SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS

Most flowering plants reproduce sexually i.e., through seed formation. We

know sexual reproduction is incomplete without fertilization. The male and
female gametes must meet for fertilization and further development.
Reproduction is the life process which helps an organism procreate its own
offspring. There are a lot of events involved in this. In plants, pollination is
one among them.

Parts of a Flower

Most flowers have four main parts: sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels. The
stamens are the male part whereas the carpels are the female part of the flower.
Most flowers are hermaphrodite where they contain both male and female parts.
Others may contain one of the two parts and may be male or female.

• Pedicel: This is the stalk of the flower.

• Receptacle: It is that part of the flower to which the stalk is attached

to. It is small and found at the centre of the base of the flower.

• Sepals: These are the small, leaf-like parts growing at the base of the
petals. They form the outermost whorl of the flower. Collectively,
sepals are known as the calyx. The main function of the calyx and its
sepals is to protect the flower before it blossoms (in the bud stage).

• Petals: This layer lies just above the sepal layer. They are often
bright in colour as their main function is to attract pollinators such
as insects, butterflies etc. to the flower. The petals are collectively
known as the corolla.
• Stamens: These are the male parts of a flower. Many stamens are
collectively known as the androecium. They are structurally divided
into two parts:
 - Filament: the part that is long and slender and attached the anther to
the flower.

- Anthers: It is the head of the stamen and is responsible for producing

the pollen which is transferred to the pistil or female parts of the
same or another flower to bring about fertilization.

- Pistil: This forms the female parts of a flower. A collection of pistils is

called the gynoecium.

Pistil consists of four parts

a) Style -is a long slender stalk that holds the stigma. Once the pollen
reaches the stigma. The style starts to become narrow and forms a tube called
the pollen tube which takes the pollen to the ovaries to enable fertilization

b) Stigma– This is found at the tip of the style. It forms the head of the pistil. The
stigma contains a sticky substance whose job is to catch pollen grains from
different pollinators or those dispersed through the wind. They are responsible to
begin the process of fertilization.

c) Ovary – They form the base of the pistil. The ovary holds the ovules.

d) Ovules– These are the egg cells of a flower. They are contained in the ovary. In
the event of a favourable pollination where a compatible pollen reaches the
stigma and eventually reaches the ovary to fuse with the ovules, this fertilized
product forms the fruit and the ovules become the seeds of the fruit.
Reproductive Structure of a Flower

MALE REPRODUCTIVE STRUCTURE

Androecium
It is the male reproductive part of a flower, comprising stamens and it is the
third whorl. Each stamen comprises two parts, namely, anther and filament. The
tip of the anther is supported by the filament. Here pollens are produced by
meiosis and disappear eventually.

 Anther: This is a four-lobed sac-like structure responsible for pollen

formation.
 Filaments: These thread-like structures are attached to the anther, and they
keep the anther in place.

The transverse section of an anther is microsporangia that further forms a

pollen sac. The pollen sac contains pollen grains

Microsporangia and Microsporogenesis

Microsporogenesis involves the formation of microspores from microspore
mother cells by meiotic division.

The structure of anther: The anther is the breeding part of stamens. Each anther
is connected by two lobes. Each anther lobe comprises two pollen chambers
located longitudinally. The microsporangium is sufficiently supplied with a
number of pollen microspores.

Structure of Microsporangia
Microsporangia consist of:

1. Tapetum: The cells are multinucleate and this layer is one of the innermost
layers of the wall.
2. Middle layer: It is composed of three to four layers of thin-walled cells. They
are located just beneath the endothelium.
3. Endothecium: This layer is inner to the epidermis. Some cell develops cells of
the endothelium.
4. Epidermis: It is a protective outermost single-layer. Cells of the epidermis in
Arceuthobium develop a fibrous thickening and the epidermis is designated
as exothecium.

 Formation of Pollen grains: The young anther soon becomes four-lobed as it

comprises a homogenous mass of parenchymatous cells engirdled by the
epidermis. Each archesporial initially present in hypodermal cells divides
into the inner primary sporogenous cell and outer primary parietal cell.
Each primary sporogenous cell splits to produce microsporocytes. Each
microspore mother cell meiotically divides to form pollen grains.
 Microgametogenesis (Development of Male Gametophyte): Microspore is
partially developed at this stage and it is the first cell of the male
gametophyte. The wall of the pollen grain comprises exine (outer layer) and
inline (inner layer). The outer layer comprises sporopollenin and the inner
layer is made up of pectose and cellulose.
 Pre-pollination development: The microspores begin to germinate in situ. A
smaller generative cell lies next to the spore wall. A callose layer is placed
around the generative cell. Then, the callose layer dissolves. The anther
then sheds the pollen grains. The released pollen grains are passed to the
stigma through pollination. The pollen grain present on the stigma absorbs
water and within some minutes, swells up. The wall of pollen tube secretes
hydrolytic enzymes and exogenous pectinases creating a passage to enter.
The generative and vegetative cells are supplied by the pollen tube. The
generative cell splits forming two non-motile male gametes. Tube nucleus
may disintegrate as there is no important function.
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Gynoecium
It is the female reproductive organ and the last whorl of the flower. It is
composed of pistil and occupies the central position of the thalamus. The stigma,
style, and ovary are the components of the pistil. The ovary produces ovules
internally. Through meiosis, ovules produce megaspores which in turn develops
into female gametophytes. As a result, egg cells are produced.

Gynoecium can be:

Monocarpellary: The gynoecium consists of a single pistil. For eg., peas and
beans.

Multicarpellary: Here, gynoecium comprises more than one pistil.

Syncarpous: It is the gynoecium with combined pistil. For eg., Tomato, cucumber.

Apocarpous: It is the gynoecium with free pistil. For eg., Lotus Vinca.

Pistil- Each pistil has three parts:

 Ovary: The ovary is a chamber where ovules (eggs) are stored, waiting for
fertilization.
 Stigma: It is attached to the top of the carpel, where the pollen from other
flowers lands.
 Style: It is a tubular structure that connects the ovary and the stigma. It is
responsible for the transportation of pollen from the stigma to the ovary
and holding the stigma in place.

Megasporangia and Megasporogenesis

The ovule is connected to the placenta with a stalk called funicle. It yields
megasporocytes that form megaspores. Megasporogenesis is the process of
arrangement of megaspores of the megaspore mother cell. The megaspore
mother cell divides meiotically. One of the three megaspores is utilized while the
others degenerate. The functional megaspore forms the female gametophyte.

WHAT IS POLLINATION?
Pollination is defined as the pre-fertilization event or process, where pollen
grains from anther are transferred to the stigma of a flower.

There are two types of pollination:

• Self-Pollination.
• Cross-Pollination.
 SELF POLLINATION
Self-pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of the
same flower

It is a type of self-pollination where the transfer of pollen grains from the

anther to the stigma takes place within the same flower. Coordinated
opening, maturation and exposure of the anther and stigma are necessary
for autogamy. There are two conditions for autogamy to take place:

Anther – stigma synchronization; when the pollen is released, stigma should

be ready to receive it.
• The position of or distance between anther and stigma. Both should be
close enough for pollination.

• Geitonogamy is the type of self-pollination where the transfer of

• pollen grains from the anther to the stigma takes place between different
flowers in the same plant. Though it seems like cross-pollination and takes
place with the help of pollinators, both the gametes have the same plant
as their origin.

CROSS POLLINATION

Xenogamy

Xenogamy is the cross-pollination where the pollen grain transfer

occurs across flowers of two different plants. In other words, the transfer
of pollen from the anther of one plant to the stigma of another plant.
Each type of pollination has its own merits. Xenogamy leads to a new
variety, whereas autogamy helps to preserve parental characters. Plants
have various adaptations to accomplish this task. In addition, flowers
depend on certain pollinating agents Pollinating Agents

Plants utilise both biotic and abiotic agents for pollination.

Biotic agents – Animals, insects, butterflies, etc.

