Advanced Computer Networking

Graduate Course from Electrical Engineering School

A. Beheshti
Communication Group
Iran University of Science and Technology

Chapter 1
Introduction
Text Book:
Computer Networking: A Top Down Approach
6th edition
Jim Kurose, Keith Ross
Addison-Wesley
March 2012
1-1
Chapter 1: introduction

goal:
• Get “feel” and terminology of Computer networks

• What we learn with more detail later in course

• approach:

• use Internet as example

1-2
Chapter 1: introduction
o overview:
o what’s the Internet?
o what’s a protocol?
o network edge; hosts, access net, physical media
o network core: packet/circuit switching, Internet
structure
o performance: loss, delay, throughput
o security
o protocol layers, service models
o history

1-3
Chapter 1: introduction
1.1 what is the Internet?
1.2 network edge
√ end systems, access networks, links
1.3 network core
√ packet switching, circuit switching, network structure
1.4 delay, loss, throughput in networks
1.5 protocol layers, service models
1.6 networks under attack: security
1.7 history

1-4
What’s the Internet: “nuts and bolts” view

PC
• millions of connected computing devices:
server
• hosts = end systems
wireless
• running network apps laptop
smartphone

• communication links
• fiber, copper, radio, satellite wireless
links
• transmission rate: bandwidth wired
links

• Packet switches: forward packets (chunks

of data)
router
• routers and switches

1-5
What’s the Internet: “nuts and bolts” view

mobile network

global ISP

home
network
regional ISP

institutional
network

1-6
“Fun” internet appliances

Web-enabled toaster +
weather forecaster

IP picture frame
http://www.ceiva.com/

Tweet-a-watt:
monitor energy use

Slingbox: watch,
control cable TV remotely
Internet
refrigerator Internet phones
1-7
What’s the Internet: “nuts and bolts” view
mobile network
• Internet: “network of networks”
• Interconnected ISPs
global ISP
• protocols control, sending, and
receiving of msgs
• e.g., TCP, IP, HTTP, Skype, 802.11 home
network
• Internet standards regional ISP
• RFC: Request for comments
• IETF: Internet Engineering Task
Force

institutional
network

1-8
What’s the Internet: a service view

• Infrastructure that provides services to applications:

• Web, VoIP, email, games, e-commerce, social nets, …
• provides programming interface to apps (API)
• hooks that allow sending and receiving app programs to
“connect” to Internet
• provides service options, analogous to postal service

1-9
What’s a protocol?
• human protocols: • network protocols:
• “what’s the time?” • machines rather than
• “I have a question” humans
• I want to wake my son up • all communication
activity in Internet
governed by protocols
• … specific msgs sent
• … specific actions taken
when msgs received, or protocols define format, order
other events
of msgs sent and received
among network entities,
and actions taken on msg
transmission, receipt
1-10
What’s a protocol?
a human protocol and a computer network protocol:

Hi TCP connection
request
Hi TCP connection
response
Got the
time? Get http://www.awl.com/kurose-ross
2:00
<file>
time

1-11
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 what is the Internet?
1.2 network edge
 end systems, access networks, links
1.3 network core
 packet switching, circuit switching, network structure
1.4 delay, loss, throughput in networks
1.5 protocol layers, service models
1.6 networks under attack: security
1.7 history

1-12
A closer look at network structure:
• network edge: mobile network

• hosts: clients and servers

global ISP
• servers often in data
centers
home
• access networks, physical media: network
regional ISP
wired, wireless communication
links

• network core:
• interconnected routers
institutional
• network of networks network

1-13
Access networks and physical media

• Q: How to connect end

systems to edge router?
• residential access nets
• institutional access networks
(school, company)
• mobile access networks
• keep in mind:
• bandwidth (bits per second) of
access network?
• shared or dedicated?

1-14
Access net: digital subscriber line (DSL)

central office telephone

network

DSL splitter
modem DSLAM

ISP
voice, data transmitted
at different frequencies over DSL access
dedicated line to central office multiplexer

• use existing telephone line to central office DSLAM

• data over DSL phone line goes to Internet
• voice over DSL phone line goes to telephone net
• < 2.5 Mbps upstream transmission rate (typically < 1 Mbps)
• < 24 Mbps downstream transmission rate (typically < 10 Mbps)
1-15
Access net: digital subscriber line (DSL)

central office telephone

network

DSL splitter
modem DSLAM

ISP

• ADSL: asymmetric DSL

• HDSL: high rate DSL <2 Mbps half duplex or <1Mbps full duplex
on one pair telephone cable
• VDSL: very high rate DSL up to 28 Mbps in two way

1-16
Access net: cable network
cable headend

cable splitter
modem

C
O
V V V V V V N
I I I I I I D D T
D D D D D D A A R
E E E E E E T T O
O O O O O O A A L

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Channels

frequency division multiplexing: different channels transmitted

in different frequency bands
1-17
Access net: cable network
cable headend

cable splitter cable modem

modem CMTS termination system

data, TV transmitted at different

frequencies over shared cable ISP
distribution network

• HFC: hybrid fiber coax

• asymmetric: up to 30Mbps downstream transmission rate, 2
Mbps upstream transmission rate
• Network of cable or fiber attaches homes to ISP router
• homes share access network to cable headend
• unlike DSL, which has dedicated access to central office
1-18
Access net: home network
wireless
devices

to/from headend or
central office
often combined
in single box

cable or DSL modem

wireless access router, firewall, NAT

point (54 Mbps)
wired Ethernet (100 Mbps)

1-19
Enterprise access networks (Ethernet)

institutional link to
ISP (Internet)
institutional router

Ethernet institutional mail,

switch web servers

• typically used in companies, universities, etc

• 10 Mbps, 100Mbps, 1Gbps, 10Gbps transmission rates
• today, end systems typically connect into Ethernet switch

1-20
Wireless access networks
• shared wireless access network connects end system to
router
• via base station aka “access point”
• wireless LANs: • wide-area wireless access
• within building (100 ft) • provided by telco (cellular)
• 802.11b/g (WiFi): 11, 54 Mbps operator, 10’s km
transmission rate • between 1 and 10 Mbps
• 3G, 4G: LTE

to Internet
to Internet

1-21
Delay on sending packets of data
• host sending function:
• takes application message
• breaks into smaller chunks, two packets,
known as packets, of length L bits each
L bits
• transmits packet into access
network at transmission rate 2 1
R R: link transmission rate
• Delay for a packet received host
to destination

packet time needed to L (bits)

transmission = transmit L-bit =
delay packet into link R (bits/sec)
1-22
Physical media
• bit: propagates between
transmitter/receiver pairs
• physical link: what lies • twisted pair (TP)
between transmitter & • two insulated copper
receiver wires
• guided media: • Category 5: 100 Mbps, 1
Gpbs Ethernet
• signals propagate in solid • Category 6: 10Gbps
media: copper, fiber, coax
• unguided media:
• signals propagate freely,
e.g., radio

1-23
Physical media: coax, fiber

• coaxial cable: • fiber optic cable:

• two concentric copper • glass fiber carrying light
conductors pulses, each pulse a bit
• bidirectional • high-speed operation:
• broadband: • high-speed point-to-point
• multiple channels on cable transmission (e.g., 10’s-100’s
Gpbs transmission rate)
• HFC
• low error rate:
• repeaters spaced far apart
• immune to electromagnetic
noise

1-24
Transmission Media

• Mass Storage Media

• How cheap? How fast?
• Twisted pair cable
• CAT-3, CAT-5, CAT-5e, CAT-6
• UTP and STP

(a) Category 3 UTP (b)

Category 5 UTP.

1-25
Transmission Media

• Coaxial Cable
• Wideband and long distance
• Multi-band transmission
• Two way transmission by split band

2-26
Transmission Media

• Fiber optics
• Ultra Wideband and long distance
• Multi-band transmission by wave-length division
multiplexing
• Up to Terra bps
• No electromagnetic interference.

1-27
Transmission Media

• Transmission of light in fiber optics

1-28
Transmission Media

• Fiber cables
• Multi mode (thick, flexible)
• Single mode (thin, Fragile)

1-29
Transmission Media

• Light Sources
• LED
• Semiconductor Laser

1-30
Transmission Media

• Comparison of fiber and copper

• Distace 5 km vs. 50 km
• Crosstalk vs. no crosstalk
• Weight 8000 kg vs. 100 kg per km
• Capacity low vs. ultra high
• Electrical interface cheap vs. expensive

