SZL 121: FANDAMENTALS OF ECOLOGY

Lecture 4: Evolution and

Biodiversity: Origins,
Niches, and Adaptation
Prof. Dr William A. Shivoga (Professor of Aquatic Ecology)
Masinde Muliro University of Science and Technology
Department of Biological Sciences
E-mail: [email protected] or [email protected]
Tel. 0721 264334
 Core Case Study: Why Are
Amphibians Vanishing? (1)
• Habitat loss and fragmentation
• Prolonged drought
• Increased ultraviolet radiation
• Parasites
• Viral and fungal disease
 Core Case Study: Why Are
Amphibians Vanishing? (2)
• Pollution
• Climate change
• Overhunting
• Nonnative predators and competitors
• 33% of all amphibian species face
extinction
 What is Biodiversity and Why
is it Important?
• The term biodiversity (from “biological
diversity”) refers to the variety of life on Earth
at all its levels, from genes to ecosystems, and
can encompass the evolutionary, ecological,
and cultural processes that sustain life
• The biodiversity found in genes, species,
ecosystems, and ecosystem processes is vital
to sustaining life on earth.
 Biodiversity (1)
• Species diversity
• Species – a set of individuals that can mate
and produce fertile offspring
• 8-100 million species total; likely 10-14
million
• 2 million species identified
• ~50% in endangered tropical rain forests e.g.
Kakamega Tropical Rain Forest
 Biodiversity (2)
• Genetic diversity
• Ecosystem diversity
– Biomes
• Distinct climate
• Certain species, especially vegetation
• Functional diversity
Functional Diversity Ecological Diversity
The biological and chemical processes such as energy The variety of terrestrial and
flow and matter recycling needed for the survival of aquatic ecosystems found in
species, communities and ecosystems. an area or on the earth.

Genetic Diversity Species Diversity

The variety of genetic material The number and abundance of species
within a species or a population. present in different communities
Genetic Diversity of Molluscs
Ecological Diversity
The variety of terrestrial and aquatic
ecosystems found on the earth. Average annual precipitation
100-125 cm (40-50 in.)
75-100 cm (30-40 in.)
50-75 cm (20-30 in.)
25-50 cm (10-20 in.)
below-25 cm (0-10 in.)

Denver Baltimore

San Francisco

St. Louis
Las Vegas

Coastal Sierra Great Rocky Great Mississippi Appalachian

mountain Nevada American Mountains Plains River Valley Mountains
ranges Desert

Coastal chaparral Coniferous Desert Coniferous Prairie Deciduous

and scrub forest forest grassland forest

Fig. 4-4, p. 63
 Science Focus: Insects
• Around for ~400 million years
• Bad reputations and hated!
• Useful to humans and ecosystems
• Vital roles in sustaining life:
– Pollinators
– Natural pest control
– Renewing soils
 How Does the Earth’s Life
Change over Time?
• The scientific theory of evolution explains how
life on earth changes over time through
changes in the genes of populations.

• Populations evolve when genes mutate and

give some individuals genetic traits that
enhance their abilities to survive and to
produce offspring with these traits (natural
selection).
 Theory of Evolution
• Fossils
– Mineralized and petrified remains
– Skeletons, bones, and shells
– Leaves and seeds
– Impressions in rocks
– Fossil record incomplete: ~1% of all species
• Charles Darwin, On the Origin of Species,
1859
 Population Changes over Time
• Populations evolve by becoming
genetically different over time
• Genetic variability – mutations: This
produces variants e.g. SARS-CoV-2
Coronavirus variants in US, UK, SA etc.
– Random changes in DNA molecules in genes
– Can occur spontaneously
– External agents: radiation
– Can create a heritable trait
 Natural Selection
• Adaptive traits - genetically favorable traits that
increase the probability to survive and reproduce
• Trait – heritable and lead to differential
reproduction
• Faced with environmental changes
– Adapt through evolution
– Migrate
– Become extinct
 Evolution through Natural
Selection Summarized
• Genes mutate, individuals are selected & populations
evolve such that they are better adapted to survive
and reproduce under existing environmental
conditions.
• "Survival of the fittest“ - a phrase that originated
from Darwin Evolution theory as a way of describing
the mechanism of Natural Selection.
• The biological concept of fitness is defined as
reproductive success. In Darwinian terms it is best
understood as "Survival of the form that will leave the
most copies of itself in successive generations."
 How antibiotic resistant bacteria evolve

A group of bacteria, Eventually the

including genetically resistant strain
resistant ones, are The genetically replaces the strain
exposed to an Most of the normal resistant bacteria affected by
antibiotic bacteria die start multiplying the antibiotic

Normal Resistant
bacterium bacterium
Differential Reproductive Success
Imagine a population of beetles:
There is variation in traits.
For example, some beetles are green and some are brown.

