Progress in Disaster Science 11 (2021) 100184

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Progress in Disaster Science

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/pdisas

Possible roles of People's Organization for post-disaster community recovery:

A case study on recovery process after Philippine Typhoon Yolanda
⁎
Chihori Tatebe , Takumi Miyamoto
Graduate School of Disaster Resilience and Governance, University of Hyogo, 1-5-2 Wakinohama-kaigan-dori, Chuo-ku, Kobe, Hyogo 651-0073, Japan

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Article history: This study shows significant roles of the grassroots People's Organizations (POs), formed by fisherfolks and farmers in
Received 3 March 2021 the recovery after 2013 Typhoon Yolanda in Medellin and Bantayan Island in the Philippines. We found that varied
Received in revised form 2 June 2021 roles of POs post-disasters are important for receiving and assisting project implementations, encouraging indepen-
Accepted 13 June 2021
dence among members, and providing solutions to community issues, i.e. poverty and development. Moreover, POs
Available online 15 June 2021
provide vitality and inspiration to members. POs can be associations for the “next society” since it is free from con-
straint and united personally. POs can become more open and inclusive through POs' activities and interactions
Keywords: with NGOs.
Disaster recovery
Typhoon Yolanda
People's Organization

1. Introduction Active and continuous participation of survivors or local people is es-

sential in the recovery from disasters because problems that communities
Super Typhoon Haiyan, known in the Philippines as Typhoon Yolanda, have held since before the disaster become apparent in disaster time and
struck the central part of the Philippines in November 2013. It was a Cate- they fundamentally have to be dealt with in the recovery process [4].
gory 5 storm and one of the strongest typhoons on record, with 6300 people Thus, the tragedy of disaster will occur repeatedly unless long-term recov-
dead, 1062 people missing, 1,140,322 buildings damaged [1]. The ery and the fundamental problems of communities are considered. There
Philippines is one of the most disaster prone countries and the government are some cases studied in past disasters that survivors themselves made
has initiated disaster risk reduction even since before this typhoon. efforts toward not only reconstruction in the aftermath of disasters but
Philippine Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Act (RA 10121) was also revitalization of their community or society in the long run [5–8],
legislated in 2010, which calls for strengthening of power and capacity of but still many of previous studies on community recovery focus on
the Local Government Units (LGUs), participating of all stakeholders in- support agencies.
cluding private sectors and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) in One of the remarkable changes found in the targeted sites of this study
every level, with focus on a community level. Under this Act, institutions re- after Typhoon Yolanda was that many community organizations called peo-
garding disaster risk reduction were reorganized into National Disaster Risk ple's organizations (POs) were established among communities of small
Reduction and Management Council (NDRRMC). In addition, National Di- fisherfolks and farmers through the assistance of NGOs. POs are “member-
saster Risk Reduction and Management Plan (NDRRMP) was formulated ship organizations representing marginalized groups and often organized
in 2012, and Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Office was created based on sector, issue, or geographical area” [9], such as farmers' associa-
in every level of LGUs. The government policy that respects the capacity tions, women's associations, and drivers' associations, which are commonly
of LGUs and communities is also seen in the Yolanda Comprehensive Reha- called community-based organizations in other countries [10]. They are
bilitation and Recovery Plan (CRRP), where improvement of the community-based but at the same time, membership-based, as they primar-
community's physical, social, and economic resilience, and consideration ily pursue interests of members. POs cater more to the working class or the
to local conditions and existing capacities of communities are put as its urban and rural poor [11]. These people are vulnerable in disaster time and
principles [2]. It is an ambitious plan toward sustainable reconstruction main targets of NGOs' support in many cases. At the same time,
of communities [3], and further study is needed to understand survivors' re-
covery in a long-term period.

⁎ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (C. Tatebe).

