Chapter

Measurement and
5 Scaling

when we use some yardstick to

determine weight. height,
In our daily life as we are said to measure
we judge how well
we like a
or some other features of a physical object. We also measure when well as
m e a s u r e physical objects
as

Song, a the personalities of our friends. We, thus,

painting or
so when it
and demanding task, specially
abstract concepts. Measurement is a relatively complex characteristics are taste.
Other examples of qualitative
concerns qualitative or abstract phenomena.
characteristics are also
customer's and brand loyalty etc. These
perception
honesty, intelligence, of customers and employees are very important
called as constructs. The feelings and perceptions
for a company.
of some objects, but it is relatively difficult in
It is easy to assign numbers in respect ofproperties or marital
respect of others. For instance,
measuring such things as social conformity, intelligence,
and requires much closer atention than measuring physical weight,
adjustment is much less obvious can
financial assets. In other words, properties like weight, height, etc.
biological age or a person's
of measurement, but it is not that easy to measure
be measured directlywith some standard unit
to stand stress and the like. For the meaningful assessment
properties like motivation to succeed, ability also measured.
of the qualitative characteristics
it is essential that they are

QUALITATIVE DATA
5.1 QUANTITATIVE AND

defined as aprocess of associating numbers symbols to observations obtained in

or
Measurement is
observations could be qualitative quantitative.
or
a research study. These
can be conducted using quantitative
data. For example, mean, standard
Most of the analysis
characteristics. Qualitative characteristics can be
deviation, etc.be computed for quantitative
can
the
Therefore, the researcher must have a clear understanding of
counted and cannot be computed.
the data. The observations on qualitative variables
or variable before collecting
type of characteristic marital status as 1, 2, 3 or 4
numbers. For example, we can record person's
a
may also be assigned widowed or divorced. We can as well record
depending on whether the person is single, married, this
and "i" (or as I and 2 or perhaps as 59 and 60). In
No" answers to a question as U
"Yes or
can be made into numerical data
categorical data (qualitative descriptive)
or
artificial or nominal way,
rerer to the numbers we record as nominal data.
code the various categories, we
and if we thus
:
SE
8 Research Methodology

system of assigning
number symbols to events
(a) Nominal scale: Nominal scale is simply a of basketball
1n them. The usual example of this
order to label is the assignment of numbers
Players in order to identify them. Such numbers cannot
be considered to be associated with
an ordered scale for their order is of no consequence; the
numbers are just convenient
value. Nominal
labels for theparticular class of events and as such have no quantitative
Scales provide convenient ways of keeping track of people, objects
and events. One cannot
numbers
do much with the numbers involved. For example, one cannot usefully average the
value. Neither
on the back of a group of football players and come up with a meaningful
can one usefully compare the numbers assigned to one group with the numbers assigned to
another. The counting of members in each group is the only possible arithmetic operation
when a nominal scale is employed. Accordingly, we are restricted to use mode as the
measure of central tendency. There is no generally used measure of dispersion for nominal
Scales. Chi-square test is the most common test of statistical significance that can be
utilized, and for the measures of correlation, the contingency coefficient can be worked