There is differential reproduction.

Since the environment can't support unlimited population growth, not all individuals
get to reproduce to their full potential. In this example, green beetles tend to get
eaten by birds and survive to reproduce less often than brown beetles do.

There is heredity.
The surviving brown beetles have brown baby beetles because this trait has a genetic
basis.

End result:
The more advantageous trait, brown coloration, which allows the beetle to have more
offspring, becomes more common in the population. If this process continues,
eventually, all individuals in the population will be brown.
 Adaptation through Natural
Selection Has Limits
• Humans unlikely to evolve and have skin
that’s not harmed by UV radiation

1. Desired trait must already be in the gene

pool.
2. Must have high reproductive capacity so
adaptive traits can be spread rapidly.
 Three Myths about Evolution
through Natural Selection Refuted
1. “Survival of the fittest” does not mean
“survival of the strongest”
2. Organisms do not develop traits just because
they would be useful e.g. giraffes and long
necks
3. There is no grand plan of nature to create
more perfectly adapted species – no trend
toward genetic perfection
 Science Focus: How Did Humans
Become Such a Powerful Species?
• Key adaptations – enabled us to modify
environment
– Opposable thumbs
– Walk upright
– Complex brains
• Transmit ideas to others
• Develop technologies to alter environment
Technology dominates earth’s life support
systems and Net Primary Production
 How Do Geological Processes and
Climate Changes Affect Evolution?
• Tectonic plate movements, volcanic eruptions,
earthquakes, and climate change have shifted
wildlife habitats, wiped out large numbers of
species, and created opportunities for the
evolution of new species.
 Plate Tectonics
• Locations of continents and oceans determine
earth’s climate
• Movement of continents allow species to
move and adapt
• Earthquakes and volcanoes affect biological
evolution by separating populations of a
species and allowing new species to develop
225 million years ago 135 million years ago

65 million years ago Present

Earth’s Long-Term Climate Changes
• Cooling and warming periods:
– affect evolution and extinction of species
– Change ocean levels and area
– Glaciers expanding and contracting
– Climate changes
• Opportunities for the evolution of new
species
• Many species become extinct
18,000 Northern Hemisphere Modern day
years before Ice coverage (August)
present

Legend
Continental ice
Sea ice
Land above sea level
 Science Focus: Earth is Just
Right for Life to Thrive
Why are the following assertion's crucial to life on
Earth?
• Life needs a temperature range that ensures
that we have liquid water
• Earth’s orbit: right distance from sun
• Earth’s optimal gravity: keeps atmosphere
• Favorable temperature range over earth
history has promoted evolution and
biodiversity
• Favourable oxygen level in atmosphere
 How Do Speciation, Extinction, and
Human Activities Affect Biodiversity?
• Human activities decrease the earth’s
biodiversity by:
1) Causing the premature extinction of
species and,
2) Destroying or degrading habitats needed
for the development of new species.
 Speciation
• Speciation
– One species splits into two or more species
that can no longer breed and produce fertile
offspring
• Geographic isolation
• Reproductive isolation
 Adapted to cold
through heavier
Arctic Fox fur, short ears,
short legs, and
short nose.
White fur
Northern matches snow
population for camouflage.
Spreads Different environmental
Early fox northward
and southward conditions lead to different
population
and separates selective pressures and evolution
into two different species.
Gray Fox Adapted to
heat through
Southern lightweight
population fur and long
ears, legs, and
nose, which
give off more
heat.
 Science Focus: Changing
Genetic Traits
• Artificial selection
– Selective breeding: crossbreeding varieties within
same species to enhance desired traits
– Grains, fruits, vegetables, dogs, other animals
• Genetic engineering
– Add, delete, or alter DNA segments
– Add desirable genes from other species
– New drugs, pest-resistant plants
– Controversial e.g. Acceptance of GMO food.
 Extinction (1)
• Biological extinction - entire species gone
• Local extinction - all members of a species
in a specific area gone
• Endemic species vulnerable to extinction
• Background extinction
• Speciation is generally more rapid than
extinction
 Extinction (2)
• Mass extinction
– Earth took millions of years to recover
from previous mass extinctions
• Balance between speciation and
extinction determines biodiversity of
earth
• Humans cause premature extinction
of species
Human Activities and Extinction
• Cause premature extinction of species
• This is a very big threat to biodiversity
 What is Species Diversity and
Why is it Important?
• Species diversity is a major component
of biodiversity
• Species diversity tends to increase the
sustainability of some ecosystems.
• The higher the species diversity of an
ecosystem, the more stable the
ecosystem is.
 Species Diversity
• Species richness
• Species evenness
• Varies with geographic location
• Species richness declines towards
poles
 Richness and Sustainability
• Hypothesis
– Does a community with high species
diversity/richness have greater sustainability
and productivity?
• Research suggests “yes”
 What Roles Do Species Play
in an Ecosystem?
• Each species plays a specific ecological role in
an ecosystem called its niche.
• Ecological niche is a term for the position of a
species within an ecosystem, describing both
the range of conditions necessary for
persistence of the species, and its ecological
role in the ecosystem.
• Niche - address and role of a species in an
ecosystem
 Ecological Niche (1)
• Species occupy unique niches and play specific
roles in an ecosystem
• Includes everything required for survival and
reproduction:
– Water
– Sunlight
– Space
– Temperatures
– Food requirements
 Ecological Niche (2)
• Generalist species
• Specialist species
• Native species
• Nonnative species
– Spread in new, suitable niches
 Ruddy
turnstone
Herring gull searches
is a tireless under shells
scavenger and pebbles
for small
Brown pelican Avocet sweeps bill
invertebrates
dives for fish, through mud and
which it locates surface water in Dowitcher probes
Black skimmer from the air search of small
seizes small fish deeply into mud in
crustaceans, insects, search of snails,
at water surface
and seeds marine worms, and
small crustaceans

Flamingo feeds on Louisiana heron Oystercatcher feeds on Piping plover

minute organisms wades into water clams, mussels, and other feeds on insects
in mud to seize small fish shellfish into which it and tiny
pries its narrow beak crustaceans on
Scaup and other diving Knot (sandpiper) sandy beaches
ducks feed on mollusks, picks up worms
crustaceans, and aquatic and small crustaceans
vegetation left by receding tide

Fig. 4-10, p. 72
 Science Focus: Why are
Cockroaches very successful?
• Existed for 350 million years - 3,500 known species
(Compare: Human beings – only one species!)
• Highly adapted, rapidly producing generalists
– Consume almost anything
– Endure food shortage
– Survive everywhere except polar regions
– Avoid predation
• Carry human diseases
 Indicator Species
• A species whose status
provides information on the overall condition
of the ecosystem and of other species in
that ecosystem. (They reflect the quality and
changes in environmental conditions as well as
aspects of community composition).
• Early warning system e.g. Macroinvertebrates,
fish, birds, butterflies, amphibians
 Adult frog
(3 years) Young frog

Tadpole
Sperm develops
into frog

Sexual
reproduction
Tadpole

Eggs Fertilized egg Egg hatches

development
Organ formation
 Keystone Species
• A keystone species is an organism that helps define an
entire ecosystem. Without its keystone species, the
ecosystem would be dramatically different or cease to
exist altogether.
• Significant role in their food web: large affect on types
and abundances of other species in an ecosystem
• Elimination may alter structure and/or function of
ecosystem e.g. pollinators (bees), top predators. (sharks).
• Top predator - a predator at the top of a food chain,
without natural predators.
Position of Top Predators
 Foundation Species
• A foundation species/'Ecosystem
Engineers' - any species that has a large
contribution towards creating and
maintaining habitats that support other
species.
• Create habitats and ecosystems
• e.g. Beavers, Elephants, Seed dispersers
 Science Focus: American
Alligator – Why successful?
• Highly adaptable
• Only natural predator is humans
• 1967 – endangered species list
• Successful environmental comeback
• Keystone species
 Case Study: Why Should We
Protect Sharks?
• Remove injured, sick animals
• Many are gentle giants
• Provide potential insight into cures for
human diseases such as cancer
• Keystone species
• Hunted and killed by humans for food
Three Big Ideas from This Lecture #1

• Populations evolve when genes mutate

and give some individuals genetic traits
that enhance their abilities to survive
and to produce offspring with these
traits (natural selection).
Three Big Ideas from This Lecture #2

• Human activities are decreasing the

earth’s vital biodiversity by:
(1) causing the premature extinction of
species and
(2) disrupting habitats needed for the
development of new species.
 Three Big Ideas from This
Lecture #4
• Each species plays a specific
ecological role in the ecosystem
where it is found (ecological
niche).
Asanteni Sana!