los que él llamó pasos, ó
díganse cuadros de costumbres y de tipos vulgares
de su tiempo y grandemente cómicos. Introdúcelos
en sus comedias, las cuales más parecen ser como
trama para presentarlos que no obra principal. Las
comedias no las dejó preparadas como para
publicarse; los pasos son obrillas acabadas y que
podían meterse en cualquier comedia, y así
Timoneda publicó sueltos los más. Es famoso el
conocido por Las aceitunas. Los criados, aldeanos,
ladrones, mujerzuelas, hablan su propio estilo y
lenguaje. Éste es el verdadero teatro cómico popular
español, creado por Lope de Rueda, y en esto está
su mérito verdadero: pintura de tipos villanescos,
diálogo vivo y chispeante, lenguaje tan popular,
elegante y castizo como el de Cervantes y Rojas.
Como poeta alaba Cervantes á Rueda por sus

versos pastoriles, y nos quedan de ellos el trozo que
cita el Príncipe de nuestros Ingenios en Los baños
de Argel y el Colloquio llamado Prendas de amor.
Otras clases de versos hay en el Diálogo sobre la
invención de las calzas, y en la Comedia llamada
Discordia y Question de amor, en quintillas, si es
obra suya. Conoció Rueda el teatro de Plauto, pues
el valentón Sigüenza está tomado del Miles
gloriosus; pero mucho más el teatro italiano de su
tiempo, del cual tradujo, imitó y tomó asuntos para
las cuatro comedias que conocemos. No tiene, pues,
en esto ninguna originalidad.
182. Las primeras dos elegantes y graciosas comedias del
excellente poeta y representante Lope de Rueda, sacadas á luz por
Juan de Timoneda: éstas son Comedia Eufemia; Comedia Armelina,
Valencia, 1567. Las segundas dos comedias del... Comedia de Los
Engañados; Comedia Medora, Valencia, 1567. Los colloquios
pastoriles de muy agraciada y apacible prosa por el excelente... son
el Colloquio de Timbria y el Colloquio de Camila... Diálogo sobre la
invención de las calças que se usan agora... Tabla de los pasos
graciosos que se pueden sacar de las presentes comedias y
colloquios y poner en otras obras. Las cuatro comedias y dos
coloquios pastoriles del excelente poeta y gracioso representante
Lope de Rueda, sacadas á luz por Juan de Timoneda, Segunda
impresión, Valencia, 1570; Sevilla, 1576. El Deleitoso, compendio
llamado: El Deleitoso, en el qual se contienen muchos pasos
graciosos del excelente poeta y gracioso representante Lope de
Rueda, por poner en principios y entremedias de colloquios y
comedias: recopilados por Joan de Timoneda (siete pasos y un
coloquio), Valencia, 1567; Logroño, 1588. Registro de
representantes, Valencia, 1567 (son diez, de ellos siete de El
Deleitoso). Farsa llamada del Sordo, 1549; Alcalá, 1616. Coloquio
pastoril, Valencia, 1567. La Comedia llamada discordia y questión
de Amor, en la qual se trata en subido metro y conceptos muy
sentidos la inconstancia de Amor y sus variables efetos, Barcelona,
1617; fué hallada en París, en 1902, por Francisco R. de Uhagón, y
reprodújola en Rev. de Archivos, 1902, con tirada aparte. Á ella
aludió Gracián en Agudeza y arte de ingenio, cap. XLV. El Auto de
Naval y Abigail está en el ms. del siglo xvi, que tiene 96 piezas
dramáticas anteriores á Lope de Vega, y está en la Bibl. Nacional, y
fué publicado por Rouanet: el estilo y lenguaje son de Rueda. En el
mismo códice se halla el Auto de los desposorios de Moisén, que
también sabe á Rueda, aunque no tanto; menos aún la Farsa del
Sordo, Valladolid (hacia 1549?); Alcalá, 1568, reimpresa por
Gallardo (I, pág. 1147); Sevilla, 1616.
Las fuentes de algunas comedias de Rueda fueron señaladas por L.