Abiotic agents – Wind, Water

Fertilization
After pollination, the pollens are transferred to the ovary through the pollen
tube. After reaching the ovary, one of the male gametes mates with the ovule, or
the female gamete (fertilization) and the other joins with the polar nuclei. The
gamete uniting with the eggs results in the production of a zygote, that
gradually develops to be an embryo. The second gamete that unites with the
polar nuclei results in the formation of endosperm nucleus. It supplies
nourishment to the embryo. The fertilization ultimately turns ovules into seeds
while the ovary develops into the fruit.

The seeds and fruits are the results of fertilization or sexual reproduction in
plants. The ovary in angiosperms develops into the fruit whereas the ovules
become the seeds enclosed within the fruit. Seeds are found both in
gymnosperms and angiosperms.

One of the many healthy things available in the world today is fruits. They are
mostly sweet to taste, are filled with nutrients and some of them are like
tomatoes are also eaten as vegetables. The fruit is broadly divided into the
pericarp which is the various covering layers of the fruit and the seed or seeds
which are present inside it. The pericarp of a fruit can be further divided into:

 Ectocarp– It is the outermost layer which is formed from the outer layer or the
epidermis

 Mesocarp– Is the second or the middle layer which is often juicy and varies in
thickness in different fruits

 Endocarp– It is the innermost layer and also is different in different kinds of

fruits
Development of a Fruit
As mentioned earlier, once pollination and fertilization occur, the zygote is formed
and the ovary begins to differentiate into the fruit. The outer wall of the ovary

begins to differentiate into the pericarp whereas the seed develops within the fruit
itself.

Types of Fruits

Fruits can be classified in many ways.

 True and False Fruits

 Simple, Aggregate, and Multiple Fruits

 Simple fruits are further classified as fleshy and dry fruits depending on their

appearance

True and False Fruits

 True Fruits- True fruits are those that are formed solely from the ovary with
ovules inside it. No other flower parts form a part of this type of fruit.

 False Fruits-False fruits are formed from the ripened ovary along with some
other flower parts like the base or receptacle, the perianth etc.
Simple, Aggregate, Multiple and Accessory Fruits
Simple Fruits
These fruits are formed from a single pistil only. They are further divided into
Fleshy and Dry fruits based on the nature of their pericarp and its layers.
Seeds
Once fertilization occurs, the mature ovule begins to differentiate into a seed. A
seed contains many parts, namely:

 Seed Coat– is formed from the integuments of the ovule. The seed coat contains
a hilum which is a scar that represents the spot where the ovule was attached
to the ovarian wall. The seed coat is present all over the seed except for a small
pore called as the micropyle which the where the new plant will germinate on
finding a favorable environment.

 The cotyledons-Monocots contain a single cotyledon whereas the dicots

contain two cotyledons.The two cotyledons act as appendages and help
in absorption of food from the endosperm.

 Endosperm– It is a triploid tissue that is formed by the fusion of one of the

male nuclei(haploid) and the vegetative nuclei(diploid). The endosperm
functions to provide nutrition to the developing embryo.Learn more about the
endosperm development here.

 Seeds can be classified as endospermic and non-endospermic seeds. Those

seeds that utilize the endosperm during the embryo development completely
are called as non-endospermic seeds. Those seeds which do not completely
utilize the endosperm during the growth of the embryo, are called as
endospermic seeds.

 Embryo– is made up of a central axis that contains two ends- the root apex
and the radicle, and the shoot apex and the hypocotyl. The radicle gives rise to
the primitive root whereas the hypocotyl gives rise to the primitive shoot.
Functions of a Flower

 The main primary function of the flower is the reproduction of the

individual and the species.
 They are the modifications of a shoot. Angiosperms of flowers are shaped
differently, helping diverse modes of pollination.
 Flowering plants are heterosporous. They mainly produce two types of
spores. Megaspores are produced inside ovules and Microspores are
produced by meiosis inside anthers.
 Flowers provide development of the pollen tube, base germination of pollen,
the formation of gametes and fertilization. The ovarian portion of the
carpel is supplied into the fruit. The ovules are converted into seeds after
fertilization. The gametophytes also develop inside the spores in case of
heterosporous plants.
 The flowers that lack one or the other reproductive organ are called
unisexual or imperfect. In ovaries, the different modification helps in the
dispersal of seeds and fruits in some floral parts like a calyx.