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C. Tatebe, T. Miyamoto Progress in Disaster Science 11 (2021) 100184

Fig. 1. Location of each community.

participation and empowerment of these people are very important in re- as a hybrid organization based on both, which has a potential for the
covery from disasters. “next society”.
POs are considered as a type of civil society organizations (CSOs)1 but On discussing the significant role of POs as a hybrid organization, this
are relatively overlooked among them and driven into just recipients of sup- study considers relationships between POs and other support actors as gov-
ports from other organizations. Philippine CSOs are widely seen as some of ernments, NGOs, and families. There are Philippine traditional values like
the most vibrant and advanced in the world [9]. They are characterized by bayanihan or cooperative spirits, and such values were apparent in sharing
institutionalized and professionalized NGOs and active work in advocacy food and clothes among survivors immediately after Typhoon Yolanda even
[12]. However, it is obverse of the fact that power is concentrated into in urban communities in Tacloban city. In the long-term, rather, unequal dis-
the support organizations which is a middle-class component of CSOs and tribution of aid from the government and NGOs caused the division of com-
based in the capital city [13]. Attempts of local marginalized populations munities [21]. International aid agencies are also influential actors in
like POs should receive more attention for better understanding and pro- Philippines' disaster response, but international agencies' approaches based
moting grassroots recovery. Seng [14] argued that a PO of informal settlers on western values may have a gap with the local one and enforce the image
played an important role in the adaptation of disaster expertise in their of recipients of assistance on victims [22]. CSO networks in the Philippines
community even before Typhoon Ondoy (international name Ketsana), carried out the function of supplying the gap by coordinating the international
which hit on Manila in 2009. Luna [15] and Victoria [16] also pointed aid organizations and local organizations in some cases during the response to
out the significance of the participation of communities including POs in di- Typhoon Yolanda [23]. Focusing on the efforts of POs is expected, in return,
saster management. Accumulation, however, of case studies regarding POs to contribute to reconsidering a way of involvement of outside supporters
involvement through a process of disaster recovery is scarce. and better collaboration between them and local survivors.
The purpose of this study is to demonstrate the significant role of POs in
the process of recovery from the disaster. This study describes the issues the 2. Methods
most vulnerable people faced before and after Typhoon Yolanda through
the focus on concerns and activities of POs in the Municipality of Medellin 2.1. Research sites
and Bantayan Island. Focusing on POs, this study emphasizes how to envi-
sion a new association for the “next society” after a disaster. Many previous The Municipality of Medellin is located about 120 km north of Cebu
studies point out the importance of community-level effort and resources City in Cebu Island (Fig. 1), with a population of about 55,000 [24]. It is
both from inside and outside of a community in disaster times [17–20]. well known for sugar the cane industry and approximately 60% of its
But an overlooked perspective is that organizations in a community can land is used for sugar cane plantation [25]. The fishery is also active in
be distinguished between those based on neighborhood relationships and coastal areas. Many of the people are landless sugar cane workers and fish-
those based on specific interests and purposes. In this study, PO is viewed erfolks. Three people died with Typhoon Yolanda and 10,091 buildings
were destroyed including totally damaged and partially damaged [1].
1
CSOs encompass a wide range of organizations, including POs, NGOs, mass organizations,
Bantayan Island is located in the west of the northern part of Cebu Is-
professional associations, labor unions, private research institutes and universities, founda- land. The island has three municipalities, Bantayan (population size about
tions, and social movements [29]. 79,000), Madridejos (population size about 36,000), and Santa Fe

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C. Tatebe, T. Miyamoto Progress in Disaster Science 11 (2021) 100184

(population size about 27,000) [24]. For local people, the center of eco- until their establishment and current activities. The interviews were done
nomic activities is taking place in Bantayan, while development along mainly in Tagalog, the official language of the Philippines, but on the occa-
beach resorts, especially in Santa Fe, is bringing in foreign tourists and res- sion where people only spoke Visayan, the NGO staff translated both ways
idents. Typhoon Yolanda killed 17 people in Bantayan, three people in for better understanding.3 In addition to the above semi-structured inter-
Madridejos, and three people in Santa Fe, damaged 16,276 buildings in views, informal conversations with PO members and NGOs staff were con-
Bantayan, 6453 in Madridejos, and 4354 in Santa Fe [1]. ducted during the fieldwork.
Questionnaires were coordinated by a staff of NGO-B and a leader of a
2.2. NGOs in research fields federation of fisherfolks in Cebu Province. They contacted members of
each PO and the member called other members to attend the questionnaire.
This study was supported by the local NGOs. NGO-A is a disaster The author explained the questionnaire and passed the questionnaire sheets
response NGO in Cebu and Bohol region, whose mission is to promote to the members when they gathered. Then it was answered and collected on
community-based disaster management and to support populations in the site. Respondents were 259 in total in 14 POs. The questions were on their
most marginalized and vulnerable sectors such as peasants, fisherfolks, perceptions of the PO and on their happiness. By analyzing what kind of
workers, urban poor, women, and children. Immediately after Typhoon people join POs and what they expect of POs, this questionnaire aims to
Yolanda, NGO-A provided emergency relief for victims in Medellin. As for consider the issues of vulnerable people in disaster recovery. The question-
the long-term rehabilitation program, they offered a sustainable livelihood naire was in Visayan, firstly written in English by the author and then trans-
project with an international NGO as a funding partner. The first batch of lated into Visayan by the staff of NGOB. After collecting the sheets, free
the project period was from 2015 to 2017, followed by the second batch descriptive answers written in Visayan were translated into English by the
held from 2017 to 2019, with four targeted barangays per batch. An office staff of NGO-B or local people who understand English.
of NGO-A is located in Cebu city, and their field office for this sustainable
livelihood project is in Medellin. Some management staff worked in the
Cebu office and four field staff went back and forth between Cebu city 3. Findings
and Medellin to implement the project.
NGO-B works with fisherfolk sectors, and NGO-C works with farmer 3.1. NGOs' assistance and a start of POs after Yolanda
sectors, in Central Visayas for their well-being and sustainable develop-
ment. NGO-B and NGO-C provided assistance in Bantayan Island after We will outline the POs establishment by telling a story of the assistance
Typhoon Yolanda, by commuting between Cebu City and Bantayan Island. program of NGO-A. At the time when NGO-A began relief activities after
The NGOs know each other well and share information accordingly. NGO-B Typhoon Yolanda, they asked the Department of Social Welfare and Devel-
and NGO-C also collaborate with a federation of fisherfolk POs in Cebu opment (DSWD) on areas seriously damaged and less assisted. Upon enter-
Province in the support for fisherfolk sectors.2 ing each barangay, NGO-A staff confirmed whether there are POs in the
Their activities target on the poor and the NGO staff themselves are also communities because distributing relief goods through POs was their strat-
far from wealthy and stable. For example, before joining the NGOs, a field egy. While in most of the communities few POs existed before Yolanda,
staff of NGO-A was a farmer and another staff was a jeepney and motorcycle there was a fisherfolks and farmers organization in Barangay Gibitngil,
driver. Staff employed for the projects will lose their job when the project Medellin. Thus, this PO was the only one assisted by NGO-A in the area,
term finishes. In another case, a volunteer staff of NGO-C who guided the and managed relief distributions smoothly. When they distributed relief
author in Bantayan Island for this fieldwork gain only a little transportation goods, POs searched for those who needed assistance and listed the
fee and daily allowance from NGO-C so he stayed and had meals in commu- names themselves. A member of a PO in Barangay Maharuhay, Medellin,
nities he visited to support. praised their way of distribution in contrast to that of barangay's, which
was disorderly and unfair.
2.3. Fieldwork NGO-A provided school supplies, livestock, and house repairing assis-
tance after emergency relief to the survivors. Because in most of the com-
Fieldwork was conducted in the Municipality of Medellin and Bantayan munities POs are not established at this period, NGO-A collaborated with
Island in Cebu Province, which focuses on POs of small fisherfolks and Barangay Health Worker (BHW), barangay's volunteer worker, walking in
farmers. The first fieldwork was conducted for two months and a half be- communities to search for whom they should provide. Their assistant pro-
tween February 19th to May 2nd, 2018, and the second one lasted for a gram included awareness training through seminars and workshops as
month between August 5th to September 2nd, 2018. Participant observa- well as material provision for livelihood recovery. The topics covered for
tion, interviews, and questionnaires were conducted, with supports pro- the awareness training were, for instance, community-based disaster man-
vided by three local NGOs; NGO-A, NGO-B, and NGOC. The first author agement, livestock raising, and social management, such as problems
visited 14 POs in 12 barangays in Medellin and Bantayan Island, where with land ownership.
these local NGOs were assisting with the program for victims of Typhoon. NGO-A built a good relationship with local people through a continuous
In their communities, the author stayed in a field office of NGO-A and approach from emergency relief to life support and workshops. NGO-A
their beneficiaries' home, observed their livelihoods such as fishing, farm- appointed particularly active people in this process to be Disaster Prepared-
ing, and managing community store, attended some seminars for residents ness Committee (DPC), and the people were requested to be guides and co-
held by NGO-A, and participated in a fiesta, a religious celebration in their ordinators between the community and NGO-A staff. After that, NGO-A
communities. staff advised them to organize their group so that it can serve as an actor
Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 22 PO members af- to receive support projects and to promote their effort. Thus, a lot of POs
fected by the Typhoon, 10 NGO workers, and 2 administrative officers. of marginalized populations were established in affected areas through
The time spent was between 30 min and two hours. To consider the POs' their recovery process and needs for implementing support projects.
roles after Typhoon Yolanda based on the cultural background of their com-
munities, the questions asked included about their lives; family relations
and livelihoods, on Typhoon Yolanda; their behavior after the Typhoon
and changes among them before and after the Typhoon, and on POs; stories
3
Because the NGO staff translated, it may have affected the responses such as the members
2
NGO-A, B, and C know well each other and collaborate as necessary, but it should be noted avoided talking about what was inconvenient for the NGOs. This limitation was tried to com-
that the size, skills, and financial capacity of the NGOs will affect the activities of the PO work- pensate by analyzing the responses together with those of other members who could directly
ing with them. speak in Tagalog.