1-31
Transmission media: radio

• Wireless communication
• Electromagnetic spectrum

1-32
Transmission media: radio

Advantages
•signal carried in electromagnetic spectrum
•Mobility: no physical “wire”
•Bidirectional
Disadvantages
•propagation environment effects:
• reflection
• obstruction by objects
• Interference
•Eavesdroping
Regulatory :
•Bandwidth is capital
•frequency allocation and monitoring
1-33
Transmission media: radio
• radio link types in Internet applications:
• terrestrial microwave
• e.g. up to 45 Mbps per channels
• fast established
• When cable is Inappropriate between two points
• LAN (e.g., WiFi)
• 11Mbps, 54 Mbps
• wide-area (e.g., cellular)
• 3G cellular: ~ few Mbps
• satellite
• Kbps to 45Mbps channel (or multiple smaller channels)
• 270 msec end-end delay
• geosynchronous versus low earth orbit (LEO)

1-34
Transmission media: Telephone network

• Public switched telephone network

• Spread out of the world
• Modems are used for data transfer
• The cheapest for access network
• Structure of telephone network

1-35
Transmission media: Telephone network

• New circuit routing in telephone network

• Local loops
• Wired or wireless
• Digital or analog

1-36
Transmission media: Telephone network

• Local loops
• Wired or wireless
• Digital or analog

1-37
The network core
Network Connection models
•Circuit Switching
• Predefined bandwidth of network permanently or temporarily
is allocated to a connection.
• Bandwidth allocates for maximum demand.
• First connection then transmission
• Connection reject may happen but it is reliable during
connection
• Wastes the bandwidth when not needed
•Packet Switching
• Hosts break the application layer data to small
packets and send them through the network.
• Connection is not necessary
• Bandwidth efficiency
• Packet loss and packet ordering, …
1-38
The network core

• mesh of interconnected
routers
• packet-switching: hosts
break application-layer
messages into packets
• forward packets from one
router to the next, across
links on path from source
to destination
• each packet transmitted
at full link capacity

1-39
Packet-switching: store-and-forward

L bits
per packet

3 2 1
source destination
R bps R bps

• takes L/R seconds to • one-hop numerical

transmit (push out) L-bit example:
packet into link at R bps
• store and forward: entire • L = 7.5 Mbits
packet must arrive at • R = 1.5 Mbps
router before it can be • one-hop transmission
transmitted on next link delay = 5 sec
 end-end delay = 2L/R (assuming
zero propagation delay) more on delay shortly …
1-40
Packet Switching: queuing delay, loss

R = 100 Mb/s C
A
D
R = 1.5 Mb/s
B
queue of packets E
waiting for output link

• queuing and loss:

• If arrival rate (in bits) to link exceeds transmission rate of
link for a period of time:
• packets will queue, wait to be transmitted on link
• packets can be dropped (lost) if memory (buffer) fills up

1-41
Two key network-core functions
routing: determines source- forwarding: move packets from
destination route taken by router’s input to appropriate
packets router output
• routing algorithms

routing algorithm

local forwarding table

header value output link
0100 3 1
0101 2
0111 2 3 2
1001 1

dest address in arriving

packet’s header
4-42
Alternative core: circuit switching
• end-end resources allocated to,
reserved for “call” between
source & dest:
• In diagram, each link has four circuits.
• call gets 2nd circuit in top link and 1st
circuit in right link.
• dedicated resources: no sharing
• circuit-like performance(guaranteed)
• circuit segment idle if not used by call
(no sharing)
• Commonly used in traditional telephone
networks

1-43
Circuit switching: Multiplexing
• Sharing bandwidth between multi users
• FDM: Frequency division multiplexing
• TDM: Time division multiplexing
• CDM: Code division multiplexing
• WDM: wavelength division multiplexing
• Hybrid systems: like satellites and GSM

1-44
Circuit switching: Multiplexing
Example:
FDM
4 users

frequency

time
TDM

frequency

time
1-45
Circuit switching: Multiplexing

WDM

CDM: each bit of users is modulated by user assigned code

(±1) and can be detected by multiplying it by the same code. If
the code is not correct the averaging over bit tends to zero.