A. Stiefel, Zeitschrift für rom. Philologie, 1893, t. XV. La Eufemia
arraiga en el Decamerón (II, IX) y es el mismo asunto que el de
Cymbeline, de Shakespeare. La Armelina tiene bastante que ver con
la Altilia (1550), de Antón Francesco Raineri, y con el Servigiale
(1561), de Giovan Maria Cecchi (1516-1587): las tres parecen
derivarse de una misma fuente. La Comedia de los engañados es
imitación de Gl' Ingannati (1531), de Alessandro Piccolomini, ó quizá
de algunos de los Intronati, academia literaria de Siena, y en la
misma fuente bebió Shakespeare al componer Twelfth Night. La
Medora es traducción, á veces literal, de la Zingana (1545), de Gigio
Artemio Giancarli. La Eufemia, en ocho escenas é introito, que no
suponen entrada ó salida de personajes, sino mudanza importante
en la acción ó intercalación de algún paso episódico, se representó
en la plaza pública antes del mediodía. De mayor enredo son Los
engañados, comedia fundada en la semejanza de hermano y
hermana, en diez escenas con introito. En la Armelina hay aventuras
novelescas y personajes españoles, en seis escenas. La Medora
tiene seis escenas y varios pasos. Stiefel, no hallando á los Pasos
precedentes en España, supone que en ellos pudo imitar la
Comedia alla villanesca de los venecianos; pero los Pasos estaban
ya esbozados en Juan del Enzina, por ejemplo, en el Auto del
Repelón y en las farsas de Carnaval, en Lucas Fernández y aun en
casi todo el teatro de la primera mitad del siglo xvi, por ejemplo, en
la Farsa del soldado, de Lucas Fernández; en las de Clérigo de
Beira, Las Ciganas, dos Físicos, dos Almocreves y otras de Gil
Vicente; en el entremés del Procurador y el litigante, de Sebastián
de Horozco; en las más de Diego Sánchez de Badajoz, y hasta en
las obrillas menudas publicadas por Rouanet. Los pasos son los
autos anteriores llevados á perfección por Lope de Rueda.
183. Lope de Rueda, Obras, ed. Real Academia Española, E.

Cotarelo y Mori, Madrid, 1908, 2 vols. [véase Alonso de San Martín,
Silba de varia lección, etc.], Madrid, 1909; E. Cotarelo y Mori,
Satisfacción á la Real Academia Española, etc., Madrid, 1909;
Alonso de San Martín, Sepan quantos... Coroza crítica, etc., Madrid,
1910; Obras ed. Marqués de la Fuensanta del Valle, en Colección
de libros raros ó curiosos, ts. XXIII y XXIV; Entremés del mundo y no
nadie, ed. R. Foulché-Delbosc, en Revue Hispanique (1900), t. VII,
págs. 251-255 [atribución dudosa]; Comedia llamada Discordia y
questión de amor, ed. F. R. de Uhagón, en Revista de Archivos, etc.
(1902), t. VI, págs. 341-354. Consúltense: A. L. Stiefel, Lope de
Rueda und das italienische Lustspiel, en Zeitschrift für romanische
Philologie (1891), t. XV, págs. 183-216 y 318-343; R. Ramírez de
Arellano, Lope de Rueda y su testamento, en Revista Española de
Literatura, Historia y Arte (1901), t. I, págs. 9-12; N. Alonso Cortés,
Un pleito de Lope de Rueda, nuevas noticias para su biografía,
Madrid-Valladolid, 1903; L. Rouanet, Intermèdes espagnols
(entremeses) du xviie siècle; S. Salazar, Lope de Rueda y su teatro,
Santiago de Cuba, 1911; E. Cotarelo, María Ladvenant. Estudios
sobre la historia del arte cómico en España, Madrid, 1896.
184. Sobre lo que era el teatro en España antes de Rueda y el punto

en que él lo puso dan luz varios testimonios. Juan de la Cueva, en
su Ejemplar poético (Parn. españ., de Sedano, t. VIII, pág. 24): "El
singular en gracia, el ingenioso | Lope de Rueda, el cómico tablado |
hizo ilustre con él y deleitoso". Juan Rufo, en Las seiscientas
apotegmas..., Toledo, 1596: "¿Quién vió apenas ha treinta años | de
las farsas la pobreza | de su estilo la rudeza | y sus más humildes
paños? | ¿Quién vió que Lope de Rueda, | inimitable varón, | nunca
salió de un mesón | ni alcanzó á vestir de seda? | Seis pellicos y
cayados, | dos flautas y un tamborino, | tres vestidos de camino |
con un fieltro jironados. | Una ó dos comedias solas | como camisas
de pobre; | la entrada á tarja de cobre | y el teatro casi á solas. |
Porque era un patio cruel, | fragua ardiente en el estío, | de invierno
un helado río | que aun agora tiemblan dél". Agustín de Rojas, en el
Viaje entretenido, escrito hacia 1600 y publicado en 1603 (edic.
1793, t. I, pág. 110): "Y porque yo no pretendo | tratar de gente
extranjera, | sí de nuestros españoles, | digo que Lope de Rueda, |
gracioso representante, | y en su tiempo gran poeta, | empezó á
poner la farsa | en buen uso y orden buena, | porque la repartió en
actos, | haciendo introito en ella, | que ahora llamamos loa, | y
declaraba lo que eran | las marañas, los amores, | y entre los pasos
de veras | mezclados otros de risa, | que, porque iban entre medias |
de la farsa, los llamaron | entremeses de comedias. | Y todo aquesto
iba en prosa | más graciosa que discreta; | tañían una guitarra | y
ésta nunca salía fuera, | sino adentro y en los blancos, | muy mal
templada y sin cuerdas | bailaba á la postre el bobo | y sacaba tanta
lengua | todo el vulgacho embobado | de ver cosas como aquellas".
(Ibidem, edic. 1901, t. I, pág. 150): "Solano: Habéis de saber que
hay bululú, ñaque, gangarilla, cambaleo, garnacha, bojiganga,
farándula y compañía. El bululú es un representante solo, que
camina á pie y pasa su camino, entra en el pueblo, habla al cura y
dícele que sabe una comedia y alguna loa, que junte al barbero y
sacristán y se la dirá, porque le den alguna cosa para pasar
adelante. Júntanse éstos y él súbese sobre una arca y dice: Ahora
sale la dama, y dice esto y esto, y va representando, y el cura
pidiendo limosna en un sombrero, y junta cuatro ó cinco cuartos,
algún pedazo de pan y escudilla de caldo que le da el cura, y con
esto sigue su estrella y prosigue su camino hasta que halla remedio.
Ñaque es dos hombres (que es lo que Ríos decía ahora poco de
entrambos); éstos hacen un entremés, algún poco de un auto, dicen
unas octavas, dos ó tres loas, llevan una barba de zamarro, tocan el
tamborino y cobran á ochavo, y en esotros reinos á dinerillo (que es
lo que hacíamos yo y Ríos); viven contentos, duermen vestidos,
caminan desnudos, comen hambrientos y espúlganse el verano
entre los trigos y en el invierno no sienten con el frío los piojos.
Gangarilla es compañía más gruesa; ya van aquí tres ó cuatro
hombres: uno que sabe tocar una locura; llevan un muchacho que
hace la dama; hacen el auto de la Oveja Perdida; tienen barba y
cabellera; buscan saya y toca prestada (y algunas veces se olvidan
de devolvella); hacen dos entremeses de bobo; cobran á cuarto,
pedazo de pan, huevo y sardina y todo género de zarandaja (que se
echa en una talega); éstos comen asado, duermen en el suelo,
beben su trago de vino, caminan á menudo, representan en
cualquier cortijo y traen siempre los brazos cruzados.—Ríos: ¿Por
qué razón?—Solano: Porque jamás cae capa sobre sus hombros.
Cambaleo es una mujer que canta y cinco hombres que lloran; éstos
traen una comedia, dos autos, tres ó cuatro entremeses, un lío de
ropa que le puede llevar una araña; llevan á ratos á la mujer
acuestas y otras en silla de manos; representan en los cortijos por
hogaza de pan, racimo de uvas y olla de berzas; cobran en los
pueblos á seis maravedís, pedazo de longaniza, cerro de lino y todo
lo demás que viene aventurero (sin que se deseche ripio); están en
los lugares cuatro ó seis días, alquilan para la mujer una cama, y el
que tiene amistad con la huéspeda dale un costal de paja, una
manta y duerme en la cocina, y en el invierno el pajar es su
habitación eterna. Estos, á mediodía, comen su olla de vaca y cada
uno seis escudillas de caldo, siéntanse todos á una mesa y otras
veces sobre la cama. Reparte la mujer la comida; dales el pan por
tasa; el vino, aguado y por medida, y cada uno se limpia donde
halla, porque entre todos tienen una servilleta ó los manteles están
tan desviados que no alcanzan á la mesa con diez dedos.
Compañía de garnacha son cinco ó seis hombres, una mujer, que
hace la dama primera, y un muchacho la segunda; llevan un arca
con dos sayos, una ropa, tres pellicos, barbas y cabelleras y algún
vestido de la mujer, de tiritaña. Estos llevan cuatro comedias, tres
autos y otros tantos entremeses; el arca, en un pollino; la mujer, en
las ancas, gruñendo, y todos los compañeros detrás arreando.
Están ocho días en un pueblo, duermen en una cama cuatro, comen
olla de vaca y carnero y algunas noches su menudo muy bien
aderezado. Tienen el vino por adarmes, la carne por onzas, el pan
por libras, y la hambre por arrobas. Hacen particulares á gallina

