HDP Module III (Revised 2022)

Addis Ababa University
Managing Learning and Assessment
Module III
August 2022
Managing Learning and Assessment
Higher Diploma Program
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Table of Contents ------------------------------------------------------------------3
Unit 1: Understanding Learning: Principles and Processes (4 hrs.) .............................................. 4
1.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................ 4
1.2. Defining learning ........................................................................................................ 5
1.3. How is teaching related to learning? ........................................................................... 7
1.4. Teachers’ Instructional Leadership Styles ................................................................... 13
1.5. Learning styles .......................................................................................................... 15
Unit 2: Active Learning Methods (4 hrs.) .................................................................................. 20
2.1. Introduction .............................................................................................................. 20
2.2. What is active learning? ............................................................................................ 20
2.3. Why active learning? ................................................................................................ 22
2.4. Specific active learning methods ................................................................................ 23
2.5. Collaborative and Independent learning (2 hrs.) ........................................................ 26
2.6. Teaching and learning in large classes ........................................................................ 30
Unit 3: Learning Assessment and Grading................................................................................. 32
3.1. Learning Assessment: Introduction ............................................................................ 32
3.2. Why Do We Assess?................................................................................................... 33
3.3. Continuous Assessment (CA) ..................................................................................... 35
3.4. Assessment for and of Learning ................................................................................. 36
3.5. General Principles of Assessment .............................................................................. 37
3.6. Assessing Groups ....................................................................................................... 38
3.7. Methods of Assessment............................................................................................. 42
3.8. Self-Assessment ........................................................................................................ 46

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3.9. Test Construction (3 hrs.)........................................................................................... 48
3.10. Grading ................................................................................................................. 51
3.11. The Importance of Feedback.................................................................................. 56
Unit 4 Student Advisement and Support ................................................................................... 58
4.1. Introduction .............................................................................................................. 58
4.2. Student Support Services ........................................................................................... 59
4.3. Academic Advising .................................................................................................... 61
Unit 5: Managing Student Discipline...................................................................................... 64
5.1. Introduction .............................................................................................................. 64
5.2. Causes of Disciplinary Problems ................................................................................ 65
5.3. Types of Disciplinary Problems................................................................................... 65
5.4. Managing Student Discipline...................................................................................... 68
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Module 3: Managing Learning and Assessment
Introduction (1 hr.)
This module is written with the assumption that there are no final answers to questions
concerning school learning (Bigge and Shermis, 2004). Issues of learning vary in time,
place and level. Not only differing landscapes of education pose different kinds of issues
of learning, but also the dynamism in the conception of learning itself challenges the
claim for universal applications of theories and strategies in classrooms. Thus, teachers or
readers of this module are rather advised to use theories of learning to improve their
understanding of students, learning and the learning process, and to continuously modify
their classroom approaches. In other words, methods may depend on learning theories
which are not universally applicable in all conditions and for all purposes. The
effectiveness of methods depends on many factors that should be learned from the actual
classroom situation. This interplay between classroom landscape and the learning process
affects the way we select and apply methods of teaching in classrooms.
Module Learning Outcomes
After studying this module, candidates will be able to:
 Review their professional experiences to define learning.

 Evaluate the influences of learning theories in selecting instructional methods.
 Evaluate factors that affect the selection of teaching methods in the Ethiopian
context.
 Identify the influences of different teaching approaches on student learning.
 Understand relevant techniques of assessing student learning.
 Identify core issues in academic advising.
 Use appropriate techniques to solve students’ disciplinary problems
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Unit 1: Understanding Learning: Principles and Processes (4 hrs.)
1.1. Introduction
Traditionally, higher education institutions tended to focus on teaching and coverage of

course contents as outlined in the curriculum framework. The recent outcome focused
approach marked the shift of emphasis away from teaching to learning. The purpose of
this part of the module is therefore to support the HDP candidates reflect on their
experiences on how learning occurs, what principles guide the arrangement of conducive
atmosphere for learning to happen and consider what they need to improve to make sure
that they will be in a position to effectively support their students’ learning.
Learning outcomes
Upon completion of this unit the participants will be able to:
 Discuss the learning theories underlying different teaching and learning

approaches,
 Identify between various learning styles of the learners
 Realize their own leadership styles as teachers
 Design appropriate instructional activities that fit well with the different learning
styles of their students.
Reflective activity 1
1. Recall your experiences as a student. What were the focuses of instruction of most of
your teachers?
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2. How did your teachers try to ensure learning (what strategies and techniques did they
use)?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
1.2. Defining learning

Different learning theories conceptualize learning in different ways. Here are three
theories of learning. Study them and try to synthesize your own definition of learning.
Box 1. Theories of Learning
There are three broad and competing stand points with considerable influences as to how
learning should be conceived.
The Behaviourist view point – Knowledge is gained through empirical experiences and is
a set of responses to environmental stimuli. Motivation plays a role of strengthening or
weakening the linkage between stimulus and response. And, only observable stimulus-
responses connections characterize learning and gives basis for assessment. In this sense,
the learner is assumed as passive to environmental influences and behaviours are shaped
by the nature of stimulus. The teacher as the subject expert is in control of the learning
process.
The Cognitivist view point – This theory defines learning as a result of the interaction
between the environment and the individual to produce insights. These insights are
true reflections of human thought helpful to design personal behaviours. They are not
physical descriptions of objects or processes in the environment but are interpretations
of one-self or the perceived environment. They are one’s own perceptions and hence,
learners should be able to develop their own meanings out of these insights. The role
of the teacher is helping children to develop insights through adoption. Thus, the
learner is supposed to be active. However, there are two critics against this
perspective. First, the claim of congruence between stages of cognitive development
and the knowledge arrangement in the curriculum is not always linear and universal.
Second, it is possible to perform some learning activities without developing insights,
like memorizing the multiplication table.
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The situationist view point– Learning is a result of the interaction between the individual
and the environment. It is not the individual shaping the environment or vice-versa; rather
they interact with each other. Thus, the learner in the classroom is not only active but
interactive. According to this perspective, meaning is embedded in action, and it is not a
function of formation of insights or stimulus-responses associations as in the case of
cognitivist or behaviourist theorists. Situationist perspective emphasizes on the socio-
cultural situation of learning and on students’ existing knowledge aimed at extending
such knowledge through interaction with the environment. Major contenders being
pragmatists (like John Dewey) and socio-culturalists (like Vygotsky), the theory
gives due attention to the role of others (e.g. peers and teachers) in supporting students’
learning and development.
From your reading on the three theories of learning (in Box 1), what is your
understanding of the learner, the learning process, the role of the teacher, the objectives
of instruction, the assessment mechanisms, and the limitations of each perspective? Put
your answers in the table below.
Basic issue Behaviourists Cognitivists Situationalists
Conception of the learner
Conception of the learning process
The role of the student in learning
The role of the teacher in student learning
Objectives of classroom instruction
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Emphasis of assessment of learning
Limitations of application in classroom

situation
1. What is your definition of learning?
2. Is there a relationship between your and your teachers’ conception of learning?

How?
3. Which of the theories of learning described in Box 1 do you support? Why?
Please note that in practice the teaching-learning process may not necessarily be shaped
by only one single learning theory. It rather benefits from multiple of them.
1.3. How is teaching related to learning?

The interplay between teaching and learning defines classroom instructional process.
Though several writers define instruction in different ways, it is necessary to have one
common definition for the purpose of this program. Accordingly, instruction can be
defined as a way of presenting curriculum content to facilitate student involvement in
classroom activities and learning. Related to this is the question over quality of
instruction. Quality Instruction is understood in this module as the degree to which the
presentation, explanation, and ordering of the learning tasks result in optimum learning
on the part of the learner. Essentially this variable concerns the extent to which the
instructional process is suited to each learner’s needs; it emphasizes on a teacher’s
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ability to manage the learning as opposed to managing the learners. Quality of instruction
is largely a function of multiple variables including the amount of practice and
participation students are afforded in learning a task and the reinforcement or
encouragement mechanisms teachers use to motivate the students learn. Obviously, the
teacher’s role is critical in this process.
As we discuss the quality of instruction, there are what are often called principles for
instruction. These principles are mechanisms which help operationalize theory to
teaching/learning practices. Let’s examine the following nine principles and discuss the
resulting questions.
Dear HDL/HDT, please ask the students to discuss on the ‘discussion questions’ in pair
and report the result to the whole team.
No. Principle Discussion questions