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C. Tatebe, T. Miyamoto Progress in Disaster Science 11 (2021) 100184

Typhoon Yolanda because of the stress of men who lost their livelihoods
and motivation of lives due to the typhoon.” Moreover, for the most part,
women can seldom go out of their homes because they are always taking
care of their house and children. Women gain vitality and pleasure for
their lives and feel at ease with the members through the PO activities.
Second, Fig. 4 compares the educational background between the re-
spondents and the labor force population in the Philippines. It shows that
few members graduated from colleges while 29% of them have not finished
elementary schools. The members of POs including the leaders do not nec-
essarily receive higher education. It means that this movement is different
from civic action which is initiated by middle-class elites in cities. It is
rather a bottom-up movement conducted by local small fisherfolks and
farmers who are involved in problems to unite and manage it, which is nec-
essary for long-term recovery and improvement of their own lives.
Third, regarding livelihood and income level, more than half of the re-
Fig. 2. Gender of respondents (N=258, Response rate: 99.6%). spondents are fisherfolks, who live in coastal areas (Fig. 5). More farmers
are found in mountainous areas. On the question of their income level in re-
lation to their basic needs, on the Likert scale of one to 10, the mean was
scaled as 4.04 and the mode was 5. Many of the respondents seem to
think that they live on the edge or their income are not enough for their
daily needs (Fig. 6).

3.3. Challenges for PO members before and after Yolanda

3.3.1. Improvement of economic situation and livelihood

What problems do the PO members hope to overcome through activities
of PO after Typhoon Yolanda? Primarily, it is a livelihood. Fig. 7 shows why
the respondents entered the PO. Many of them answered that it is for the
“Benefit for household budget.” This answer includes the description; “Be-
cause it helps my family” and “PO helps our livelihood and daily needs”.
They have physically recovered from the damage of the typhoon to some
extent, but they still live hard lives. It appears that one of the main concerns
Fig. 3. Age of respondents (N=257, Response rate: 99.2%). of PO members is the livelihood. They hope to improve their lives and to
help their family through they join PO activities.
Many members of the targeted POs are small farmers and fisherfolks.
3.2. PO members There are many landless sugarcane workers especially in Medellin, who
earn low wages. Even before Typhoon Yolanda, they suffer from such
First, most of the questionnaire respondents were women, and people in more severe living condition as they seldom have snacks which are usual
their thirties or forties (Fig. 2, 3). It means that many members of the POs in the Philippine lifestyle. Fisherfolks get no income when they cannot
are women in their middle age. In fact, many women brought their children catch fishes or cannot go fishing due to high waves. Thus, their earning is
for the questionnaire and interview. One of the reasons why many women
join POs is that they want to support the household by gaining income.
They are expecting to gain livelihoods and diversify their source of income
through PO projects. Another reason is that POs give the women members
the place they can belong to. A staff of an NGO which supports women said,
“Some women suffer from violence physically or emotionally after

Fig. 4. Educational background between respondents and labor force population of

the Philippines (N=251, Response rate: 96.9%) (Made by Author referring to
“Labor Force by Age Group, Highest Grade Completed, and Region, Philippines: Fig. 5. Livelihood of respondents (N=249, Response rate: 96.1%) (Author’s
2012-2016”[26]). typification from the free descriptions).

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C. Tatebe, T. Miyamoto Progress in Disaster Science 11 (2021) 100184

3.3.2. Resistance against development

In Fig. 7, some respondents joined POs for the “Benefit for community.”
This answer is followed by the descriptions: “Because it is helpful for the
members and the community” and “For the unity of the community.” It re-
veals that people join the POs not only for the reason of their attachment to
their community but also with the problem they face in communities, con-
sidering another description, “Problem of land/development”, upon
explaining the reason for participating in the POs.
The issue of relocation and development has been serious especially for
the fisherfolks in the coastal area even before Typhoon Yolanda. A PO in
Barangay Gibitngil was founded before Yolanda, in 2010, which is the
only island barangay in Medellin and surrounded by the beautiful sea. In
this case, the PO was founded not because of the advice by NGOs after
the Typhoon. One of the reasons for them to launch the PO was the resis-
tance against tourism development initiated by the municipal government.
Local residents mentioned that a tourism spot named, “Fantastic Island”,
was a dock where originally used by local fishermen. The former adminis-
tration of Medellin pushed on the plan to construct a tourism spot there
Fig. 6. Income level to the livelihood need of respondents on Likert scale (N=250,
with the then Mayor's powerful initiative. Thus, the residents decided to es-
Response rate: 96.5%).
tablish a PO to unite in opposing the plan. In spite of their opposition, the
construction was carried out. But after the Mayor changed, the PO made
a better relationship with the new administration because his attitude to
the PO was not so negative. Currently, local children are swimming and
community members are working as a lifesaver or a custodian.
The government set “No Build Zone” in the coastal area after Yolanda
and encouraged residents to relocate to a new site built in an inland area
due to the fear of “Second Yolanda may come again.” However, it is difficult
for those who are making livings by fishing in the inland area. According to
a volunteer staff of NGO-C assisting small farmers and fisherfolks, the local
government has had the policy to promote tourism development using the
beach resources and forced coastal residents to move even before Yolanda.
In fact, a town has been developed as a tourist destination especially in
Santa Fe and there have been more foreign tourists and residents. The ca-
lamity of Yolanda and the need to mitigate against future disasters are, in
a way, excuse to push this policy. A member of PO in Barangay Okoy,
Santa Fe, said, “We moved here from the other coastal region following
the local government's order several years ago, but we were told to move
again because our place is still close to the sea. We do not want to move
to the relocation site because the house is too small and we cannot continue
fishing there.”
Thus, the problem of development and forced-relocation which small
Fig. 7. Respondents' reason to join POs (N=213, Response rate: 82.2%) (Author’s farmers and fisherfolks confront became more serious after Yolanda. In
typification from the free descriptions). some areas, small farmers and fisherfolks decided to organize POs and try
to strengthen their unity to resist against forced-relocation. This reveals
unstable and insufficient for supporting their family. It is important for that strengthening the unity makes members reconsider and resolve issues
them to have several sources of income in addition to the main income. surrounding them. Also, an organization is needed as an agent to negotiate
NGO-A offered sustainable livelihood programs for POs of small with governments or landowners and to consult with professional institu-
farmers, fisherfolks and other marginalized populations in the process of re- tions. Small farmers and fisherfolks can claim more strongly and widely
habilitation from the typhoon, such as livestock raising, community store through their own organizations, not through an individual, a family, or
establishment and management, organic farming, plant nursing, fish dry- present groups based on local or political relations.
ing, soap making, and others. NGO-A believed that they needed to support
member's livelihood because it was one of the fundamental problems for 4. Discussion
the members before the typhoon and its situation had become more severe
after the typhoon. After the NGO-As project implementing period finished, 4.1. What was the PO's role in recovery after Yolanda?
the beneficiaries tried to continue and to develop these livelihood activities
by themselves. In addition, some POs attempted to create new livelihood The experience of Typhoon Yolanda highlighted the problems which
strategies, applying for livelihood support programs offered by the small fisherfolks and farmers have had since before the Typhoon such as
regional government. A PO in Sitio Lunas, Barangay Kawit, for example, poverty and development. At the same time, this experience was an oppor-
operates a community store, locally called Sari-sari store, using the knowl- tunity to encounter various external supporters in their recovery process.
edge of financial management learned in the seminar given by NGO-A. What were the significant roles POs played? We discuss it, showing the lim-
POs in Sitio Comon and Sitio Sanggutan, Barangay Daanlungsod started itation of traditional community supporters; governments, NGOs, and
pig farming by the program of the Department of Labor and Employment families.
(DOLE). The members manage and share roles to take care of pigs. PO First, POs became new actors that receive assistance. Limited support by
members tried to improve their living conditions through the livelihood ac- the governments is complemented. Governments provided survivors with
tivities of POs. relief goods and financial assistance. However, some PO members and
NGO staff complained that there were people excluded from the assistance

