LECTURE 2

TEEM 1101: GENERAL CHEMISTRY

BONDING
• Bond Types (covalent, ionic, metallic, vander waals, hydrogen)
• Shapes of simple molecules
• Qualitative treatment of bonding in terms of dot and cross
formula

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 The noble gases have
full outer shells and the
electrons are paired
with opposite spins
fulfilling the 'octet rule’.

Bonding:
• All other elements on the periodic table will combine by sharing or transferring electrons in
order to fill their outer shell.
• The atoms, when combined tend to have the noble gas configuration - fulfilling the 'octet
rule', although there are some exceptions
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Chemical compounds are formed by the bonding of two or more atoms. A stable bonding forms
when the total energy of the combination has lower energy than the separated atoms. The bound
state implies a net attractive force between the atoms called a chemical bond.

Primary atomic bonds

1. Ionic (large interatomic forces, nondirectional, electron transfer, coulombic forces)
2. Covalent (large interatomic forces, localized (directional), electron sharing)
3. Metallic (large interatomic forces) nondirectional

Secondary atomic and molecular bonds

1. Permanent dipole bonds
2. Fluctuating dipole bonds

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 METALLIC BONDING
• Positive metal ions are in a fixed position while the outer shell electrons are delocalised
between all the atoms in the metallic structure:
• The valence electrons are weakly bonded to the positive-ion cores and can readily
move as “free electrons”
• Within the metal lattice, the atoms lose their valence electrons and become positively
charged
• The valence electrons no longer belong to any metal atom and are said to be delocalised
• They move freely between the positive metal ions like a sea of electrons
• Attraction occurs between the positive metal ions and the negative delocalised
electrons.
• The metal ions pack together in a lattice arrangement.
• Giant as there are many metal ions in the arrangement.

Giant Metallic Lattice Structure

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 Explaining the Properties of Metals
• Metals have high melting and boiling points
• There are many strong metallic bonds in giant metallic structures
• A lot of heat energy is needed to overcome forces and break these bonds
• Metals conduct electricity
• There are free electrons available to move and carry charge
• Electrons entering one end of the metal cause a delocalised electron to
displace itself from the other end
• Hence electrons can flow so electricity is conducted
• Metals are malleable and ductile
• Layers of positive ions can slide over one another and take up different positions
• Metallic bonding is not disrupted as the valence electrons do not belong to any particular
metal atom so the delocalised electrons will move with them
• Metallic bonds are thus not broken and as a result metals are strong but flexible
• They can be hammered and bent into different shapes without breaking
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 Nonlocalized behavior of electrons in metals

• High electrical conductivity

- electrons move easily when E-field applied
• High thermal conductivity
- the electrons can carry energy through metal
• High density
- outer shell removed from atoms, so can be packed together
• High ductility
- if metal distorted, bent, electrons can quickly move to
compensate
- metal bond is not directional

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 IONIC BONDING

Bonding in which one or more electrons from one atom are

removed and attached to another atom, resulting in positive and
negative ions which attract each other.

Metals form positive ions which we call cations when

electrons are lost
• Non - metals form negative ions which we call anions
when electrons are gained
• Electrostatic forces of attraction occur between ions
holding them in place. Giant ionic lattice
• Giant structure as many ions arranged in structure
the structure

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 Example
Draw Dot & Cross diagram, with outer electrons only, to show how the electrons are
transferred when magnesium oxide is formed from its elements
• Magnesium is a group 2 metal so it will lose two outer electrons to another atom to have a
full outer shell of electrons. A positive ion with the charge +2 is formed
• Oxygen is a group 6 non-metal so it will need to gain two electrons to have a full outer shell of
electrons
• Two electrons will be transferred from the outer shell of the magnesium atom to the outer
shell of the oxygen atom
• Oxygen atom will gain two electrons to form a negative ion with charge -2
• Formula of ionic compound: MgO

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Dot and cross diagrams
• A dot and cross diagram models the transfer of
electrons from metal atoms to non-metal atoms. The
electrons from one atom are shown as dots, and the
electrons from the other atom are shown as crosses.
For example, when sodium reacts with chlorine,
electrons transfer from sodium atoms to chlorine
atoms. The diagrams show two ways of representing
this electron transfer.