1 Although students differ in their styles of learning and What are the differences?
in their capacities, each can learn.
2 Learning is most meaningful and long lasting when How can we relate lessons
it is connected to real-life experiences. with life experiences,
for example using a lesson
on numbers?
3 No matter what else you are prepared to teach, you are Give examples of literacy,
primarily a teacher of literacy and of thinking, social, thinking and learning
and learning skills. skills.
4 Physical activity enhances learning. Give examples of physical
activity in learning.
5 Students must be actively involved in their own What should be the roles
learning and in the assessment of their learning. of students in assessment?
6 Students need constant, understandable, positive and Why and what type of
reliable feedback about their learning. feedback?
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7 Students should be engaged in both independent study Compare independent and
and cooperative learning and give and receive tutorial cooperative learning.
instruction.
8 To a great degree, it is the mode of instruction that Explain what mode of
determines what is learned and how well it is learned. instruction means?
9 You must hold high expectations for the learning of State your expectations
each student (but not necessarily identical expectations from your students?
for every student) and not waiver from those
expectations.
To aid us further in understanding the quality of instruction, let’s analyse aspects of

instruction as identified by Bruner (cited in Bigge and Shermis, 2004). Please read the
summary given in the table below and write your comments in the space provided.
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No Bruner's aspect of Explanations and Examples Your Comments
instruction
1 What is the nature of Man is not a naked ape but a culture-clothed human being,
persons as learners? hopelessly ineffective without the prosthesis provided by
culture. The very nature of his characteristics as a species
provides a guide to appropriate pedagogy, and the nature of his
nervous system and its constraints provide a basis for devising
reasonable if not inevitable principles for designing a testable
pedagogy.
2 What is the nature and Knowledge, we know now as never before, is power. This
structure of knowledge does not mean that there are not canons of truth or that the idea
developed for optimal, of proof is not a precious one. Rather, let knowledge as it
insightful appears in our schooling be put into the context of action and
comprehension? commitment.
3 What is the nature of How do you teach something to a child, arrange a child's
knowledge-getting environment, if you will, in such a way that he can learn
process structured for something with some assurance that he will use the material
optimal insightful that he has learned appropriately in a variety of situations?
comprehension?
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4 What optimal experiences Problem solving requires the exploration of alternatives.
predispose learners to ...Students should be in on where they are trying to go, what
learn? they are trying to get hold of, and how much pertinent progress
they are making.
5 How are success and Success and failure are inherent to the task at hand; thus, they
failure, and reward and constitute intrinsic motivation. Reward and punishment
punishment involved in usually are controlled by one's parents or teacher; thus, they
learning? constitute extrinsic motivation.
6 What are optimal An important task of the teacher is to convert knowledge into
sequences of presentation forms that fit growing minds or intellects. Any idea or
of materials to be problem can be or body of knowledge can be presented in a
learned? form simple enough so that any particular learner can
understand it in a recognizable form.
7 What procedures The perception of events, the attainment of a concept, the

stimulate thought in a solution of a problem, the discovery of a scientific theory, and
school setting? the mastery of a skill are all viewed by Bruner as examples of
a problem solving process. The process basically consists of
two major steps: (1) an intuitive leap from available sense data
to a tentative hypothesis by relating incoming information to
an internally stored model of the world based upon past
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experience a n d ( 2) a conformation check, in which the
tentative hypothesis is tested against further sense data. If the
two matches, the hypothesis is maintained; if they mismatches,
the hypothesis is altered in a way that acknowledges the
discrepant evidence.
(Bruner, 1973 as cited by Bigge and Shermis, 2004).
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1) Taking Bruner’s seven aspects of instruction as a framework, please discuss your

experience of teaching in higher education.
2) Which of the nine principles of learning or teaching presented in this section (i.e.,
1.3) do you accept? Which ones do you reject? Why?
1.4. Teachers’ Instructional Leadership Styles

It is generally accepted that the teaching task involves leading and a teacher is a leader.
As it is commonly known, leadership can take at least three different forms depending on
the type of relationship between the leader and the led: in this case between the teacher
and the student. In the following table, examine the different forms of teacher leadership
styles, focal areas of activity and relationship with students and write your comments in
the space provided.
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Teacher’s Focus Relationship with students Your comments
leadership
styles
Laissez-Faire Encourages students to Non-interference with students' choice
disregard the prevailing and actions, deliberately abstains from
cultural norms and "do directing students or developing lesson
one's own thing". plans, void leading students.
Authoritarian Preservation of traditional Closely direct the activities of students,

or Autocratic norms and work for tells students what to think and what to
cultural transmission to the do.
generations to come.
Considers him/herself as active and
students as passive recipients.
Democratic Leading students in the Respect each other, working together in

study of significant 'give and take' principle.
problems
Reflective activity 4:
(1) When you were a student, which of these teacher leadership styles was dominant in
your teacher’s relationship with you?
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
(2) Which of these teacher leadership styles seem to be dominant in your
relationship with your students?
.
__________________________________________________________________________________.
(3) Given the current change in the higher education landscape in Ethiopia, which teacher
leadership style would you like to adapt for yourself? Why?
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1.5. Learning styles
In recent years there has been a cultural shift from an emphasis on teaching to an
emphasis on facilitating learning. Developing individuals and personalized learning have
become part of the twenty first century. This approach which is termed as student
centred approach incorporates assessment for learning, improving students’ higher order
thinking skills, encouraging learners to be independent and developing strategies for
consulting students about their education. It also emphasizes that the quality of learning
is shaped by the learner’s experience. Hence, it is mandatory that a higher education
teacher pay careful consideration to the needs and potential of each and every student in
their classes. This calls for a need to study the kind of learning styles likely to be
represented in our classes.
It is now widely accepted that people have different learning styles that account for
differences in students’ performance. And writers both in psychology and education
categorize learning styles in several ways. The most popular categorization of the
learning styles is, however, the one that put them into three: visual, auditory, and
kinesthetic. Everyone uses a range of learning styles. Therefore, higher education
teachers need to be aware of these and support their students at individual level.
As a model visual, auditory, and kinesthetic (VAK) provides a useful framework for
helping us reflect about how we think and learn. The model suggests that we receive
information through our senses – what we see, hear, feel, taste and smell, that is how we
construct our thoughts
 by generating pictures (Visual)
 by hearing sounds (Auditory)
 by sensing and feeling the physical environment (Kinesthetic), and
 by combining all the three.
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However, what may happen as a tendency to favour one rather than the other of the forms
of thought construction through habit and practice become established as a preference.
Use the following questionnaire to explore what your preferences are in the way you
think and learn.
VAK Learning Style Questionnaire
Read each statement carefully. To the right of each statement, write the number that best
describes how each statement applies to you as follows:
Almost never =1; Rarely = 2; Sometimes= 3; Often=4; Almost always=5
There are no right answers, respond to each statement as quickly as you can. Once you
have completed all 36 statements, total your score in the spaces provided.
Section 1: Visual
No. Statement Score
1 I take lots of notes
2 When talking to someone else I find it hard to if they do not maintain good
eye contact with me
3 When reading a novel I pay a lot of attention to passages picturing
the clothing, scenery, setting etc.
4 I make lists and notes because I remember things better if I write them
down
5 I need to write down directions to a new place so that I remember them
6 I need to see the person I am talking to in order to keep my attention
focused
7 When meeting a person for the first time I notice the style of dress, visual
characteristics first
8 When I am at a wedding, I like to stand back and observe others
9 When I recall information I can see it in my mind and remember where I
saw it
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10 If I had to explain a new procedure or technique, I would prefer to write it
out
11 With free time I am most likely to read or watch television
12 If the Dean has a message for me, I prefer if s/he sends me a note
Total for visual (note the minimum is 12 and maximum is 60)
Section 2: Auditory
No. Statement Score
1 I do not take a lot of notes but I still remember what was said
2 When talking to someone else I find it hard with those who do not talk back
to me
3 When I read I read out loud, or move my lips to hear the words in my head
4 When reading a novel I pay a lot of attention to passages involving
conversations, talking, speaking, dialogues
5 I like to talk to myself when solving a problem or writing
6 I can understand what a speaker says, even if I am not focused on the
speaker
7 I remember things more easily by repeating them again and again
8 When I am at a wedding, I like to talk about a subject that is important to
me
9 I would rather receive information from the radio than the newspaper
10 If I had to explain a new procedure or technique, I would prefer talking
about it
11 With free time I am most likely to listen to music
12 If the Dean has a message for me, I am most comfortable when s/he
telephones
Total for Auditory (note the minimum is 12 and maximum is 60)
Section 3: Kinesthetic
No. Statement Score

1 I am not good at reading or listening to instructions; I would rather just start
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working on the task or project at hand
2 When talking to someone else I have the hardest time handling those who
do not show any kind of emotional support
3 When I am reading I move my lips
4 When reading a novel I pay a lot of attention to passages about feelings,
action, drama
5 I take notes and doodle but I rarely go back and look at them
6 I use my hands a lot when I am trying to remember the right thing to say
7 My desk or work place appears disorganized
8 When I am at a wedding, I love to dance and sing
9 I like to move around, I feel trapped when seated at a meeting or a desk
10 If I had to explain a new procedure or technique, I would prefer actually
demonstrating it
11 With free time I am most likely to exercise
12 If the Dean has a message for me, I am most comfortable when s/he talks to
me in person
Total for Kinesthetic (note the minimum is 12 and maximum is 60)
The area in which you have the highest score represents your preferred learning style,
which is
Remember that they are preferences, not fixed and permanent categories.
Discuss the following questions with a colleague and note the result:
1. What have you found out about yourself as a learner today?
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.
2. How may this affect your planning and preparation for teaching?
3. What could you change in your planning and preparation?
4. Do you think your learning style affects your teaching style?
In addition to learning styles, the research literature indicates that students in higher
education manifest a number of different approaches to learning that are dependent upon
the context, the content, and the demands of the learning task. In particular, they adopt a
deep approach in so far as they acknowledge the more abstract forms of learning that are
demanded in higher education and are motivated by the relevance of the syllabus to their
own personal needs and interests. Also, students adopt a surface approach in so far as they
encounter an overloaded curriculum and methods of assessment which emphasize the
superficial properties of the material that is to be learned. Furthermore, they adopt a
strategic approach to the extent that they receive cues about their assessment schemes from
members of teaching staff. Researchers most often use the terms approach to learning and
approach to studying interchangeably. Please read summary of the three approaches to
learning given in the table below and write your comments in the space provided.
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Approach Characteristics Your Comments
to
Learning
Deep Students who take a deep approach to learning:
Approach  Actively seek to understand the material / the subject
to  Interact vigorously with the content
Learning  Make use of evidence, inquiry and evaluation
 Take a broad view and relate ideas to one another
 Are motivated by interest
 Relate new ideas to previous knowledge
 Relate concepts to everyday experience
 Tend to read and study beyond the course requirements
Surface Students who take a surface approach to learning:
Approach  Try to learn in order to repeat what they have learned
to  Memorize information needed for assessments
Learning  Make use of rote learning
 Take a narrow view and concentrate on detail
 Fail to distinguish principles from examples
 Tend to stick closely to the course requirements
 Are motivated by fear of failure
Strategic Students who take a strategic approach to learning:

Approach  Intend to obtain high grades
to  Organise their time and distribute their effort to greatest effect
 Ensure that the conditions and materials for studying are
Learning
appropriate
 Use previous exam papers to predict questions
 Are alert to cues about marking schemes
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1. Which approach to learning did you use mostly when you were a student? Why?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
2. Which approach to learning do you think the students use mostly in the subject you are
teaching currently? What evidence could you bring in order to support your answer?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
3. Which approach to learning do you encourage your student to adopt? Why?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
4. Do you think that as a teacher, you can help students to change their approaches to
learning? How?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
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Unit 2: Active Learning Methods (4 hrs.)
2.1. Introduction
While there is increasing support for and popularity of active learning methods, there is
also confusion regarding what actually constitutes it. This part of the module is devoted
to creating opportunities for the HDP candidates regarding what active learning is and
how they can actually apply the methods in their own classrooms. In so doing it strives to
achieve the following learning outcomes:
Learning Outcomes
At the end of the unit, the participants will be able to:
 Define active learning

 Differentiate among various active learning methods
 Devise mechanisms through which they can promote active learning in their
classes
 Apply active learning methods in handling their own courses/modules.
2.2. What is active learning?
“Engagement of the learner with the learning material” is central to most arguments in
support of active learning methods. In your view, what is the reason behind this?
Below, there are three different descriptions of active learning from three different
authorities. Please comment on the extent to which of learner engagement is implied in
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each. Please consider also how well you create the kind of learning situation described
for your students.
Definitions Comments
When learning is active, students do most of

the work. They use their brains ... studying
ideas, solving problem, and applying what they
learn. Active learning is fast-paced, fun,
supportive, and personally engaging.... To
learn something well, it helps to hear it, see it,
ask questions about it, and discuss it with
others. Above all, students need to 'do it' –
figure things out by themselves, come up with
examples, try out skills, and do assignments
that depend on the knowledge they already
have or must acquire (Silberman, 1996).
Active learning consists of any learning

activities where pupils are given a marked
degree of autonomy and control over the
organization, conduct and direction of the
activity. Such activities must usually involve
problem-solving and investigational work, and
may be individualized (such as an extended
piece of work or project) or involve small
group collaboration (such as small group
discussion, a role-play simulation or
collaborative project) (Kyriaou, 1998).
In view of the focus on the child rather than on

the teacher, 'active learning' is synonymous to
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'learner centred approach' :
"The perspective that couples a focus on

individual learners (their heredity, experiences,
backgrounds, talents, interests, capacities, and
needs) with a focus on learning (the best
available knowledge about learning and how it
occurs and about teaching practices that are
most effective in promoting the highest levels
of motivation, learning, and achievement for
all learners). This dual focus then informs and
drives educational decision making."
(McCombs and Whisler, 1997).
Based on the descriptions of active learning given above, please provide your definition
of active learning.
2.3. Why active learning?

There could be many reasons to apply active learning, however their benefit has to be the
first to decide ether to use or not. According to Kyriacou (1998), active learning activities
are:
 intellectually more stimulating and thereby more effective in eliciting and

sustaining pupil motivation and interest.
 effective in fostering a number of important learning skills: students learn to

organize their own work; develop communication skills and learn to defend their
positions.
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 likely to be enjoyed, offer opportunity for progress, are less threatening than teacher
talk activities and thereby foster more positive attitudes in pupils towards
themselves as learners and towards the subject, and
 co-operative activities in particular which enable pupils to obtain greater insights

into the conduct of the learning activities through observing the performance of
their peers and sharing and discussing procedures and strategies.
The Cone of Experience: a model for active learning
2.4. Specific active learning methods
Here are nine active learning methods. A description of each of them is provided in the
table below with appropriate examples. Please match the names of the methods with their
descriptions.
Buzz group Microteaching Jigsaw group
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Hot seating Decision line Case study
Cooperative learning Balloon game Crossover group
Description of active learning method Name of the

method
(1) Teacher prepared a lesson on teaching an aspect of a particular
course/module. The lesson is prepared for a microteaching session
of 15 minute, with objectives, activities and resources using
materials easily found in the surrounding. The teacher presents the
lesson to his/her peers. The peers evaluate the effectiveness of the
lesson and provide feedback on the quality of the teaching. This
method can be used in any subject. It can also be combined with
team teaching approach.
(2) You have divided the class into 10 groups. The topic for the next 4
sessions is child psychology. Each group is given a different aspect
of child psychology to research over the next 3 sessions. In the
fourth session, each group brings the materials that they have
collected and you help to bring all the pieces of the topic together.
This method can be used to teach topics taken from any subject.
(3) During your session on a course, you stop every few minutes and
ask students in a group of 4 sitting closely together to brainstorm
their ideas on a particular aspect of the topic; e.g. their
understanding of key terms, the relative value of different topics,
and the abilities developed through different subjects. They are
allowed a short period of time for each period of discussion (about
2 minutes). There is a ‘hum’ of activity in the room during these
periods. This method, often called transitory group, can be used in
teaching any subject.
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(4) In a History course/module student are given the names of 10
important characters in Ethiopia who are floating in the basket of a
hot air balloon in the sky above the Indian Ocean. The balloon is
sinking, and the only way to keep it from falling into the sea is to
‘throw out’ one of the characters. Which character would you
throw out first? Second? Third? Etc. The decision is to be based on
a certain criteria of worth. This method can be used in any subject,
for example with famous scientists, modern inventions,
characteristics of good teachers, etc.
(5) Students are divided into groups to discuss a given topic in any
subject. After 5 minutes, 2 members of each group move to the
next group to share ideas from the first group and to join a new
discussion. After another 5 minutes they move again, so that
during the course of the lesson all students have been able to share
information. This avoids the need for a lot of feedback.
(6) One member of the class is assigned to be a character from
literature, history, science etc. This member is placed in the centre
of the room to role play the character. Other members of the group
direct questions to the person in the centre that has to respond in
role. After 10 minutes, change the person in the centre and the
character.
(7) You organize students into groups for a particular topic, give clear
instructions and explain how you want them to work together. You
may assign different group behaviours to each member of the
group e.g. facilitator, note taker, time keeper, leader, observer,
reporter. Students are expected to interact, share ideas and ask
their peers first if they need help. They are all responsible for the
outcomes, which are evaluated against agreed criteria. Over a
series of sessions, each group member can be asked to take on
different responsibilities so all students are encouraged to develop
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different skills.
(8) You are planning a lesson on the characteristics of good teaching.
Instead of giving students a list of these characteristics, you
provide a description of six different teachers and what they do in
their classrooms. The students have to identify the positive and
negative characteristics of each teacher. The whole class then
comes to an agreement of the characteristics of good teaching.
(9) You want to encourage students to think about a topic and form an
opinion that they can defend. E.g. genetic engineering can help in
food security. Students are asked to physically move and stand in a
line that represents a continuum from strong agreement with the
statement to strong disagreement with the statement. Students then
have to find a partner and explain why they chose to stand at a
particular point on the line.
1. Did your teacher use one of the above active learning methods when you were a
student? If so, which? If no, why?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
______
2. Which of the above active learning methods can you comfortably use to teach
topics/lessons in your area? Please justify your answer.
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2.5. Collaborative and Independent learning (2 hrs.)
(a) Collaborative Learning
Barkley, Cross and Major (2005) stated that collaborative learning assumes
knowledge is socially produced and this process of learning facilitates the group
meaning making process. Knowledge is something people construct and not
something that exists out there for people to discover it. As collaborative learning
actively engages students in the process of learning, students will be less dependent on
the teacher.
Dear HDL/HDT, please ask the participants to define ‘collaborative learning’

individually and discuss in a group of three to develop an ‘agreed’ definition.
There are two basic claims for collaborative learning: (1) it contributes to content
mastery, critical thinking, problem solving and other cognitive attributes, and (2) it
contributes to the development of interpersonal skills and other cognitive factors.
Whereas the goal of Collaborative Learning is to develop autonomous thinking people,
Cooperative Learning is to work together in harmony and mutual support to find
solutions to problems.
Theoretically, Lev Vygotisky‘s Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) is one best

explanation for the use of collaborative learning approach in teaching-learning process.
The zone of proximal development is the gap between what a learner has already
mastered (the actual level of development) and what he or she can achieve when
provided with educational support (potential development). Hence, when people think
with others, they tend to think more critically and much better than they think
individually.
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(1) In higher education collaborative learning takes different forms. Would you please
present the kinds (forms) of collaborative learning you are familiar with?
(2) How do you group your students for collaborative learning activities?
(3) In your view, what are the challenges to collaborative learning in Ethiopian higher
education?
(4) What can be done to promote effective collaborative learning?
(b) Independent Learning
One o f the key issues in independent learning is to ‘empower’ students to take

responsibility for their own learning process. This requires two things to happen:
(1) The teacher must be prepared to ‘let go’ and trust their students to take responsibility
for their own learning. This will mean placing more emphasis on guiding, coaching
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and supporting students to explore the subject on their own or in groups.
(2) The students need to want to take responsibility for their own learning. To achieve
this goal students need support and encouragement to increase their motivation and
confidence in order to take advantage of the opportunities to become independent of

the teacher.
A teacher cannot give empowerment; it can be constructed by the actions the teacher and
the student take. Helping students to become independent learners involves:
 Promoting students’ critical thinking skills
 Helping them develop their skills for life and eventually for employability
 Providing support and guidance in how to study and how to learn
 Motivating their efforts
1. In your view, how independent are your students?
2. What are the challenges to independent learning in your course?
3. What needs to be done by you and the university/institution to promote effective

independent learning?
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Dear HDL/HDT, please ask two members to search for and review the following
articles and present the review to the class. The articles are:
 John T. E. Richardson (December 2005) ― Students’ approaches to learning and