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C. Tatebe, T. Miyamoto Progress in Disaster Science 11 (2021) 100184

depending on their political stand or voting in elections. Meanwhile, NGOs It suggests that facing problems is making the members raise consciousness
at the grassroots level supported such marginalized people. Targeted POs and move into action.
are groups where members gather against the same issue and pursue their On the other hand, a PO in Barangay Talisay, Santa Fe struggled for its
interests not depending on their political stand. The NGO staff said that management. The leader said, “I enjoy the activities of the PO but it is dif-
their supporting activities went well when they could cooperate with the ficult to involve other members in them. Other members are busy with their
POs. POs played a role of implementing the projects supported by NGOs other works and only I always attend meetings with other organizations.
in the reconstruction process as well as the emergency period. Moreover, The members are not willing to attend the activities positively because
some POs applied for assistant projects of the regional government and they think there is little thing to gain.” A PO in Barangay Patao, Bantayan
managed by themselves. was also not so much active at that time. A member said, “Some members
Second, POs encouraged “independence” among the members. Limit of lost their job and now they are busy with finding other livelihoods. They
supports by NGOs is supposed here besides that of governments. A staff of do not have enough time for the organization.” When the author first vis-
NGO-A said that they advised survivors to organize PO because it was nec- ited this community, community radio was in preparation, but it had not
essary for sustaining their community operation even after NGOs leave. yet started at the second visit. One of the reasons was that the NGO staff
That is why NGO-A staff do not think that they should assist survivors indi- who assisted the radio project did not visit their place for some time.
vidually. Actually, NGOs themselves are unstable. It would be difficult for These cases show the difficulty to keep POs active. Although improve-
the NGO-A staff to visit their communities when the project funded by ment of their livelihood is one of the purposes of the members' joining
the overseas organization finishes. “Independence” among the PO mem- POs, the members lose their time to take part in POs when their livelihood
bers is necessary in this way. However, it does not mean that the members itself is in a severe situation. In addition, the approach of NGOs influences
get to manage anything by themselves and do not need to ask others for the members' motivation and activities of POs.
help. From the standpoint of socially marginalized and economically
destabilized people, the concept of “dependence” should be rather focused
on and expanded in its meaning. “Independence” for them is to have plural 4.2. Possibility of open and inclusive PO for the “next society” after a disaster
channels to help and “depend” on each other. PO members conventionally
depend on their families, communities, or governments. They could also Despite the difficulties for the POs, how can we find possibilities for
depend on NGOs after Yolanda. However, it is not enough, considering their efforts? The fundamental problems of the community should be
these supporters' limits as mentioned above. Karatani [27] demonstrates solved in recovery from a disaster, and we should aim to acquire new qual-
that reciprocity within kinship or traditional community is fraught with ities for envisioning the “next society” after the disaster. For the “next soci-
constricting relationship, while plunder and redistribution assumed by ety,” Karatani [27] argues that it is necessary to break out of the closely
state or government make dominant relationship. POs are expected to com- connected structure of “capital-nation-state”4 that dominates modern soci-
plement these limits because POs are, on one hand, community-based but, ety, and he finds out the potential in associations in that challenge. The
on the other hand, members join on their free will, and are free from polit- characteristic of the association is that it is free and unbounded both from
ical dominance relationship. POs are the members' new channel to mutu- the state and from the community, and at the same time it returns mutually
ally support or to depend on, and such channel encourages “independent” supportive relationships at a high plane. POs have to inevitably confront
among the members. It will also be the key to dissolving the excessive de- state and capital in the process of fundamentally solving the problems of
pendency between POs and support agencies like NGOs due to uneven poverty and development that they are facing in their recovery. PO mem-
power relations. Being aware of this relationship, the NGOs made efforts bers are not bound by traditional ties of kinship and politics, but rather