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 COVALENT BONDING
Bonding in which one or more pairs of electrons are shared by two atoms.
• These occur between 2 or more non metals.
• Since neither will donate, they have to share.
• Attraction comes between the positive nucleus and the
negative electrons that are shared between them.
• In each case the outer shell has to be filled (reach the
noble gas configuration).
• Takes place between elements with small difference in
electronegativity - F, O, N, Cl, H, C, Si…
• When two or more atoms are chemically bonded together, they form ‘molecules’
• Covalently bonded substances may consist of small molecules or giant molecules
• Shared electrons are called bonding electrons and occur in pairs and electrons on the outer
shell which are not involved in the covalent bond(s) are called non- bonding electrons
•Covalent bonds should not be regarded as shared electron pairs in a fixed position; the
electrons are in a state of constant motion and are best regarded as charge clouds
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 Single covalent bonds

Lone pairs of electrons are

the paired electrons and are
not used in a covalent
bonding.

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 Multiple covalent bonds; contain multiple shared pair of electrons

Dative covalent bonds (co – ordinate bonds); where one atom provides both
the shared pair of electrons
In order for this to happen:
➢ An atom or atom in a molecule must have a lone pair of electrons to donate
➢ An atom or atom in a molecule must have capacity to accept a pair of electrons

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 Examples of dative bonding
The hydroxonium ion:
• A lone pair of electrons from the water molecule is used to form a dative covalent bond.
• The bond is indistinguishable from the other covalent bonds but we use an arrow to show
that one of the bonds is dative

The ammonium ion:

• The same can be done
for ammonia. This forms the
ammonium ion:
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 Simple Molecular Structures

• Electrostatic Attractions; There is a strong electrostatic attraction between the shared

pair of electrons and the nuclei of the atoms involved, since the electrons are
negatively charged and the nuclei are positively charged
• simple molecular structures have covalent bonds joining the atoms together,
but intermolecular forces that act between neighboring molecules
• They have low melting and boiling points as there are only weak
intermolecular forces acting between the molecules
• These forces are very weak when compared to the covalent bonds and so most small
molecules are either gases or liquids at room temperature
• Often the liquids are volatile
• As the molecules increase in size the intermolecular forces also increase as there are
more electrons available
• This causes the melting and boiling points to increase
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 Covalent bonds are strong but
intermolecular forces are weak

Conductivity & Covalent Compounds

• They are poor conductors of electricity as there are no free ions or electrons to carry the
charge
• Most covalent compounds do not conduct at all in the solid state and are thus insulators
• Common insulators include the plastic coating around household electrical wiring,
rubber and wood
• Why does water conduct electricity???????????????????????
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 Melting & Boiling Point Patterns
• Melting and Boiling Point of Simple Compounds in Relation to Molecular Mass
• As the relative molecular mass of a substance increases, the melting and boiling point
will increase as well
• An increase in the relative molecular mass of a substance means that there are more
electrons in the structure, so there are more intermolecular forces of attraction that need
to be overcome when a substance changes state
• Therefore, larger amounts of heat energy are needed to overcome these forces,

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 Giant Covalent Structures
• Simple molecules contain fixed numbers of atoms
• Giant covalent structures on the other hand have a huge number of non- metal
atoms bonded to other non-metal atoms via strong covalent bonds
• These structures can also be called giant lattices and have a fixed ratio of atoms in
the overall structure
• Three common macromolecules you should know about are diamond, graphite
and C60 fulleren
• Diamond and graphite are allotropes of carbon (An allotrope is one or more forms
of a chemical element that can exist in the same physical state. Allotropes have
different chemical and physical properties due to the different ways in which the
atoms bond together to create each allotrope)
• Both substances contain only carbon atoms but due to the differences in bonding
arrangements they are physically completely different

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 Diamond
• In diamond, each carbon atom bonds with four other carbons, forming a
tetrahedron
• All the covalent bonds are identical, very strong and there are no
intermolecular forces