Teachers’ approaches to teaching in higher education, Educational Psychology,
25 (6), 673-680.
 Robert B. Barr and John Tagg (Nov 1995) “From teaching to learning-A new
paradigm for undergraduate education, Change, 27 (6), 12-25.
2.6. Teaching and learning in large classes

The meaning attached to large class varies from place to place. In some Western
Universities a class of 25 students may be considered as large class whereas in some
Southern Universities there are situations where a class of 60 students considered as
normal. The Addis Ababa University Senate Legislation contains various provisions
with regard to ―optimum c l a s s size. As you know for ‘skill’ course it considers a
class of 40 students as acceptable maximum. Whatever the variation and however people
define it, we cannot avoid large class size at least due to two major reasons: shortage of
resources (as in the South) and a drive for economic efficiency (as in liberalized Northern
Universities). Therefore, it is logically acceptable that we consider how we can promote
learning in large class size.
As the common sense tells, ‘large class size’ is any number of students in a classroom
beyond which a teacher does n o t feel convenient to manage. It is task dependent
(compare class size for clinical courses and those for general knowledge courses). The
ideal class size is a sort of one-to-one situation (e.g. the Socratic approach). As noted
above, we cannot always control class size due to scarcity of resources and due to the
current push for economic efficiency.
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What happens when the number of students is large in a class?
In a large class in higher education context the most commonly used method is the
lecture method. This is a situation where the teacher is the principal presenter. There are
three important questions to make productive lecture in large class:
 How can we generate and maintain interest while lecturing?
 How can we make sure student engagement while lecturing?
 What is the importance of a good structure in lecture-based teaching situation?
(1) In your opinion, are the questions asked above so as to make lecture productive
important? Why?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
(2) It seems a contradiction to talk about ‘student engagement’ in a lecture situation. Is it

something possible? How?
(3) Some say, “Since higher education students are adults, we don’t have to worry about
the structure of our presentations.” Do you agree or disagree with this saying? Justify
your position.
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.
(4) What is your experience of teaching in large classes? What were the challenges?
What did you do to make learning possible in large classes?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
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Unit 3: Learning Assessment and Grading
3.1. Learning Assessment: Introduction

The decisions teachers must make with regard to students’ learning should depend on
sound data on students’ achievement. The decisions students make about themselves
cannot be made well if those students do not receive sound information about their level
of achievement. Similarly, the decisions made by those in leadership positions about the
teaching – learning process cannot be made well without sound information on students’
achievement that comes from sound assessment. This implies that, high-quality
assessment data is mandatory to make sound and objective decision about the teaching
learning process.
The quality of instruction is a function of teachers’ understanding of the strengths and

weaknesses of their students and this depends heavily on teachers’ proper understanding
of different kinds of assessment procedures and the strengths and limitations of each
method of assessment. Hence, effective instruction requires the use of sound procedures
for determining students’ level of achievement as the process of assessment is an integral
part of the teaching – learning process.
The assessment of learning in higher education in general and at Addis Ababa University
in particular should be done with the objectives that it guides and encourages effective
approaches to learning; validly and reliably measures expected learning outcomes, in
particular the higher-order learning that characterizes higher education; and that it defines
and protects academic standards. HDP candidates are, therefore, expected to revisit their
own practice related to assessment of students learning and are encouraged to make some
adjustments as required.
In this unit, attempt has been made to introduce the various concepts used in educational
assessment and different types of assessment procedures used in the process of assessing
students’ learning.
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Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lesson, candidates will be able to:
 Identify what is and is not assessment
 Describe the major characteristics of continuous assessment
 Distinguish between criterion referenced and norm referenced testing
 Differentiate between summative and formative assessment
 Design appropriate assessment
3.2. Why Do We Assess?

Educational assessment can be defined as the process of documenting, usually in
measurable terms, knowledge, skills, attitudes and beliefs of those involved in the
teaching learning process.
In the contemporary higher education the increase in enrolment and the shrinking unit of
resource create pressure for more cost-effective assessment methods. The pressure also
comes from the introduction of modularization which has increased the volume of
assessment as each small block of learning must be formally assessed and graded. The
tendency on the part of students, particularly at graduate level, to relay on part -time work
and other commitments appear to be turning students into very strategic learners (Kneale
1997 as cited in Bloxham and Boyd, 2007) and unwilling to devote effort to study create
another pressure in the assessment process.
Moreover, the employability and graduate skills agenda is placing pressure on instructors
to design assignments and examinations which assess a much broader range of
competences. Instructors are therefore expected to modify assessment procedures so that
they support learning through student involvement in assessment, prompt feedback,
flexible and formative approaches and by the use of a wide variety of assessment
methods.
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In general, we assess our students, among others, due to the desire to:
 determine the extent to which the intended learning outcomes of the module/
course are being achieved,
 provide feedback to students on their learning, enabling them to improve their

performance,
 motivate students to undertake appropriate work,
 support and guide students’ learning,
 describe student’s attainment, informing decisions on progression and awards.
 maintain appropriate standards of the teaching – learning process, and
 evaluate the effectiveness of teaching.
3.3. Continuous Assessment (CA)

Continuous assessment is a mechanism whereby the final grading of learners in the
cognitive; affective and psychomotor domains of learning systematically takes account of
all their performances during a given period of schooling (Falayalo, 1986). The
philosophy behind the use of CA is that the best and fairest way to assess performance is
to assess each stage of learning rather than waiting for the completion of the course.
(1) Write a brief summary of the meanings of and levels in cognitive, affective and
psychomotor domains and present it for your HDP team.
2) It is often stated that Continuous Assessment is systematic, comprehensive,
cumulative, and guidance oriented. Please discuss the implication of each of these
attributes of continuous assessment and write a brief note on the space provided.____
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
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____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
(3) Read the statements in the table below and decide whether the statement refers to CA.
Mark each statement as Yes or No in the right hand column. Compare and discuss
your responses with other colleagues.
(a) You prepare and administer five tests during the course period with a
constant time interval.
(b) You may collect data on students’ classroom participation on regular basis
as part of the assessment process.
(c) You provided two tests and one project or term paper during the semester.
(d) Collecting data on learners’ cognitive and non-cognitive characteristics on daily

basis using different types of data collection tools.
(e) Replacing paper and pencil tests with a composition of term papers,
projects, active participation, presentations, and observations.
(f) You m o n i t o r standards carefully to ensure consistency between the

marking of different students’ works.
Note that assessment is effective when it:
 links directly to the learning outcomes being measured,
 assess the central aspects of what is taught and learnt,
 emphasizes the development of deep, active and reflective learning,
 focuses on skills and their transfer,
 ensures reasonable workload for students, and
 ensures that the learning styles of all students including those with disabilities are
accommodated.
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3.4. Assessment for and of Learning
Assessment for learning, also known as formative assessment, is defined as ―all those
activities undertaken by teachers and/or students, which provide information to be used
as feedback to modify the teaching and learning activities in which they are engaged
(Black and William, 2004). It is conducted while learning is still underway. As an
assessment for learning, formative assessment requires high quality interactions,
involving students in their learning, providing timely feedback and sharing criteria for the
process of assessment. Assessments of learning are those assessments that happen after
learning is supposed to have occurred to determine if it did. It generally occurs at the
conclusion of a class, course, semester, or academic year. At the individual level,
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assessment of learning can have a sorting function, separating qualified students from
unqualified students (Terenzini, 1989).
Discuss in a group of three your assessment practices. Relate to the idea of ‘assessment
for learning’ presented above. After the discussion, please write in the space provided
below what you want to change to make proper use of assessment for learning.
3.5. General Principles of Assessment
The following are the general principles of assessment as indicated in Miller, Linn and
Gronlund (2009).
 Clearly specifying what is to be assessed has priority in the assessment process.
 An assessment procedure should be selected because of its relevance to the

characteristics or performance to be measured.
 Comprehensive assessment requires a variety of procedures.
 Proper use of assessment procedures requires an awareness of their limitations.
 Assessment is a means to an end, not an end in itself
Dear participants, after the HDP team discusses these principles, please indicate which of
them holds true in your assessment practice so far. Indicate also what you would like to
improve in the future.
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3.6. Assessing Groups
It is quite common that groupings have been used in higher education as a

teaching/learning strategy. There is a wide variety of teaching contexts where group work
has been shown to enhance student learning. It can be used to achieve a range of teaching
and learning goals. Studies show that well-designed and conducted group work,
compared with other instructional formats, regardless of the content area, leads to greater
retention and understanding of what is taught (Boud et al. 1999 and Millis and Cottell,
1998 as cited in the Guidelines by University Teaching Development Centre of Victoria
University of Wellington (UDTC), 2004). Carefully planned group work provides an
opportunity for students to develop those qualities specified in the graduate profile.
Please discuss in pair the advantages and disadvantages of group work as a

teaching/learning strategy as well as your experience of using group work. Write a brief
note of what you got from the discussion.
Issues in Assessing Group