of empowerment with POs through some seminars in the sustainable liveli- by their own free will and united by common interests. At the same time,
hood projects. members do not emphasize only the functional aspect of POs, but they
Third, POs provided diverse solutions for the members' problems. It re- are united by a personal response. Therefore, PO can be seen as a kind of
veals there are limitations to family support, which POs could supplement. association for the “next society”. This is different both from the mutual
A member of a PO in Barangay Patao, Bantayan said, “When we had prob- support based on kinship or neighborhood relationships and from support
lems in past days, we just had to solve them among our families. However, agencies like NGOs which aim to solve problems, which previous re-
now we can help each other among the PO members. Our PO exists for our searches on community-based disaster recovery focus on.
children's future.” A member of a PO in Sitio Comon, Barangay Finally, so that POs' possibilities as an association are examined practi-
Daanlungsod, Medellin said, “In the PO, it is easier and quicker to share cally, let us discuss from the viewpoint of openness and closeness character-
our problems and troubles, and to look for the solutions for them among istic of POs. Clarke [11] categorized registered CSOs in the Philippines and
the members.” The members indeed have very close family relationships. that in the US, the UK, and Canada, into mutual benefit organizations and
However, what they can do among their families toward the issues of pov- public benefit organizations. He pointed out that mutual benefit organiza-
erty, development, or land ownership is still limited. They can diversify tions are the majority in the former, while public benefit organizations
concrete choices toward such issues through the POs. are the majority in the latter. He suggested that the former falls into bonding
Fourth, POs give vitality to the members. This is the POs' own role, not social capital and the latter is bridging, referring to Patnum's distinction
as the roles above, which are compared with limits of supports provided by [28]. In other words, he emphasized that the Philippines' POs are closed
other actors; governments, NGOs, and families. A member of the PO in Sitio and exclusive, considering the interest among their members.
Comon, Barangay Daanlungsod, Medellin said, “We just enjoy meeting and Should we presume, however, the POs in the above cases to be really
talking with the members even if there is no specific agenda or issues.” An- closed and exclusive? It is true that their purpose of assembling POs is
other member of the PO in Sitio Lunas, Barangay Kawit, Medellin said,
“I am happy in the PO's activities because there is no one to talk with in 4
Karatani [27] reconsiders the history of social formations from the perspective of “modes
our home alone but I can spend time with guests and neighbors during of exchange” and classified them as reciprocity/gift exchange, redistribution/plunder, com-
modity exchange, and X. In addition, he made institutional forms correspond to each mode
my work at our community store.” POs are important agents for solving
of exchange; nation, state, capital. Reciprocity is the principle of a mutually supportive com-
the problems of their members, but at the same time, they are enriching munity, but it makes closed relationships bounded by the obligation of gift. While redistribu-
the lives of their members. tion/plunder guarantees life and security through public policy and welfare by the state,
Of course, not all the POs work well. Some of them are actively running, they result in conflicts over power and hegemony. Commodity exchange has no status domina-
and others are suffering. For example, in a PO in Sitio Manbacayao Dako, tion relationship since it is based on the free agreement of individuals, but it makes a class dif-
ference between capitalists and laborers. Karatani argues that the capitalist economy brings
Barangay Lipayran, Bantayan, which was established before Typhoon economic disparity and class conflict, but the nation and the state can only work out solutions
Yolanda to protest displacement, many of its members were active and cur- to protect their own power, based on the preservation of the capital system, which is the closely
rently attending demonstrations and rallies to argue the policy for the poor. connected structure of “capital-nation-state”.

6
C. Tatebe, T. Miyamoto Progress in Disaster Science 11 (2021) 100184

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The authors are grateful to the members of the POs and the residents in
[29] Asian Development Bank. CSO/NGO Module in the PhilGEPS; 2012.
the Municipality of Medellin and Bantayan Island, and the staffs of local
NGOs, and other organizations involved in the field for helping and
cooperating in our fieldwork.