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 Properties of Diamond
• Diamond has the following physical properties:
• It does not conduct electricity
• It has a very high melting point
• It is extremely hard and has a density of 3.51 g / cm3 – a little higher than that of
aluminium
• All the outer shell electrons in carbon are held in the four covalent bonds around
each carbon atom, so there are no freely moving charged particles to the current
• The four covalent bonds are very strong and extend in a giant lattice, so a very large
amount of heat energy is needed to break the lattice
• Diamond ́s hardness makes it very useful for purposes where extremely tough
material is required
• Diamond is used in jewellery and for coating blades in cutting tools
• The cutting edges of discs used to cut bricks and concrete are tipped with diamonds
• Heavy-duty drill bits and tooling equipment are also diamond tipped
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 Graphite
• Graphite; Each carbon atom in graphite is bonded to three others forming layers
of hexagons, leaving one free electron per carbon atom
• These free electrons migrate along the layers and are free to move and carry
charge, hence graphite can conduct electricity
• The covalent bonds within the layers are very strong, but the layers are attracted to
each other by weak intermolecular forces, so the layers can slide over each other
making graphite soft and slippery

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 Properties of Graphite
• Graphite has the following physical properties:
• It conducts electricity and heat
• It has a very high melting point
• It is soft and slippery and less dense than diamond (2.25 g / cm3)
• The weak intermolecular forces make it a useful material
• It is used in pencils and as an industrial lubricant, in engines and in locks
• It is also used to make inert electrodes for electrolysis, which is particularly important
in the extraction of metals such as aluminium

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 C60 fullerene
• Fullerenes are a group of carbon allotropes which consist of molecules that
form hollow tubes or spheres
• Fullerenes can be used to trap other molecules by forming around the target molecule and
capturing it, making them useful for
targeted drug delivery systems
• They also have a huge surface area and are useful for
trapping catalyst molecules onto their surfaces making them easily accessible to
reactants so catalysis can take place
• Some fullerenes are excellent lubricants and are starting to be used in many industrial
processes
• The first fullerene to be discovered was buckminsterfullerene which is affectionately
referred to as a “buckyball”
• In this fullerene, 60 carbon atoms are joined together forming 20 hexagons and 12
pentagons which produce a hollow sphere that is the exact shape of a soccer ball
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C60 fullerene

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• Ionic and covalent bonds between elements require energy to break. Ionic bonds are not
as strong as covalent, which determines their behavior in biological systems.
• However, not all bonds are ionic or covalent bonds. Weaker bonds can also form
between molecules. Two weak bonds that occur frequently are hydrogen bonds and
van der Waals interactions.
• Hydrogen bond: The attraction between a partially positively-charged hydrogen atom
attached to a highly electronegative atom (such as nitrogen, oxygen, or fluorine) and
another nearby electronegative atom.
• Electronegativity: The tendency of an atom or molecule to draw electrons towards itself,
form dipoles, and thus form bonds.
• Van der Waals interactions: A weak force of attraction between electrically neutral
molecules that collide with or pass very close to each other. The van der Waals force is
caused by temporary attractions between electron-rich regions of one molecule and
electron-poor regions of another.
Weak relatively to the primary bonding
Always present, but overwhelmed by other interaction
Most easily observed in inert gases
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• Van der Waals attractions can occur between any two or more molecules and are
dependent on slight fluctuations of the electron densities, which are not always
symmetrical around an atom. For these attractions to happen, the molecules need to be very
close to one another. These bonds—along with ionic, covalent, and hydrogen bonds—
contribute to the three- dimensional structure of proteins that is necessary for their proper
function.
Hydrogen Bonding
• Hydrogen bonds provide many of the critical, life-sustaining properties of water and also
stabilize the structures of proteins and DNA, the building block of cells. When polar
covalent bonds containing hydrogen form, the hydrogen in that bond has a slightly
positive charge because hydrogen’s one electron is pulled more strongly toward the other
element and away from the hydrogen. Because the hydrogen is slightly positive, it will be
attracted to neighboring negative charges.
• When this happens, an interaction occurs between the δ+of the hydrogen from one
molecule and the δ– charge on the more electronegative atoms of another molecule,
usually oxygen or nitrogen, or within the same molecule. This interaction is called a
hydrogen bond.
• This type of bond is common and occurs regularly between water molecules. Individual
hydrogen bonds are weak and easily broken; however, they occur in very large numbers
in water and in organic polymers, creating a major force in combination. Hydrogen bonds
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also responsible for zipping together the DNA double helix.
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 Applications for Hydrogen Bonds
• Hydrogen bonds occur in inorganic molecules,
such as water, and organic molecules, such as
DNA and proteins. The two complementary
strands of DNA are held together by hydrogen
bonds between complementary nucleotides
(A&T, C&G). Hydrogen bonding in water
contributes to its unique properties, including
its high boiling point (100 °C) and surface
tension.
• Water droplets on a leaf: The hydrogen bonds
formed between water molecules in water
droplets are stronger than the other
intermolecular forces between the water
molecules and the leaf, contributing to high
surface tension and distinct water droplets
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 Assignment; Shapes of molecules and ions:
Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Theory
(VSEPR):

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 The Shapes of Molecules (VSEPR Theory) and Orbital
Hybridization
• Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) theory is a simple and useful way to
predict and rationalize the shapes of molecules.
• To use the VSEPR model, one begins with the Lewis dot picture to determine the
number of lone pairs and bonding domains around a central atom. Because VSEPR
considers all bonding domains equally (i.e., a single bond, a double bond, and a half
bond all count as one electron domain), one can use either an octet or hypervalent
structure, provided that the number of lone pairs (which should be the same in both) is
calculated correctly.
• For example, in either the hypervalent or octet structure of the I -ion below, there are
three lone pairs on the central I atom and two bonding domains. We then follow these
steps to obtain the electronic geometry:

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• Determine the number of lone pairs on the central atom in the molecule, and
add the number of bonded atoms (a.k.a. bonding domains)
• This number (the steric number) defines the electronic shape of the molecule by
minimizing repulsion. For example a steric number of three gives a trigonal
planar electronic shape.
• The angles between electron domains are determined primarily by the electronic
geometry (e.g., 109.5° for a steric number of 4, which implies that the electronic
shape is a tetrahedron)
• These angles are adjusted by the hierarchy of repulsions: (lone pair - lone pair) >
(lone pair - bond) > (bond - bond)

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• The molecular geometry is deduced from the electronic geometry by considering the
lone pairs to be present but invisible. The most commonly used methods to determine
molecular structure - X-ray diffraction, neutron diffraction, and electron diffraction -
have a hard time seeing lone pairs, but they can accurately determine the lengths of bonds
between atoms and the bond angles.
• The table below gives examples of electronic and molecular shapes for steric numbers
between 2 and 9. We are most often concerned with molecules that have steric
numbers between 2 and 6.

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 Samples of the shapes

SO2
BF3 CH4
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 Shapes of orbitals

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 AX2 Molecules: BeH2
The central atom, beryllium, contributes two valence electrons, and each hydrogen
atom contributes one. The Lewis electron structure I

Both groups around the central atom are bonding pairs (BP). Thus BeH2 is
designated as AX2.

From Figure above we see that with two bonding pairs, the molecular geometry that
minimizes repulsions in BeH2 is linear.
Question 1;
using the VSEPR model, predict the molecular geometry of each molecule or ion.
1.PF5 (phosphorus pentafluoride, a catalyst used in certain organic reactions)
2. H3O+ (hydronium ion)

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 Question 2
• AX2 Molecules: CO2
• AX3 Molecules: BCl3
• AX3 Molecules: CO 2−
• AX2E Molecules: 3SO2
• AX4 Molecules: CH4
• AX5 Molecules: PCl5
• AX4E Molecules: SF4
• AX6 Molecules: SF6
• AX4E2 Molecules: ICl −
4

• Draw Lewis electron structure of the molecule or polyatomic ion. and state all the
steps involved

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