There are issues that instructors should consider before they decide to assess members of
a group in group work. As described in the guidelines developed by University Teaching
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Development Centre of Victoria University of Wellington (2004), instructors should
answer the following questions before finalizing an assessment program.
 Should you give students all the same mark or a mark based on each person's
contribution to the group performance?
 If you assess each student's contribution, how will you know what each person
has contributed?
 What proportion of a student's course mark should be allocated to group work?
 Is it appropriate to include an 'opt-out' clause for students who do not want to

work in this way?
 What do you do if a group member leaves, thus leaving the group with a gap in
the allocation of duties to members?
 What do you do if a group falls apart? Or if a member fails to do his/her share?
A fundamental principle that should inform all assessment decisions is that marks should
be allocated in a way that is consistent with achieving the learning outcomes of the
course. It is also important to take into account that learning in higher educational
institutions is based on an assumption that final grades reflect individual student
achievement. Whenever groups are assessed there must be room for assessing the
contributions of individual members of a group. That is, the allocation of individual
grades should take account of the contribution of each member. However, caution must
be taken so that this action may not contradict the feeling of collaboration that this type of
work is going to develop.
The contribution of individual member of the group can be identified using any one or
more of the following assessment methods:
 Use of oral tests,
 Individual summaries of contribution and achievements,

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 The use of peer and self-assessment to evaluate the contribution of self and other
members.
(1) Have you ever used the methods of identifying the contribution of individual group
members mentioned above? If yes, which method (s) have you used? Please state your
experience and present to the HDP team.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________.
(2) Do you think that it is practical/feasible to use these methods in most of Addis
Ababa University classrooms?
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________.
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Summary of Planning for Assessment for and Assessment of Learning
Assessment for Learning Assessment of Learning

Why Assess? To enable teachers to determine next steps in advancing To certify or inform parents or others of student’s proficiency
student learning in relation to curriculum learning outcomes
Assess What? Each student’s progress and learning needs in relation to The extent to which students can apply the key concepts,
the curricular outcomes knowledge, skills, and attitudes related to the curricular
outcomes
What A range of methods in different modes that make students’ A range of methods in different modes that assess both
Methods? skills and understanding visible product and process
Ensuring Accuracy and consistency of observations and Accuracy, consistency, and fairness of judgments based on
Quality interpretations of student learning high-quality information
Clear, detailed learning expectations Clear, detailed learning expectations
Accurate, detailed notes for descriptive feedback to each Fair and accurate summative reporting
student
Using the Provide each student with accurate descriptive feedback to Indicate each student’s level of learning
Information further his or her learning Provide the foundation for discussions on placement or
Differentiate instruction by continually checking where promotion
each student is in relation to the curricular outcomes Report fair, accurate, and detailed information that can be
Provide parents or guardians with descriptive feedback used to decide the next steps in a student’s learning
about student learning and ideas for support
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3.7. Methods of Assessment
While all learning outcomes should be assessable, the tradition in universities and higher
learning institutions is to design assessment schemes that only measure some of these
learning outcomes. These assessment schemes are mainly meant for measuring the
knowledge base associated with a course or module but should be less so of skill base.
There are also learning outcomes which are beyond knowledge and skill that need to be
assessed in higher educational institutions like work habits, social and scientific attitudes,
academic self-concept, interests, appreciations, and social adjustments (Miller, Linn and
Gronlund, 2009). It is important to select assessment techniques that will most directly
assess all types of learning outcomes that a course or module is designed to develop in
students.
There are different methods of assessment used in the process of assessing students’
learning in higher learning educational institutions. Some of such methods are presented
in the following table:
Summary of Assessment Methods
Assessment Method Brief Rationale
(1) Essays A standard method, essentially concerned with trying out ideas
and arguments, supported by evidence. Has potential for
measuring understanding, synthesis and evaluative skills. In most
essays, there are no absolutely right or wrong answers and
marking for feedback can be time consuming.
(2) Case Studies and Case studies have potential for measuring application of
Open Problems knowledge, analysis, problem-solving and evaluative skills. This
method allows students to apply theory to practical situations.
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(3) Projects Good all-round ability testing. Potential for sampling wide range
(Individual and/or of practical, analytical and interpretative skills. Develops
Group) instructor/student and student/student relationships. Wider
application of knowledge and skills to real/simulated situations.
Motivation tends to be high. The assessment methods may include
seminars and tutorials, case studies, simulation, role-plays,
problem solving exercises, team-building and experiential (‘live’
project) learning.
(4) Seminar Feedback potential from tutor, self and/or peers; assesses
Presentations preparation, understanding, knowledge, capacity to structure
information and oral communication skills. Can broaden possible
topic and approaches.
(5) Laboratory/ Can be used to assess preparation and practical skills and can help
Clinical Practical broaden topic and approaches, particularly in terms of application
Work of knowledge.
(6) Portfolios/Records Typically, portfolios are compilations of evidence of students'

of Achievement achievements, including major pieces of their work, feedback
comments from tutors, and reflective analyses by the students
themselves. Involve multi-dimensional assessment of student
using a range of different methods.
(7) Reviews Reviewing books, j o u r n a l s or magazines. Can encourage

deep learning, whereby students interact in depth with the
information they review. Task needs to be delineated clearly and
there must be enough resources available for the students.
(8) Class Tests Involve closely supervised procedures and require giving feedback
within a limited time period. Can assess preparation via multiple-
choice, true – false, matching, short answer or essay question.
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Formative feedback potential.
(9) Oral Tests This method assesses communication, understanding, capacity to

think quickly under pressure and knowledge of procedures.
(10) Multiple- A standard method, sampling a wide range of knowledge quickly.
Choice Questions If carefully designed, measure both simple and complex learning
outcomes.
(11) Short Answer, Simple learning outcomes usually at knowledge levels are being
True – False, & assessed with the use of such assessment procedures.
Matching
(1) Please prepare a brief summary of the strengths and limitations of each of the above
listed methods of assessment and submit for grading.
(2) What is your experience of using these assessment methods?
(3) Are there assessment methods which you make use of yet not mentioned here? If
yes, please state and describe them.
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.
Note: The assessment method assesses the stated learning outcomes
The assessment method does not test any significant learning outcomes that are not
explicitly stated as such. Assessment should never go beyond the learning outcomes.
Please avoid over-assessing students.
While planning for methods of assessment, give attention to the following things:
Learning Outcomes Purpose (s) for Method of Assessment

Assessment
What do we want students Why are we assessing Which method of

to understand and be able and how will the assessment will yield the
to do? assessment information desired information?
be used?
 .............................  to provide feedback Choose from the list of

on students learning assessment methods
presented above.
 to communicate
 .............................
learning expectation
with students
 ............................  to diagnose student

strengths and needs
 to inform and guide
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 ........................... instruction
 to provide a basis for
 .......................... student evaluation -

grading, etc.
3.8. Self-Assessment
Planning My Assessment Practices
With the subject matter and grade level at which you plan to teach in mind, examine the
following list of assessments that we have discussed in this chapter. Rate each of the
assessments on this scale: 1 = I don’t plan to use this at all, 2 = I plan to use this
occasionally, 3 = I plan to use this moderately, 4 = I plan to use this often, and 5 = This
will be one of the most important assessments I will use.
Assessment Method 1 2 3 4 5 Justification
(1) Case studies and open

problems
(2) Structured exercises and

home works
(3) Reviews
(4) Student self-assessment
(5) Assessments of students’

effort and participation
(6) True/false items
(7) Multiple-choice items
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(8) Matching
(9) Short-answer items
(10) Essays
(11) Projects
(12) Seminar presentations
(13) Oral tests
(14) Performances
(laboratory, clinical, etc.)
(15) Portfolios
Using assessment sheet: since objectivity is central to assessment and marking, we need
to develop some kind of assessment sheet depending on what we want to assess. For
instance, the assessment sheet we use to assess a presentation, a portfolio, or
contributions during classroom interactions vary significantly. One thing is true though:
we need to have assessment sheet with clear criteria. Dear participant, what is your
experience in this regard? Please write your reflections in the space given below.
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3.9. Test Construction (3 hrs.)
Test construction mainly deals with the preparation of classroom tests. Classroom tests
provide instructors with essential information used to make decisions about instruction
and student grades. Too often, teachers give little thought to the preparation of their tests
until the last minute and then rush to get the job done (Oermann and Gaberson, 2009). A
test that is constructed in this manner often contains items that are poorly chosen,
ambiguous, and either too easy or too difficult, as well as with all kinds of errors
including grammatical, spelling, and other topographic errors. This shows that test
construction requires planning and the construction of good tests also need skill in test
construction apart from the knowledge of the subject matter.
Steps in Test Construction
Good tests require adequate and extensive planning so that the instructional objectives,
the teaching strategy to be employed, the textual material, and the evaluative procedure
are all related in some meaningful fashion. The steps that would be followed in the
construction of classroom tests can be summarized in the following manner:
1. Planning for the test:
 Outline subject-matter content to be considered as the basis for the test: we may
not consider all contents in a course. For such a selection we often refer to
learning outcomes to be assessed.
 Identify learning outcomes to be measured by the test: this depends on the