out.
Nominal scale is the leastpowerful level of measurement. It indicates no order or distance
relationship and has no arithmetic origin. A nominal scale simply describes differences
between things by assigning them to categories. Nominal data is, thus, counted data. The
scale wastes any information that we may have about varying degrees of attitude, skils,
understandings, etc. In spite of all this, nominal scales are still very useful and are widely
used in surveys and other ex-post-facto research when data is being classified by major
sub-groups of the population.
(b) Ordinal scale: The lowest level of the ordered scale that is commonly used is the ordinal
scale. The ordinalscale places events in order, but there is no attempt to make the intervals
-
of the scale equalin terms of some rule. Rank orders represent ordinal scales and are
frequently used in research relating to qualitative phenomena. A student's rank in his
graduation class involves the use of an ordinal scale. One has to be very careful in making
statement about scores based on ordinal scales. For instance, if Ram's position in his class
is 10 and Mohan's position is40, it cannot be said that Ram's position is four times as good
asthat of Mohan. The statement would make no sense at all. Ordinal scales only permit the
ranking of items from highest to lowest. Ordinal measures have no absolute values, and the
real differences between adjacent ranks may not be equal. AIl that can be said is that ong
person is higher or lower on the scale than another, but more precise comparisons cannot
be made.
Thus, the use of an ordinal scale implies a statement of 'greater than' or less than' (an
equality.statement isalso acceptable) without our being able to state höw much greater or
less. The real difference between-ranks I and 2 may be more or less than the difference
between ranks 5 and 6. Since the numbers of this scale have only a rank meaning, the
appropriate measure of central tendency is the median. A percentile or quartile measure is
used for measuring dispersion. Correlations are restricted to various rank order methods.
Measures of statistical significance are restricted to the non-parametric methods.
(c) Interval scale: In the case of interval scale, the intervals are adjusted in terms of some
rule that have been established as a basis for making the units equal. The units are equal
only in so far as one accepts the assumptions on which the rule is based. Interval scales
Measurement and Scaling
what be called
can have arbitrary zero, but it is not possible to determine for them
an may
an absolute zero or the unique origin. The primary limitation
of the interval scale is the lack
a trait
it does not have the capacity to measure the complete absence of
or
of a true zero;
Similarities
characteristic. The Fahrenheit scale is an example of an interval scale and shows
from
in what one can and cannot do with it. One can say that an increase in temperature
to 70°, but
30° to 40° involves the same increase in temperature as an increase from 60°
as the temperature of 300
one cannot say that the temperature of 60° is twice as warm
because both numbers are dependent on the fact that the zero on the scale is set arbitrarily
at the temperature of the freezing point of water. The ratio of the two temperatures, 300
and 60°, means nothing because zero is an arbitrary point.
Interval scales provide more powerful measurement than ordinal scales for interval scale
As such powerful statistical
also incorporates the concept of equality of interval. more
of central
measures can be used with interval scales. Mean is the appropriate measure

Product
tendency, while standard deviation is the most widely used measure of dispersion.
moment correlation techniques are appropriate and the generally used tests for statistical

significance are the 't test and "F test..

term 'absolute
(d) Ratio scale: Ratio scales have an absolute or true zero of measurement. The
conceive of an absolute zero
zero is not as precise as it was once believed to be. We can
of length and similarly we can conceive of an absolute zero of time. For example, the z
centimeter scale indicates the absence of length or height. But an
point on a complete
absolute zero of temperature is theoretically unobtainable and it remains a concept existing
only in the scientist's mind. The number of minor traffic-rule violations and the number of
incorrect letters in a page of type script represent scores on ratio scales. Both these scales
have absolute zeros and as such all minor traffic violations and all typing errors can be
assumed to be equal in significance. With ratio Scales involved one can make statements
like "Jyoti's" typing performance was twice as good as that of "Reetu." The ratio involved
does have significance and facilitates a kind of comparison which is not possible in case of
an interval scale.
Ratio scale represents the actual amount of variables. Measures of physical dimensions

such as weight, height, distance, etc. are examples. Generally, all statistical techniques are
usable with ratio scales and all manipulations that one can carry out with real numbers can
also be carried out with ratio scale values. Multiplication and division can be used with this

scale but not with other scales mentioned above. Geometric and harmonicmeans can be
sed as measures of central tendency and coefficients of variation may also be calculated.
Thus, proceeding from the nominal scale (the least precise type of scale) to ratio scale (the
most precise), relevant information is obtained increasingly. If the nature of the variables
permits, the researcher should use the scale that provides the most precise description.
Researchers in physical sciences have the advantage to describe variables in ratio scale
form but the behavioural sciences are generally limited to describe variables in interval
scale form, a less precise type of measurement.
 E
J

(D

(D
5

F
9 (D

. (9
 Measurement and Scaling

instrument
stated criteria and tests are met with, we may state that our measuring
If the above
in correct measurement; otherwise we shall
have to look for more information
will result
is valid and
and/or resort to exercise of judgement.