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INFORMATION SCIENCE REFERENCE

Published in the United States of America by

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Metaplasticity in virtual worlds : aesthetics and semantic concepts / Gianluca

British Cataloguing in Publication Data

Compilation of References................................................................................................................ 281

About the Contributors..................................................................................................................... 300

Compilation of References................................................................................................................ 281

About the Contributors..................................................................................................................... 300

• knowledge communication in virtual worlds as social media;

INTRODUCTION structures, surfaces and kaleidoscopes of images.

have developed new interdisciplinary interests creation methodologies. According to Christiane

” ...The World of Qualities, which opens more

Figure 2. The Metaplastic Media Model. Use this

This paragraph describes a visual methodology for

Metaplastic Media f = (S, St, P, Iv, Cg, If, Sm,

Metaplastic Media Planning Form Metaplastic Media f = (S, St, P, Iv,Cg,If,Sm,A,E,K,SK,SE);

“By changing space, by leaving the space of one’s

IMAGINARY MUSEUMS The role and knowledge transformations

Figure 4. Metaplastic abstract spaces. Xense project. ©2010 Gianluca Mura.

Figure 6. Visitor experience model ©2005 Xavier

The Metaplastic discipline re-discover its funda-

ARCHETYPES OF VIRTUAL MEDIUM machines visions. It is also a search for aspects of

THE CELIBATE MACHINES his most important artwork is “Eureka” exposed

¿Escribiría Sebastián de Horozco el Diálogo del Capón en los

El Lazarillo fué traducido al francés en 1561 por Jean Sangrain; al

Vida de Lazarillo de Tormes, ed. R. Foulché-Delbosc, Bibliotheca

177. Novela picaresca es la real ó fingida

Sobre la novela picaresca, consúltense: Aribau, La novela

181. Timoneda publicó en Valencia (1567) las cuatro

Lo que Lope de Rueda trajo al teatro español de su

Como poeta alaba Cervantes á Rueda por sus

Las fuentes de algunas comedias de Rueda fueron señaladas por L.

183. Lope de Rueda, Obras, ed. Real Academia Española, E.

184. Sobre lo que era el teatro en España antes de Rueda y el punto

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