1-46
Circuit switching: TDM Trunks
• TDM
• Digital Multiplexed trunk T1 (American telephone standard)

1-47
Circuit switching: TDM Trunks

• TDM
• Digital Multiplexed trunk E1 (European standard)
• 3264 kbps (30 Voice channel +two signaling)
• CCITT Digital trunk E1 and Hierarchy
• E1: 32×64 kbps=2.048 Mbps
• E2: 4E1 =8.848 Mbps
• E3: 4E2 =34.304 Mbps
• E4: 4E3 =139. 264 Mbps
• E5: 4E4 =565.148 Mbps

1-48
Circuit switching: TDM Trunks

• SONET and SDH trunk hierarchy

• SONET: Synchronous Optical Network
• SDH: Synchronous Digital Hierarchy
• Different carriers internetwork
• Support international internetworking
• Multiplexing more channels
• Operation, administration and maintenance (OAM)

1-49
Circuit switching: TDM Trunks
• SONET/SDH frame
• Basic frame are repeated every 125 µsec
• Basic frame contains 810 bytes

1-50
Circuit switching: TDM Trunks

• SONET and SDH trunk hierarchy

1-51
Packet switching versus circuit switching
packet switching allows more users to use network!

• example:
• 1 Mb/s link
• each user: N
users
• 100 kb/s when “active”
• active 10% of time 1 Mbps link

• circuit-switching:
• 10 users
• packet switching: Q: how did we get value 0.0004?
• with 35 users, probability >
10 active at same time is Q: what happens if > 35 users ?
less than .0004 *

1-52
Packet switching versus circuit switching
is packet switching a “winner?”
• great for bursty data
• resource sharing
• simpler, no call setup
• excessive congestion possible: packet delay and loss
• protocols needed for reliable data transfer, congestion
control
• Q: How to provide circuit-like behavior?
• bandwidth guarantees needed for audio/video apps
• still an unsolved problem (chapter 7)

Q: human analogies of reserved resources (circuit switching)

versus on-demand allocation (packet-switching)?
1-53
Packet switching versus circuit switching

1-54
Internet structure: network of networks

• End systems connect to Internet via access ISPs (Internet

Service Providers)
• Residential, company and university ISPs
• Access ISPs in turn must be interconnected.
• So that any two hosts can send packets to each other
• Resulting network of networks is very complex
• Evolution was driven by economics and national policies
• Let’s take a stepwise approach to describe current Internet
structure

1-55
Internet structure: network of networks
Question: given millions of access ISPs, how to connect them
together?
access access
net net
access
net
access
access net
net
access
access net
net

access access
net net

access
net
access
net

access
net
access
net
access access
net access net
net

1-56
Internet structure: network of networks
Option: connect each access ISP to every other access ISP?

access access
net net
access
net
access
access net
net
access
access net
net

connecting each access ISP

access
to each other directly doesn’t access
net
scale: O(N2) connections. net

access
net
access
net

access
net
access
net
access access
net access net
net

1-57
Internet structure: network of networks
Option: connect each access ISP to a global transit ISP? Customer
and provider ISPs have economic agreement.
access access
net net
access
net
access
access net
net
access
access net
net

global
access
net
ISP access
net

access
net
access
net

access
net
access
net
access access
net access net
net

1-58
Internet structure: network of networks
But if one global ISP is viable business, there will be competitors
….
access access
net net
access
net
access
access net
net
access
access net
net
ISP A

access access
net ISP B net

access
ISP C
net
access
net

access
net
access
net
access access
net access net
net

1-59
Internet structure: network of networks
But if one global ISP is viable business, there will be competitors
…. which must be interconnected
access access
Internet exchange point
net net
access
net
access
access net
net

access
IXP access
net
net
ISP A

access IXP access

net ISP B net

access
ISP C
net
access
net

access peering link

net
access
net
access access
net access net
net

1-60
Internet structure: network of networks
… and regional networks may arise to connect access nets to
ISPS
access access
net net
access
net
access
access net
net

access
IXP access
net
net
ISP A

access IXP access

net ISP B net

access
ISP C
net
access
net

access
net regional net
access
net
access access
net access net
net

1-61
Internet structure: network of networks
… and content provider networks (e.g., Google, Microsoft,
Akamai ) may run their own network, to bring services, content
close to end users
access access
net net
access
net
access
access net
net

access
IXP access
net
net
ISP A
Content provider network
access IXP access
net ISP B net

access
ISP B
net
access
net

access
net regional net
access
net
access access
net access net
net

1-62
Internet structure: network of networks

Tier 1 ISP Tier 1 ISP Google

IXP IXP IXP

Regional ISP Regional ISP

access access access access access access access access

ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP

• at center: small # of well-connected large networks

• “tier-1” commercial ISPs (e.g., Level 3, Sprint, AT&T, NTT), national &
international coverage
• content provider network (e.g, Google): private network that connects
it data centers to Internet, often bypassing tier-1, regional ISPs 1-63
Tier-1 ISP: e.g., Sprint

POP: point-of-presence

to/from backbone

peering
… … …
…

to/from customers

1-64
Chapter 1: roadmap

1.4 delay, loss, throughput in networks

1-65
How do loss and delay occur?
• packets queue in router buffers
• packet arrival rate to link (temporarily) exceeds output link
capacity
• packets queue, wait for turn
packet being transmitted (delay)

B
packets queueing (delay)
free (available) buffers: arriving packets
dropped (loss) if no free buffers

1-66
Four sources of packet delay
transmission
A propagation

B
nodal
processing queueing

dnodal = dproc + dqueue + dtrans + dprop

• dproc: nodal • dqueue: queueing delay

processing • time waiting at output link
• check bit errors for transmission
• determine output link • depends on congestion
• typically < msec level of router
1-67
Four sources of packet delay
transmission
A propagation

B
nodal
processing queueing

dnodal = dproc + dqueue + dtrans + dprop

• dtrans: transmission delay: • dprop: propagation delay:

• L: packet length (bits) • d: length of physical link
• R: link bandwidth (bps) • s: propagation speed in medium
• dtrans = L/R (~2x108 m/sec)
dtrans and dprop • dprop = d/s
very different
* Check out the Java applet for an interactive animation on trans vs. prop delay 1-68
• Caravan analogy
100 km 100 km
ten-car toll toll
caravan booth booth

• cars “propagate” at • time to “push” entire

100 km/hr caravan through toll
• toll booth takes 12 sec to booth onto highway =
service car (bit transmission 12*10 = 120 sec
time) • time for last car to
• car~bit; caravan ~ packet propagate from 1st to
• Q: How long until caravan is 2nd toll both:
lined up before 2nd toll 100km/(100km/hr)=
booth? 1 hr
• A: 62 minutes
1-69
Caravan analogy (Continue)
100 km 100 km
ten-car toll toll
caravan booth booth

• suppose cars now “propagate” at 1000 km/hr

• and suppose toll booth now takes one min to service a car
• Q: Will cars arrive to 2nd booth before all cars serviced at
first booth?
• A: Yes! after 7 min, 1st car arrives at second booth; three
cars still at 1st booth.

1-70
Queueing delay

• R: link bandwidth (bps)

• L: packet length (bits)
• a: average packet arrival rate

traffic intensity
= La/R La/R ~ 0
• La/R ~ 0: avg. queueing delay small
• La/R  1: avg. queueing delay large
• La/R > 1: more “work” arriving than can be
serviced, average delay infinite!
La/R -> 1

1-71
“Real” Internet delays and routes
• what do “real” Internet delay & loss look like?
• traceroute program: provides delay
measurement from source to router along end-
end Internet path towards destination. For all i:
• sends three packets that will reach router i on path
towards destination
• router i will return packets to sender
• sender measures time interval between transmission
and reply.

3 probes 3 probes

3 probes

1-72
“Real” Internet delays, routes
traceroute: gaia.cs.umass.edu to www.eurecom.fr
3 delay measurements from
gaia.cs.umass.edu to cs-gw.cs.umass.edu
1 cs-gw (128.119.240.254) 1 ms 1 ms 2 ms
2 border1-rt-fa5-1-0.gw.umass.edu (128.119.3.145) 1 ms 1 ms 2 ms
3 cht-vbns.gw.umass.edu (128.119.3.130) 6 ms 5 ms 5 ms
4 jn1-at1-0-0-19.wor.vbns.net (204.147.132.129) 16 ms 11 ms 13 ms
5 jn1-so7-0-0-0.wae.vbns.net (204.147.136.136) 21 ms 18 ms 18 ms
6 abilene-vbns.abilene.ucaid.edu (198.32.11.9) 22 ms 18 ms 22 ms
7 nycm-wash.abilene.ucaid.edu (198.32.8.46) 22 ms 22 ms 22 ms trans-oceanic
8 62.40.103.253 (62.40.103.253) 104 ms 109 ms 106 ms
9 de2-1.de1.de.geant.net (62.40.96.129) 109 ms 102 ms 104 ms link
10 de.fr1.fr.geant.net (62.40.96.50) 113 ms 121 ms 114 ms
11 renater-gw.fr1.fr.geant.net (62.40.103.54) 112 ms 114 ms 112 ms
12 nio-n2.cssi.renater.fr (193.51.206.13) 111 ms 114 ms 116 ms
13 nice.cssi.renater.fr (195.220.98.102) 123 ms 125 ms 124 ms
14 r3t2-nice.cssi.renater.fr (195.220.98.110) 126 ms 126 ms 124 ms
15 eurecom-valbonne.r3t2.ft.net (193.48.50.54) 135 ms 128 ms 133 ms
16 194.214.211.25 (194.214.211.25) 126 ms 128 ms 126 ms
17 * * *
18 * * * * means no response (probe lost, router not replying)
19 fantasia.eurecom.fr (193.55.113.142) 132 ms 128 ms 136 ms

1-73
 Packet loss
• queue (aka buffer) preceding link in buffer has finite capacity
• packet arriving to full queue dropped (aka lost)
• lost packet may be retransmitted by previous node, by
source end system, or not at all

buffer
(waiting area) packet being transmitted
A

B
packet arriving to
full buffer is lost
1-74
 Throughput
• throughput: rate (bits/time unit) at which bits
transferred between sender/receiver
• instantaneous: rate at given point in time
• average: rate over longer period of time

server,
server withbits
sends linkpipe
capacity
that can carry linkpipe
capacity
that can carry
file of into
(fluid) F bitspipe Rs bits/sec
fluid at rate Rc bits/sec
fluid at rate
to send to client Rs bits/sec) Rc bits/sec)

1-75
 Throughput
• Rs < Rc What is average end-end throughput?

Rs bits/sec Rc bits/sec

• Rs > Rc What is average end-end throughput?

Rs bits/sec Rc bits/sec

bottleneck link
link on end-end path that constrains end-end throughput
1-76
 Throughput: Internet scenario

• per-connection end-
end throughput: Rs
min(Rc,Rs,R/10) Rs Rs
• in practice: Rc or Rs
is often bottleneck R

Rc Rc

Rc

10 connections (fairly) share

backbone bottleneck link R bits/sec
1-77
Chapter 1: roadmap

protocol layers, service models

1-78
 Protocol “layers”
• Networks are
complex,
• with many “pieces”:
• hosts
Question:
is there any hope of
• routers
organizing structure of
• links of various network?
media
• applications
…. or at least our
• protocols discussion of
• hardware, networks?
software

1-79
example: Organization of air travel

ticket (purchase) ticket (complain)

baggage (check) baggage (claim)

gates (load) gates (unload)

runway takeoff runway landing

airplane routing airplane routing

airplane routing

• a series of steps

1-80
 Layering of airline functionality

ticket (purchase) ticket (complain) ticket

baggage (check) baggage (claim baggage

gates (load) gates (unload) gate

runway (takeoff) runway (land) takeoff/landing

airplane routing airplane routing airplane routing airplane routing airplane routing

departure intermediate air-traffic arrival

airport control centers airport

• layers: each layer implements a service

• via its own internal-layer actions
• relying on services provided by layer below

1-81
 Why layering?
• dealing with complex systems:
• explicit structure allows identification,
relationship of complex system’s pieces
• layered reference model for discussion
• modularization eases maintenance, updating of
system
• change of implementation of layer’s service
transparent to rest of system
• e.g., change in gate procedure doesn’t affect rest of
system
• layering considered harmful?

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Internet protocol stack
• application: supporting network
applications
• FTP, SMTP, HTTP application
• transport: process-process data
transfer transport
• TCP, UDP
network
• network: routing of datagrams
from source to destination
link
• IP, routing protocols
• link: data transfer between physical
neighboring network elements
• Ethernet, 802.111 (WiFi), PPP
• physical: bits “on the wire”
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 ISO/OSI reference model
• presentation: allow
applications to interpret application
meaning of data, e.g.,
encryption, compression, presentation
machine-specific conventions session
• session: synchronization, transport
checkpointing, recovery of
data exchange network
• Internet stack “missing” these link
layers! physical
• these services, if needed, must
be implemented in application
• needed?
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 Encapsulation
source
message M application
segment Ht M transport
datagram Hn Ht M network link
frame Hl Hn Ht M link physical
physical
switch

destination Hn Ht M network
M application Hl Hn Ht M link Hn Ht M
Ht M transport physical
Hn Ht M network
Hl Hn Ht M link router
physical

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Chapter 1: roadmap

networks under attack: security

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 Network security
• field of network security:
• how bad guys can attack computer networks
• how we can defend networks against attacks
• how to design architectures that are immune to
attacks
• Internet not originally designed with (much)
security in mind
• original vision: “a group of mutually trusting users
attached to a transparent network”
• Internet protocol designers playing “catch-up”
• security considerations in all layers!

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Bad guys: put malware into hosts via Internet

• malware can get in host from:

• virus: self-replicating infection by
receiving/executing object (e.g., e-mail attachment)
• worm: self-replicating infection by passively receiving
object that gets itself executed
• spyware malware can record keystrokes, web
sites visited, upload info to collection site
• infected host can be enrolled in botnet, used
for spam. DDoS attacks

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 Bad guys: attack server, network infrastructure

Denial of Service (DoS): attackers make resources

(server, bandwidth) unavailable to legitimate
traffic by overwhelming resource with bogus traffic

1. select target
2. break into hosts around
the network (see botnet)
3. send packets to target from
compromised hosts
target

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 Bad guys can sniff packets

• packet “sniffing”:
• broadcast media (shared Ethernet, wireless)
• promiscuous network interface reads/records all
packets (e.g., including passwords!) passing by

A C

src:B dest:A payload

B

• wireshark software is a (free) packet-sniffer

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Bad guys can use fake addresses

IP spoofing: send packet with false source address

A C

src:B dest:A payload

… lots more on security (throughout, Chapter 8)

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Chapter 1: roadmap

history

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 Internet history
1961-1972: Early packet-switching principles
• 1961: Kleinrock - • 1972:
queueing theory shows • ARPAnet public demo
effectiveness of packet- • NCP (Network Control
switching Protocol) first host-host
• 1964: Baran - packet- protocol
switching in military • first e-mail program
nets
• ARPAnet has 15 nodes
• 1967: ARPAnet
conceived by Advanced
Research Projects
Agency
• 1969: first ARPAnet
node operational

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 Internet history
1972-1980: Internetworking, new and proprietary nets
• 1970: ALOHAnet satellite
network in Hawaii • Cerf and Kahn’s
• 1974: Cerf and Kahn - internetworking
architecture for principles:
interconnecting networks • minimalism, autonomy - no
• 1976: Ethernet at Xerox PARC internal changes required
to interconnect networks
• late70’s: proprietary
• best effort service model
architectures: DECnet, SNA,
XNA • stateless routers
• decentralized control
• late 70’s: switching fixed
length packets (ATM • define today’s Internet
precursor) architecture
• 1979: ARPAnet has 200
nodes
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 Internet history
1980-1990: new protocols, a proliferation of networks
• 1983: deployment of • new national networks:
TCP/IP Csnet, BITnet, NSFnet,
• 1982: smtp e-mail Minitel
protocol defined • 100,000 hosts
• 1983: DNS defined for connected to
name-to-IP-address confederation of
translation networks
• 1985: ftp protocol
defined
• 1988: TCP congestion
control

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 Internet history
1990, 2000’s: commercialization, the Web, new apps
• early 1990’s: ARPAnet • late 1990’s – 2000’s:
decommissioned • more killer apps: instant
• 1991: NSF lifts restrictions on messaging, P2P file
commercial use of NSFnet sharing
(decommissioned, 1995) • network security to
• early 1990s: Web forefront
• hypertext [Bush 1945, • est. 50 million host, 100
Nelson 1960’s] million+ users
• HTML, HTTP: Berners-Lee • backbone links running at
• 1994: Mosaic, later Gbps
Netscape
• late 1990’s:
commercialization of the Web
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 Internet history
• 2005-present
• ~750 million hosts
• Smartphones and tablets
• Aggressive deployment of broadband access
• Increasing ubiquity of high-speed wireless access
• Emergence of online social networks:
• Facebook: soon one billion users
• Service providers (Google, Microsoft) create their own
networks
• Bypass Internet, providing “instantaneous”
access to search, emai, etc.
• E-commerce, universities, enterprises running their
services in “cloud” (eg, Amazon EC2)

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Introduction: summary
• covered a “ton” of • you now have:
material! • context, overview, “feel”
• Internet overview of networking
• what’s a protocol? • more depth, detail to
• network edge, core, access follow!
network
• packet-switching versus
circuit-switching
• Internet structure
• performance: loss, delay,
throughput
• layering, service models
• security
• history
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