overriding purpose of the course/module. Identifying instructional objectives in
the cognitive, affective and psychometric domains and their respective levels and
matching the items to these objectives is an indispensable skill here.
 Prepare table of specifications: this is a table prepared to relate course content with
the instructional objectives (or learning outcomes). It indicates emphasis to be
given to each learning outcomes while preparing assessment procedure – e.g.
number of items to be drawn from each area.
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 Choose appropriate type (s) of test items for evaluation of learning outcomes as
summarized in the table of specifications.
2. Preparing the test:
 Write test items according to rules of construction for the type (s) chosen.
 Select the items to be included in the test according to table of specifications.
 Review and edit items according to guidelines.
 Arrange items: decide on grouping of items; sequence of items within groups and
sequence of groupings
 Prepare directions for the test; if necessary, prepare directions for individual item
format or for sections.
 Decide on method of scoring.
(1) Why do we need to take utmost care in preparing a test?
(2) How does your experience of test preparation compare with the Steps in Test
Construction discussed above? Please write a note on your observations including
what you would like to improve, if any.
(3) Please browse the internet and prepare a brief summary of the suggestions for
constructing each of the tests (including Multiple Choice, True-false, Matching,
Completion, Interpretative Exercises, Essay) and submit for grading.
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_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
4) It is said that using table of specifications helps instructors ensure content validity of a
test. Discuss the meaning of content validity and how table of specifications helps
instructors ensure content validity.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
(5) Please prepare a table of specification for one of your courses – ask the support of
the HDL/HDT, if needed.
General Guidelines for Item writing for all Test Types
 Begin writing items far enough in advance so that you will have time to revise them
 Match items to intended outcomes at the proper difficulty level to provide a valid
measure of instructional objectives. Limit the questions to the skill being assessed
 Be sure each item deals with an important aspect of the content area and not with
trivia.
 Be sure that the problem posed is clear and unambiguous
 Be sure that each item is independent of all other items. The answer to one item
should not be required as a condition for answering the next item. A hint to one
answer should not be embodied in another item
 Be sure that the item has one correct or best answer on which experts would
agree.
 Prevent unintended clues to the answer in the statement or question. Grammatical

inconsistencies such as a or an give clues to the correct answer and will help those
students who are not well prepared for the test.
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 Avoid replication of the textbook in writing test items; don’t quote directly from
textual materials. You are usually not interested in how well the student
memorized the text. Besides, taken out of context, direct quotes from the text are
often ambiguous
 Avoid trick or catch questions in an achievement test. Don’t waste time testing
how well the students can interpret your intentions, and
 Try to write items that require higher level thinking. Here you need to write
objectives that measure comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, or
evaluation to ensure that your items will be at the higher than knowledge level and
write items that match these objectives. Dear HDL/HDT, please ask the
participants to discuss each of these guiding criteria in group.
3.10. Grading
Introduction
Grading is a process of translating descriptive assessment information into letters,
numbers, or other marks that indicate the quality of a student’s learning or performance
(Santrock, 2011). Grades are important for students as well as for instructors as they
influence a wide variety of opportunities such as access to scholarships, awards,
advanced education and employment. Hence, instructors should pay attention to grade
and the system of grading while assessing and describing students’ learning. In this
section an attempt shall be made to bring to your attention the various aspects of
grading.
The Purposes and Components of Grading
Grading is made so as to communicate meaningful information about students learning

and achievement. Grades inform students about the quality of their own performance,
inform future employers, vocational schools, and graduate schools about the quality of
the students and are pedagogical tools for eliciting better performance from student.
Santrock (2011) identified four basic purposes that grades serve:
 Administrative - grades help determine, for example, credits for graduation and
promote students to the next level.
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 Informational - grades can be used to communicate with students and others (such
as registrar office).
 Motivational - many students work harder because they are extrinsically

motivated by a desire for high grades and a fear of low grades.
 Guidance - grades provide information about which students might require special
services and what levels of future education students will likely be able to handle.
As mentioned earlier, grades reflect instructor’s judgment about the performance of

students. The judgment that you make about students, in other words, the grading system
that you use should consider three important elements of grading. These include:
 What standard of comparison you will use for grading,
 What aspects of students’ performance will you use to assign grades, and
 How will you weight different kinds of evidences you obtained from different
sources in giving grades.
When teachers fail to carefully consider these guidelines, variability occurs in their
grading practice which obviously disadvantages some students and communicates faulty
performance report.
Reflective activity: 21
(1) Review the Addis Ababa University Guidelines on Grading, Examination and
Assessment of Student Learning and share your understanding of the guideline with
your colleagues.
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(2) In your opinion, is it possible to implement this guideline as it is?
______________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
(3) What mechanisms do you use to reduce variability in grading and to increase its
objectivity?
Characteristics of a Good Grading System
Grades should be relevant to major course objectives
Grades should have recognized meaning among potential users
The grading process should be impartial and compare each student to the same
criteria
Grades should be based on sufficient data to permit you to make valid evaluations
of student achievement
The basis for the grading should be statistically sound
Norm-Referenced and Criterion-Referenced Assessments

Norm-referenced assessment is a test or other type of assessment designed to provide a
measure of performance that is interpretable in terms of an individual's relative standing in
some known group. On the other hand, criterion-referenced assessment is a test or other type of
assessment designed to provide a measure of performance that is interpretable in terms of a
clearly defined and delimited domain of learning tasks. These two types of assessments are best
53
viewed as the ends of a continuum rather than as a clear-cut dichotomy. Criterion-referenced
test emphasizes description of performance, and the norm-referenced test emphasizes
discrimination among individuals.
Reflective activity: 22
1. While assessing your students’ learning, was it Norm-Referenced or Criterion-
Referenced Assessment that you were using predominantly? Why?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
2. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of Norm-Referenced and Criterion-
Referenced Assessments.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
3. According to the Senate Legislation of the Addis Ababa University, is the assessment
system Norm-Referenced or Criterion-Referenced? Why?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Scoring Rubrics
Connoley (2004) proposed that a rubric, or scoring matrix, is a very useful device for
presenting criterion-referenced assessment tasks. A rubric is designed to make grading
easier and faster, as well as to provide more useful feedback to students. When grading
projects, essays, portfolios, performances, rubrics scoring rubrics offer an easy, fast, and
consistent method for grading. Miller, Linn and Gronlund (2009) considered a
scoring rubric as a set of guidelines for the application of performance criteria to the
responses and performance of students. It typically consists of verbal descriptions (set of
characteristics) of performance or aspects of student responses. A rubric is a printed set
of scoring guidelines (criteria) for evaluating work (a performance or a product) and for
giving feedback.
54
A rubric is usually handed out before the assignment begins in order to get students to
think about the criteria on which their work will be judged. It is suggested that rubrics
improve students' end products and therefore increase learning. When teachers evaluate
papers or projects, they know implicitly what makes a good final product and why. When
students receive rubrics beforehand, they understand how they will be evaluated and can
prepare accordingly.
Advantages of Using Rubrics
 Teachers can increase the quality of their direct instruction by providing focus,
emphasis, and attention to particular details as a model for students
 Students have explicit guidelines regarding teacher expectations
 Students can use rubrics as a tool to develop their abilities
 Teachers can reuse rubrics for various activities
(1) Some argue that students will perform better if they understand how they will be
graded in advance. What is your reaction?
(2) Do fellow instructors in the subject you teach follow the same criteria for grading
students’ performance? If not, what are the possible reasons?
(3) Do you think that instructors and students have the same understanding of
assessment criteria most of the time?
55
________________________________________________________________________________
(4) Do instructors teaching the same course share the same understanding of
assessment criteria?
Guidelines for Effective Grading
Miller, Linn and Gronlund (2009) provide the following guideline for teachers/instructors
to follow while grading:
 Describe your grading procedures to students at the beginning of instruction.
 Make clear to students that course grade will be based on achievement only.
 Explain how other elements (effort, work habits, and personal – social
characteristics) will be reported.
 Relate the grading procedures to the intended learning outcomes (i.e., instructional
goals and objectives).
 Obtain valid evidence (e.g., tests, assessments, reports, or ratings) as a basis for
assigning grades.
 Take precautions to prevent cheating on tests and assessments.
 Return and review all test and assessment results as soon as possible.
 Properly weight the various types of achievement included in the grade.
 Do not lower an achievement grade for tardiness, weak effort, or misbehaviour.
 Be fair. Avoid bias, and when in doubt (as with a borderline score), review the
evidence. If still in doubt, assign the higher grade.
56
Dear participant, which of these guidelines do you think would be difficult to follow?
Why?
3.11. The Importance of Feedback
[
Feedback is an opportunity students provided to learn about their own performances

according to the assessment criteria. The process of assessment contributes to students’
learning by providing them feedback on their progress towards the achievement of
learning outcomes. Feedback enables students to recognize what they have done well and
what they could improve on in future assessment. Good quality, comprehensive, timely
feedback is a very important factor in driving student learning. Effective feedback helps
you reflect on what you do well and helps you identify how to make changes to enable
you to do things even better. Feedback will enable students to realize where they have
done well and indicate what they could improve on, as well as justifying the grade/mark
of assessment procedures.
(1) When should feedback be given to students? Why?
(2) What is the difference between immediate and delayed feedback?
(3) How detailed does feedback have to be?
57
(4) Should it be oral or written? Which of these is more effective?
(5) Discuss the feedback policy/guideline of Addis Ababa University?
____________________________________________________________
(6) What is your experience of providing feedback? Do you think you have benefited
from this practice?
58
Unit 4 Student Advisement and Support
4.1. Introduction
Student advising plays crucial role in helping higher learning institutions retain their
students and minimize the rate of attrition (Nutt, 2003). It is, therefore, critical that
students learn to take full responsibility for their education and their academic progress.
Cuseo (2003) mentioned that academic advising exerts a significant impact on student
retention through its positive association with, and mediation of, variables that are
strongly correlated with student persistence, namely: (1) student satisfaction with the
college experience, (2) effective educational and career planning and decision making,
(3) student utilization of campus support services, (4) student-faculty contact outside the
classroom, and (5) student mentoring. Other researchers (e.g., Pargett, 2011) also
indicated the positive effect of advising on student development. According to this writer
the discussion between a student and his or her advisor on personal and school-related
issues, career options, college policies, academic deadlines, and study skills and tips
increase student’s level of satisfaction with college and enhances student’s positive
development.
The purpose of student advising and support services is to help students set out their
life/career goals, develop meaningful plans to achieve those goals, evaluate their
progress, resolve challenges they might encounter in the process of achieving their goals,
understand policies and procedures of the University, engage fully in their education, and
assume responsibility for their lives, their success, and their future career.
Student advising involves ongoing, developmental, teaching relationships with students, a

relationship sometimes described as mentoring. Such relationship requires responsibility
best shared between faculty and students. An integral part of advising is teaching students
decision-making skills, but it is the students who make the decisions. Advisor and student
should contribute equally to the work involved in advising. In this section an attempt has
been made to remind HDP candidates about the process of student advising and support.
59
Learning outcomes
At the end of this unit, the HDP candidates will be able to:
 Distinguish between academic and other services
 Describe core values of academic advising
 Help students in developing and achieving realistic academic and career goals
based on learner’s interests, abilities, values, and needs
 Assist students to understand and interpret University policies, procedures, and

requirements
 Guide students toward appropriate resources, including the counselling centre, the
Office of Dean of Student, etc.
 Address students’ academic questions and concerns.
4.2. Student Support Services
There are many services and support programs available on campus by different parties.
Student support services are critical to student success, especially at campuses that enroll
large numbers of students with diverse background. These programs assist students in
addressing areas of academic deficiency and provide necessary resources to maximize
students’ intellectual and social capital while in the University. Designed to facilitate
students’ transition into college, promote retention, and lead to graduation, student
support services are most effective when they are tailored to match the campus culture
and address the needs of the typical student on the campus.
Advisors should be able to provide students particularly new entrants with valuable and
appropriate information about the services that are available. The provision of such
information would help students adjust to campus life and focus on their learning. Some
of the on-campus services include:
59
 Dean of students
 Academic advising
 Registrar service including admission and record services
 Library service
 Campus security
 Counselling services
Co-curricular activities including:
 club activities
 Gender related services
 Health services
 HIV/AIDS and VCT services
 Cost sharing services
It has to be clear that some of the services are commonly required by all students and other
services are required by some. Advisors need to be aware of the services that are made available
to students and become familiar with each of the services that are made available.
(1) In a group of three, please examine the situation of student support services at Addis
Ababa University. Note what you would learn in the space provided below.
60
(2) List out what can be done to provide effective student support services. Include what you
can do in this process.
4.3. Academic Advising
Academic advising is an intentional, collaborative, and ongoing partnership between students

and the faculty based on sharing accurate and timely information that enables students to
navigate the educational system and to identify and reach educational, personal, and career goals.
Academic advising assists students in the mapping and maneuvering through their educational
plans. With the help of academic advising students are helped to develop their academic and
career goals, in addition to providing the tools to navigate through the courses and activities
which help them accomplish these goals.
An advisor is someone who helps students become more self-aware of their distinctive interests,
talents, values, and priorities; who enables students to see the connection between their present
academic experience and their future life plans; who broadens students’ perspectives with respect
to their personal life choices, and sharpens their cognitive skills for making these choices—e.g.,
effective problem-solving, critical thinking, and reflective decision-making. The work of
advisors is based on the belief that, students:
 have diverse backgrounds that can include different ethnic, racial, domestic, and
international communities; ages; gender and gender identities; physical, emotional, and
psychological abilities; political, religious, and educational beliefs,
 hold their own beliefs and opinions,
 are responsible for their own behaviours and the outcomes of those behaviours,
 can be successful based upon their individual goals and efforts,
 have a desire to learn,
61
 have learning needs that vary based upon individual skills, goals, responsibilities, and
experiences, and
 use a variety of techniques and technologies to navigate their world.
As a member of your academic department, you might have served as academic advisor or else
you have received academic advisement services as a student. Hence, from your experience:
(1) What should come under academic advising or what areas/concerns should academic
advising cover?
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
(2) What are the challenges and opportunities to academic advising, if any, at Addis Ababa
University?
(3) What values should guide academic advising?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
62
Unit 5: Managing Student Discipline
5.1. Introduction
The foreground of the educational experience is engagement – interaction, collaboration, and

reflection. Educational experience requires focusing on ideas and conceptual frameworks,
challenging and creating ideas, and diagnosing misconceptions and constructing mutual
understanding. This experience cannot be achieved without a reasonable level of discipline. In
other words, educational experiences require the discipline to interact academically and
respectfully with members of the community as they engage in pursuit of common goals. It is
learning to listen, explain, and defend positions and ideas.
Anderson & Van Dyke (cited in Ajayi and Adeniji, 2009) considered discipline as a state of
order based on submission to rules and authority. Defined this way, individuals tend to perceive
discipline either positively or negatively. Discipline to some may involve punishment, repression
and sternness, infliction of pain, restriction of freedom, threat and outright condemnation. To
others, it is viewed as a way of guiding the individual to make reasonable decisions, to help
teachers in class to achieve desirable behaviour, to train the minds of others for constructive
purposes, willingness to obey orders or simple instructions, gentleness, simplicity and quietness
(Ajayi and Adeniji, 2009). If seen positively, considerable intellectual discipline and respecting
the rules and regulations of the institutions is important for the process of inquiry. The process of
inquiry helps students acquire the attitudes and skills to become critical thinkers and to continue
their learning beyond the narrow scope and time limit of a formal educational experience.
Discipline is essential for deep and meaningful experience. Discipline provides the mind-set to
engage in critical discourse and reflect ion. For tacit knowledge and individual insights to be
externalized and made explicit, students must have the discipline to engage in educational
experience. In this lesson an attempt has been made to identify the possible disciplinary
problems that instructors may encounter and the methods of dealing with these disciplinary
problems.
63
Learning outcomes
At the end of this lesson, HDP candidates will be able to:

 Identify the common type of disciplinary problems in their institutions;
 Explain the causes of disciplinary problems in higher learning institutions;
 Describe the methods of dealing with disciplinary problems; and
 Use appropriate methods to solve disciplinary problems they may encounter;
5.2. Causes of Disciplinary Problems
Ajayi and Adeniji (2009) categorized the causes of disciplinary problems at tertiary institutions
in the following manner:
 Laxity in home control and parental supervision
 College factor
 Teacher factor
 Societal factor
 Government Influence
Dear HDL/HDT, please group the participants to discuss on these causes of disciplinary
problems. Encourage them to bring in and reflect on their own encounters.
5.3. Types of Disciplinary Problems
Disciplinary problems in higher learning institutions manifest in various ways. Seeman (2010:
21) identified the following as disruptive behaviours that instructors encounter in institutions of
higher education. Some of these are extreme disruptive behaviours than others and some are
campus wide disruptive behaviours that would affect the overall teaching-learning process. The
disruptive behaviours include the following.
64
 Not respecting the rights of other students’ viewpoints
 Monopolizing the discussion
 Talking when you or another student is speaking
 Constant questions that interfere with your teaching
 Withdrawn, inattentive, or sleeping in class, or reading or doing another subject in your

class
 Eating in class
 Making noise with papers, or by tapping a pen or pencil
 Coming to class late or leaving early
 Using pagers, cell phones, and iPods inappropriately in the classroom
 Inappropriate demands or too many demands for the instructor’s time and attention
 Poor personal hygiene (e.g., offensive body odour)
 Students text messaging each other during your teaching
 Use of profanity or pejorative language in class
 Intoxication, or high on drugs, or selling drugs
 Verbal abuse (e.g., taunting, badgering, intimidation)

 Harassment (e.g., use of ―fighting words)
 Cheating on tests
 Plagiarism
 Threats to harm oneself or others
 Physical violence, assault, carrying weapons
 Sexual assaults/rape
 Binge drinking
Seeman (2010) argued that not all behaviours listed above as disruptive should be handled with
the same treatment from instructors or university management. Not all behaviours that are
disruptive are ―discipline problems. According to Seeman, a disrupt ive behaviour is a real
discipline problem when it is a behaviour (not merely the expression of a feeling) that disrupts
65
(or is potentially disruptive to) the learning of the rest of the class (not just the learning of the
disrupter), or disrupts the role responsibilities of the teacher (not just the personal feelings of the
teacher).
1. Classify the above listed disruptive behaviours as:
 Disciplinary problems or not
 Campus wide or limited to specific situation (e.g., classroom situation)
 Severe or less severe
2. Check also whether each of the disruptive behaviours is:
 Widely observed at AAU
 Limited in its occurrence at AAU
 Doesn’t occur at all at AAU.
Present your work to the class. Discuss on what has been presented and try to reach a consensus
about the disruptive behaviours observed at AAU.
5.4. Managing Student Discipline
As explained earlier, all discipline problems cannot be handled in the same way by the instructor.
Some of discipline problems will be handled by the university management with clearly
established rules and regulations and some could be handled by the instructor in the classroom or
out of the classroom conditions. In-class discipline problems should be handled by the teacher
and the teacher should be able to use their own strategies to deal with discipline problems.
66
Preventive techniques of managing misbehaviour are said to be more effective compared to

curative techniques. Dear participant, would you please discuss these two techniques? Please
note your finding in the space provided below.
Here are some techniques you may consider as you try to maintain acceptable disciple in your
classroom:
 Formulate rules and standards of behaviour prior to starting class.
 Spell out carefully your rules and grading system in your course syllabus as best as you can.
Try to keep careful records of your judgments, grades, and criteria.
 Try to encourage students to respect differing viewpoints and diversities. Intolerance to

differences is one of the principal causes of disciplinary problem.
 The best way to handle cheating during exam is by curtailing and preventing it . Devise
mechanisms for in-built ways of discouraging cheating on exams.
Dear HDL/HDT, please ask participants to reflect on mechanisms they used to apply to
discourage cheating on examinations and/or plagiarism when students conduct their
research projects.
Managing student discipline does not mean keeping students quiet and orderly but one in which
their voices and behaviours serve the purpose of learning (Moreno, 2010). Therefore, having a
quiet classroom should not be taken as a sign of successfully managing student discipline.
Instead, you should think about whether the management methods that you use in the classrooms
are conducive to the learning and motivation of all students. Effective management of student
discipline should maximize students’ learning opportunities.
67
Module Assessment
I) HDP Candidate’s Self-Assessment
1. What have you found most useful in this Module?

_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
2. Write a reflective comment on your overall performance and achievements in this Module.
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
3. Would you say that for your overall performance in this Module you should receive a
PASS or REFER? Underline one.
Signature of the candidate: Date:
68
II) Higher Diploma Leader’s Module Assessment
1. General comments on the candidate’s performance in this Module

_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
2. Please comment specifically on areas where you disagree with the self-assessment. Please
comment on what the candidate should do in the next Module to improve.
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
3 The overall performance of the candidate in this Module: PASS or REFER
Signature of the HDL: Date:
69
References
Ajayi, K. & Adeniji, A. (2009). Pursuing Discipline and Ethical Issues in Tertiary Institutions in
Nigeria. African Review: An International Multi-Disciplinary Journal, 3 (1), 284-300.
Barkley, E. F., K. P. Cross and C. H. Major. (2005). Collaborative Learning Techniques: A

Handbook for College Faculty. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Bigge, Morris L. and S. Samuel Shermis (2004). Learning Theories for Teachers: Classic Edition
(6th ed.). Boston: Pearson.
Bloxham, S. and Boyd, P, (2007). Developing Effective Assessment in Higher Education: a

practical guide. England: McGraw-Hill, Open University Press.
Brown, Sally and Peter Knight (1994). Assessing Learners in Higher Education. London:
RoutledgeFalmer.
Connoley, R. (2004). Criterion-Referenced Assessment. Deakin University
Cuseo, Joe. (2003). "Academic advisement and student retention: Empirical connections and
systemic interventions." National Academic Advising Association.(linked from
http://www. nacada. ksu. edu/clearinghouse /advisingissues/retain. htm, retrieved 10-15-
08)
Erwin, TD (1991). Assessing Student Learning and Development. San Francisco CA: Jossey
Bass.
Gagne,Briggs and Wager(1992). Principles of instructional design(4th ed.) Harcourt Brace

Jovanouich college publisher.
James, Mary (1998). Using Assessment for School Improvement. Chicago: Heinemann.
Kellough, Rechard. (2003). A Resource Guide for Teaching. (4th ed.). New Jersey: Merrill
Prentice Hall.
Kubiszyn, T. & Borich, G. (2003). Educational Testing and Measurement: Classroom
Application and Practice (7th ed.). USA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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Kyriacou, Chris (1998). Essential Teaching Skills. (2nded.). Cheltenham: Nelson Thornes Ltd.
Madaus, Airasian and Kellaghan(1980).A reassessment of the evidence school effectiveness.

New York : McGraw-Hill book company.
Manen ,M.V.(1992). The tact of teaching: The meaning of pedagogical thoughtfulness. USA:
State University of New York press.
McCombs, Barbara L. and Jo Sue Whisler (1997). The Learner-Centred Classroom and School:
Strategies for increasing student motivation and achievement. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass
Publishers.
Mehrens, W. A. and Lehmann, I. J. (1991). Measurement and Evaluation in Education and

Psychology. Belmont CA: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning.
Miller, M. D., Linn, R. L. and Gronlund, N. E. (2009). Measurement and Assessment in

Teaching (10th ed.). New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc.
Moreno, R. (2010). Educational Psychology. USA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
NACADA (2005). NACADA Statement of Core Values of Academic Advising. Retrieved fro m
the NACADA Clearinghouse of Academic Advising Resources Web site.
http://www.nacada.ksu.edu/Resources/Clearinghouse/View-Articles/Core-values-of-
academic-advising.aspx
Nutt, C. L. (2003). Academic Advising and Student Retention and Persistence. Retrieved August
7, 2013from the NACADA Clearinghouse of Academic Advising Resources Web
site.http://www.nacada.ksu.edu/tabid/3318/articleType/ArticleView/articleId/636/article.as
px
Oermann, M. H. & Gaberson, K.B. (2009). Evaluation and Testing in Nursing Education (3rd
ed.). New York: Springer Publishing Company.
Pargett, K. K. (2011). The Effects of Academic Advising on College Student Development in

Higher Education. A Thesis Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate College at the
University of Nebraska in Partial Fulfillment of Requirements for the Degree of Master of
71
Arts. University of Nebraska – Lincoln.
Plessis, J., et al (2003). Continuous assessment: A practical guide for teachers. Washington, DC:
American Institutes for Research.
Santrock, J.W. (2011). Educational Psychology (5th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Seeman, H. (2010). Preventing Disruptive Behavior in Colleges: A Campus and Classroom

Management Handbook for Higher Education. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Education
A division of Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.
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Work and Group Assessment. Victoria University of Wellington.
72

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Addis Ababa University

Managing Learning and Assessment

Higher Diploma Program

Unit 1: Understanding Learning: Principles and Processes (4 hrs.) .............................................. 4

1.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................ 4

1.2. Defining learning ........................................................................................................ 5

1.3. How is teaching related to learning? ........................................................................... 7

1.4. Teachers’ Instructional Leadership Styles ................................................................... 13

1.5. Learning styles .......................................................................................................... 15

Unit 2: Active Learning Methods (4 hrs.) .................................................................................. 20

2.1. Introduction .............................................................................................................. 20

2.2. What is active learning? ............................................................................................ 20

2.3. Why active learning? ................................................................................................ 22

2.4. Specific active learning methods ................................................................................ 23

2.5. Collaborative and Independent learning (2 hrs.) ........................................................ 26

2.6. Teaching and learning in large classes ........................................................................ 30

Unit 3: Learning Assessment and Grading................................................................................. 32

3.1. Learning Assessment: Introduction ............................................................................ 32

3.2. Why Do We Assess?................................................................................................... 33

3.3. Continuous Assessment (CA) ..................................................................................... 35

3.4. Assessment for and of Learning ................................................................................. 36

3.5. General Principles of Assessment .............................................................................. 37

3.6. Assessing Groups ....................................................................................................... 38

3.7. Methods of Assessment............................................................................................. 42

3.8. Self-Assessment ........................................................................................................ 46

3.10. Grading ................................................................................................................. 51

3.11. The Importance of Feedback.................................................................................. 56

Unit 4 Student Advisement and Support ................................................................................... 58

4.1. Introduction .............................................................................................................. 58

4.2. Student Support Services ........................................................................................... 59

4.3. Academic Advising .................................................................................................... 61

Unit 5: Managing Student Discipline...................................................................................... 64

5.1. Introduction .............................................................................................................. 64

5.2. Causes of Disciplinary Problems ................................................................................ 65

5.3. Types of Disciplinary Problems................................................................................... 65

5.4. Managing Student Discipline...................................................................................... 68

Module Learning Outcomes

After studying this module, candidates will be able to:

 Review their professional experiences to define learning.

Traditionally, higher education institutions tended to focus on teaching and coverage of

Upon completion of this unit the participants will be able to:

 Discuss the learning theories underlying different teaching and learning

1.2. Defining learning

Basic issue Behaviourists Cognitivists Situationalists

Conception of the learner

Conception of the learning process

The role of the student in learning

The role of the teacher in student learning

Objectives of classroom instruction

Limitations of application in classroom

1. What is your definition of learning?

2. Is there a relationship between your and your teachers’ conception of learning?

3. Which of the theories of learning described in Box 1 do you support? Why?

1.3. How is teaching related to learning?

No. Principle Discussion questions

To aid us further in understanding the quality of instruction, let’s analyse aspects of

7 What procedures The perception of events, the attainment of a concept, the

(Bruner, 1973 as cited by Bigge and Shermis, 2004).

1) Taking Bruner’s seven aspects of instruction as a framework, please discuss your

1.4. Teachers’ Instructional Leadership Styles