() Reliability
measurement. A measuring instrument is
The test of reliability is another important test of sound but
results. Reliable measuring instrument does contribute to validity,
reliable ifit providesconsistent
a reliable instrument
need not be a valid instrument. For instance, a scale that consistently overweighs
But the other
five kgs., is a reliable scale, but it does not give a valid measure of weight.
objects by
reliable. Accordingly, reliability is not as valuable
as
is not true i.e., a valid instrument is always
way of reliability is
but it is easier to assess reliability in comparison to validity. If the quality
validity.
an instrument, then while using it we can
be confident that the transient and situational
satisfied by
factors are not interfering.
Two aspects of reliability viz.., stabilityequivalence deserve special mention. The stability
and
consistent results with repeated measurements of the same person
aspect is concerned with securing
and with the same instrument. We usually determine the degree
of stability by comparing the results
how much error may get introduced
of repeated measurements. The equivalence aspect considers
items being studied. A good way to test for the
by different investigators or different samples of the
their observations of the same
equivalence of measurements by two investigators is to compare
events. Reliability can be improved in the following two ways:

(i) By standardising the conditions under which the measurement takes place i.e., we must
ensure that external sources of variation such as boredom, fatigue, etc., are minimised to
the extent possible. That will improve stability aspect.
ci) By carefully designed directions for measurement with no vaiation from group togrouP
the
by using trained and motivated persons to conduct the research and also by broadening
sample of items used. This will improve equivalence aspect.
(ii) Practicality
The practicality characteristic of a measuring instrument can be judged in terms of economy,
convenience and interpretability. From the operational point of view, the measuringinstrument ought
to be practical i.e., it should be economical, convenient and interpretable. Economy consideration
suggeststhatsome trade-off is needed between the ideal research project and that which the budget
can afford. The length of measuring instrument is an important area where economic pressures are
quickly felt. Although more items give greater reliability as stated earlier, but in the interest of limiting
the interview or observation time, we have to take only few items for our study purpose. Similarly,
data-collection methods to be used are also dependent at times upon economic factors. Convenience
test suggests that the measuring instrument should be easy to administer. For this purpose one should
give due attention to the proper layout of the measuring instrument. For instance, a questionnaire,
with clear instructions (illustrated by examples), is certainly more effective and easier to complete
than one which lacks these features. Interpretability consideration is specially important when
persons other than the designers of the test are to interpret the results. The measuring instrument, in
order to be interpretable, must be supplemented by (a) detailed instructions for administering the test;
b) scoring keys: (c) evidence about the reliability and (d) guides for using the test and for interpreting
results.
 72
Research Methodology
(iv) Accuracy
The characteristic of
accuracy of a
measurement scale means it should be a true
the observation of
underlying characteristic. For example, representative of
upto one-eighth of an inch, while measuring
accurate value only with an inch' scale will provide
accurate value. measuring with 'cm' scale will provide more
5.4 SOURCES OF ERROR IN MEASUREMENT
Measurement should be precise and
is often not met with in unambiguous in an ideal research
entirety. As such the researcher must be awarestudy. This objective, however,
about the sources of error in
measurement. The following are the
possible sources of error in measurement.
ka) Respondent: At times the respondent may be reluctant to
or it is
just possible that he may have very little express strong negative
All this reluctance is knowledge but may not admit his
feelings
likely to result in an interview of ignorance.
fatigue, boredom, anxiety, etc. may limit the 'guesses.' Transient factors like
and fully. ability of the respondent to respond
accurately
(b) Situation: Situational factors may also come in the
condition which places a strain on interview can way of correct
have serious
measurement. Any
respondent rapport. effects on the
For instance, if someone else is interviewer-
joining in present, he can distort
or merely by being present. If the respondent feels that responses by
he may be reluctant to
express certain feelings. anonymity not assured,
is
(c) Measurer: The interviewer can distort
His behaviour, style and looks responses by rewording or reordering
may encourage or discourage questions.
Careless mechanical processing certain replies from respondents.
may distort the findings. Errors may also
of incorect creep in because
coding, faulty tabulation and/or statistical calculations, particularly in the data-
analysis stage.
(d) Instrument: Error may arise because of the
defective measuring instrument. The use of
complex words, beyond the comprehension of the
printing, inadequate space for replies, response choice respondent, ambiguous meanings, poor
make the measuring instrument defective omissions, etc. are a few things that
and may result in
type of instrument deficiency is the poor measurement errors. Another
sampling of the universe of items of concern.
Researcher must know that correct measurement
problems listed above. He must, to the extent possible, try depends on successfully meeting all of th
to eliminate, neutralize
with all the possible sources of error so that the final or otherwise deal
results may not be contaminated.

5.5 TECHNIQUES OF DEVELOPING MEASUREMENT TOOLS

The technique of developing measurement tools involves a four-stage process, consisting of the
following: