ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF GRADUATES

INSTITUTE OF GENDER STUDIES

Assessment of Household Energy Project from a Gender Perspective:

The Case of GTZ-supported Mirt Dissemination Project in Bahir Dar City

By: MESSERET LEGESSE BURUSSA

JULY, 2010

ADDIS ABABA

ETHIOPIA
 Addis Ababa University

School of Graduate Studies

Institute of Gender Studies

An Assessment of Household Energy Project from a Gender Perspective:

The Case of GTZ-supported Mirt Dissemination Project in Bahir Dar City

By: Messeret Legesse Burussa

A Thesis Submitted to the Institute of Gender Studies

in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of

Master of Arts in Gender Studies

July, 2010

Addis Ababa
 ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES

INSTITUTE OF GENDER STUDIES

An Assessment of Household Energy and Project from a Gender Perspectives:

The Case of GTZ-supported Mirt Dissemination Project in Bahir Dar City

Name of Student: Messeret Legesse Burussa

Signature:______________

APPROVED BY BOARD OF EXAMINERS

_______________________ _______________ __________

Chairperson Signature Date

________________________ _______________ _________

Advisor Signature Date

_________________________ ________________ _________

Internal Examiner Signature Date

_________________________ _________________ __________

External Examiner Signature Date

 TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGES

LIST OF ATTACHMENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I

LIST OF TABLES, GRAPHS AND PICTURES II

ABBRIVIATIONS III

GLOSSARY OF TERMS IV

ABSTRACT V

CHAPTER ONE

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background 1

1.2 Problem Statements 4

1. 3 Fuel Wood Crisis, HHE Strategies and Gender Division of Labor 7

1.4 Research Questions 8

1.5 Objective of the study 8

1.6 Significance of the Study 9

1.7 Structure of the Thesis 9

1.8 Scope and Limitations 9

1.9 Definition of Terms 10

CHAPTER TWO

2. RESEARCH DESIGN AND STUDY AREA

2.1 The Study Area; Bahir Dar City 12

 TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGES

2.1 Methodology 12

2.2.1 Sampling 13

2.2.2 Data Collection Tools and Methods 14

2.2.3 Data Collection and Data analysis methods 15

2.3 Ethical Consideration 16

CHAPTER THREE

3. LITRATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

3.1 Literature Review 17

3.1.1 Environment and Gender 17

3.1.2 Gender Roles and Fuel Wood Crisis 19

3.1.3 Household Energy Need with its Efficiency 19
3.1.4 Improved Stoves and Empowerment of Women 22
3.1.5 Gender and Energy Policies 23
3.1.6 Gender Mainstreaming in Development Projects 24
2.1.7 Gender Content in Energy Project Plans. 26

3.2 Theoretical framework 27

3.2.1 Eco-feminism 28

3.2.2 Material Feminism 30

3.2.3 Contemporary Socialist Feminism 32

CHAPTER FOUR

4. ANALYSIS OF FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

4.1Women’s Views and Concerns on GTZ-Mirt Project 35

 TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGES

4.1.1 Profile of Quantitative Survey Respondents 35

4.1.2 Impacts and Benefits of Mirt 38

4.1.3 The Impact of Mirt Project on Women’s Life 45

4.1.4 Information and Marketing Promotion on Mirt 50

4.1.5 Decision on Stove Purchase 52

4.1.6 Financial Issues 55

4.2 Gender, Energy Policy, Strategy and GTZ-Mirt Project 59

4.2.1 The GTZ-Mirt Project Profile 59

4.2.2 Fuel Wood Consumption Pattern of Bahir Dar 60

4.2.3 Role of Women and Women’s Organizations in GTZ-Mirt Project 65

4.2.4 Integration of Gender Concerns in the GTZ-Mirt Project Cycle 67

CHAPTER FIVE

5. CONCLUSION ANDRECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Summary 79

5.2 Conclusion 81

5.3 Recommendations 83

References 85-88
 LIST OF ATTACHMENTS

Appendices Pages

A: Sample of Survey questionnaire 89

B: In-depth Interview Guide with Mirt Users 95

C: Key-informant Interview Guide with Mirt Producers 96

D: Interview Guide for Stakeholders of the Project 97

E: Profile of in-depth Interview Participants 100

F: Profile of key-informant Interview Participants 101

G: Pictures Taken During the Study 102

H: Map of the Study Area 103

 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I owe a massive debt of gratitude to Dr.Mulumbet Zenebe, who has been my advisor, for her
assistance and guidance throughout the research process. Without her unlimited help and
priceless advice this document couldn’t taken its current status.

I am indebted to Professor Harriet Silius and Dr. Katerina Lappenen at the Department of
Women’s Studies, University of Abo Akademi, Finland who have helped me to refine the
methods of data collection in the process of writing my proposal during my exchange student
program.

I am also grateful to GTZ-ECO office, the organization which was a collaborator in providing
relevant information for the research. My special thanks go to all staff members in the
organization particularly, to Information Communication and PR Coordinator at GTZ-ECO,
Ms. Konjit Nigussie without whom this research could have not been realized.

I am also thankful to staff members at the Ministry of Mines and Energy and Amhara Mines
and Energy Agency who have helped me in the research process. My special thanks go to the
Manager of the Agency, Ato Wondosen Mengistu, who has facilitated all contacts necessary
for me to obtain data from Bahir Dar city.

I am also very grateful to all informants and respondents who took their valuable time to
express their knowledge and share their experiences with me. Without their shared experience
this document will be lifeless. My special thanks also go to Ms. Tigist Tefera and Mrs. Genet
Tadesse for sharing their life history.

At last but not least, I want to take this opportunity to express my thanks and appreciation to
my parents and family for supporting me in every way to complete my studies. Above all, I
would like to express my respect and thanks to my husband Ato Abiy Hunegnaw who has
always been available to support me and made me realize my dreams.

I
 LIST OF TABLES, GRAPHS AND PICTURES
I. List of Tables Pages

Table 4.1. Background Characteristics of Survey Participants 37

Table 4.2. Information on How to Maintain Mirt 40

Table 4.3 Responses on Convenience and Comfort of Mirt 44

Table 4. 4. Reasons for Not Having Mirt 55

Table 4. 5. Financial Sources to Purchase Mirt 58

Table 4.6. Fuel Wood Supplement by Respondents 62

Table 4.7. Assessment of National Energy Policy and Strategies 70

Table 4.8. Assessment of Improved Stoves Technology Package 71

Table 4.9. Assessment of various GTZ-Mirt project documents 73

Table 4.10. Gender perspective of ‘Impact assessment of the GTZ-Mirt Project’ 75

Table 4.11. Assessment of Different Promotional document 77

II. List of Graphs

Graph 4. 1 Time Mirt Acquired Versus Comfort to Polish Pan 45

Graph 4.2 Sources of Information on Mirt 51

Graph 4.3. Information that Influence Respondents to buy Mirt 52

Graph 4.4 Husband’s Reaction in Buying Mirt 53

Graph 4.5 Energy Sources Used by Respondents 61

III. List of Pictures

Picture 4.1: kitchen where three Mirt located, short chimneys taken of 40

Picture 4.2: Mirt being used in contrary to users guide 42

Picture 4.3: A Woman in Bahir Dar Baking in the Open Air 57

Picture 4.4: Women and Men Carrying Fire Wood to Bahir Dar for Sell 63

II
 ABBREVIATIONS

1. ARS-MEA: Amhara Regional State Mines and Energy Agency

2. ARSPA: Amhara Regional States Planning Agency
3. BOA: Bureau of Agriculture
4. BOH: Bureau of Health
5. BOWA: Bureau of Women’s Affairs
6. BOWME: Bureau of Water, Mines and Energy
7. CBO: Community Based Organization
8. CSA: Central Statistics Agency
9. EAEDPC: Ethiopian Alternative Energy Development and Promotion Center
10. EPA: Environmental Protection Authority
11. ESS: Energy Saving Stoves
12. GDI: Gender related Development Index
13. GEM: Gender Empowerment Measure
14. GTZ: Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Technische Zusammenarbeit
(German Agency for Technical Co-operation)
15. GTZ-AMES-Cooking : GTZ- Access to Modern Energy Services-cooking
16. GTZ-ECO: GTZ- Energy Coordination Office
17. HDI: Human Development Index
18. HEPNR: Household Energy/ Protection of Natural Resources
19. HHE: Household Energy
20. MME: Ministry of Mines and Energy of Ethiopia
21. REST: Relief society of Tigray
22. SUN: Sustainable Utilization of Natural Resources
23. UN: United Nation
24. UNDP: United Nation Development Program
25. UNIFEM: United Nations Development Fund for Women
26. WAD: Women’s Affairs Department

III
 GLOSSARY OF TERMS

Edir; is a traditional association of people in Ethiopia and its purpose is to help members
when they lose a family member in organization of funeral ceremonies, providing money,
labor and other necessary arrangement.

Ekobe; is a traditional association where people save money and use it in turn.

Fetenech; is an improved stove which saves about 70% of fire wood and used for pots.

Gonzie:Is an improved biomass stove which is used to bake injera. It is made of clay and can
be dismantled when not used and can be used as a stove of pot, mitad and pan by changing the
direction of the assembly.

Injera: a traditional bread made of Teff ( Creal) and consumed by most Ethiopians.

Kebele: the lowest administrative structure in Ethiopian.

Lakech; is an improved stove which saves about half of charcoal and used for pots.

Mirt: an improved biomass stove which is used to bake injera and believed to save about half
of fuel wood consumption.

Mitad: a traditional injera baking stove made up of clay.

Slim Mirt: Improved version of mirt which is less in weight and doesn’t have a shoulder that
carry the mitad unlike the ordinary mirt.

Tikakinina Anestena: a micro finance enterprise at Kebele level.

Woreda: the next administrative level from Kebele and next to Zonal administration.

Wot: a traditional sauce usually eaten together with Injera by most Ethiopians.

IV
 ABSTRACT

The purpose of the research was mainly to investigate women’s views, experience and
problems related to Mirt stove project in Bahir Dar City. Evaluation of integration of
gender aspects in the project cycle in respect to a strategy of gender mainstreaming,
environmental crisis affecting women and energy policies and strategies of Ethiopia were
the main focus. Quantitative and qualitative research methodologies were used and
accordingly different methods of data collection such as quantitative survey, in-depth
interview coupled by personal observations, case studies and document review were
applied. Quantitative survey covered 256 and in depth interview 18 women where as key
informant interview covered 9 individuals including men.

Findings of the research showed that GTZ supported Mirt project has contributed positively
to environmental protection despite gender mainstreaming was not applied through the
project cycle. However, the project’s counterpart on the Government side which is Ministry
of Mines and energy is implementing gender mainstreaming and has a five year strategic
plan in this respect. The major house energy is biomass accounting to 89.1% of the energy
sources from which fire wood accounts 82.42% and 20-50% of respondents spend their
income on the fire wood causing pressure on women. Respondents accounting to 62.11%
are using Mirt stove for baking Injera and is definitely contributing to fire wood
consumption. The GTZ-Mirt project assumes 50% of fire wood will be saved compared to
the conventional stove however, in real life, conditions were found to discredit the
assumption.

Absence of timely updates of the technology, no consultation with users (women) and
shortage of finance for women to buy the stove are among the main limiting factors. From
the collective findings it is concluded that the assumed success of the Mirt project is not
fully attained and should not only be measured by the number of stoves distributed and
should have a regular real life test and should include gender aspects. Twin track approach
strategy meaning Mirt stove dissemination should be undertaken in parallel with fuel wood
supply enhancement through community forestry program to combat fuel wood deficit.

V
 CHAPTER ONE

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

Ethiopia is located in the horn of Africa with land surface area of 1.2 million square
kilometers and is the 7th largest country in Africa in size. Its resource is largely the land and
much of the arable land with low access and only 15% are used so far. The country’s forest
coverage was 16% in 1950 and was only 3.4% in 1983 (GTZ, 2000). Renewable and natural
resources that are land , water , forests and trees as well as other forms of biodiversity , which
meet the basic needs for food, water, clothing and shelter, have now deteriorated to a low
level productivity in most parts of the country (EPA,1997).

Since Ethiopian economy is largely dependent on agriculture it is exposed to climate shocks

and the shocks are caused by short period rain that lead to crop failure and highly associated
with environmental degradation. The total population of the country is 73,918,505 in which
the male population is 37,296,657 and the female population is 36, 612, 848, (CSA,
2008).The population size coupled with serious environmental degradation, the country scores
low in almost all social and economic growth indicators. The economic indicator shows that
the real GDP per capita of USD 130 for 2006 (Million, 2008). Ethiopia is ranking 169th in
Human Development Index, 149th in GDI and 72nd in GEM out of 173 countries (UNDP,
2008).

Population is the cause of the discrepancy between population growth and available
resources. Over the last few decades, the population of the country increased to the extent that
the population carrying capacity of the environment decreased and to these effect climatic
conditions became erratic and both manmade and natural disasters have ravaged the country.
This massive environmental degradation due to natural factors, unwise use of its natural
resources, unsound ecological practices and rapid population growth has adverse impacts on
the overall development of the country (Teshome, 2008).

Issues attributing to population expansion in most third world countries have prevented rapid
reduction in population as it is linearly connected to poverty and basic needs are under-
fulfilled. The basic needs of material life include food, clothing, and shelter necessary for
physical and emotional wellbeing of mankind. Although still not officially considered as basic

1
human need energy is essential for human well-being and needed to cook food, to boil heat
and light the home (Dankilman and Davidson, 1988). In Ethiopia, only 6% of household
energy comes from electricity or petroleum products otherwise almost 94% comes from
biomass such as wood, crop residues and dung (GTZ, 2009). The number of Population
without electricity is 60.8 millions in 2005 (UNDP, 2008).

Energy is a key factor in economic and social development of the public and private sectors.
In the past the focus concerning energy policies and development was mainly in urban and
industrial areas and in contrast, the needs of rural households, farmers, small business and
urban poor were generally given less priority (UNDP, 2000).

Currently, there is a change in area of focus concerning energy sources and technology
developments in order to address the social, environmental and economical problems. There
are also new perspectives on energy policies that are giving greater attention to the social
dimension including recognition of different impacts of energy issues on women and men
(UNDP, 2004).

Biomass as the fuel of the poor and source of household energy in most of third world
countries is highly related to environmental and women’s condition. In third world countries
women are largely responsible for survival tasks that are essential for daily life. They grow
food crops, provide water, gather fuel and perform most of the other works that sustain the
family. As daily users of the natural resources, women are often the hardest hit by
environmental degradation. It has become a common fact that the ongoing natural resource
degradation is desperately affecting the majority of the rural poor whose livelihood is entirely
dependent on these resources. Men and women are expected to different environmental
stresses in different ways (Teshome, 2008).

Women are the primary sufferers of environmental degradation and as a result walk distances
to collect fuel wood and fodder. The problem becomes even worse for them because of
feminization of poverty and gender division of labor that makes women’s life difficult and
implicates them as the cause of the problems. Third world women often have no choice but, to
exploit natural resources in order to survive, even though they may have the knowledge to
promote sustainability (Dankelman and Davidson, 1988).

The principal victims of environmental degradation are those most underprivileged people
and majority of these are women in which their problems and the environment are very much

2
interrelated. Usually, both are marginalized by existing development policies and because of
complex cycles of poverty, inappropriate development and environmental degradation, poor
people are being forced to live in ways which induce further destruction (Davidson, 1998).

To address the complex environmental problem, Ethiopia has ratified and signed many
international laws related to environmental protection. To mention some are the Cartagena
Protocol on Bio-Safety 2003, the Framework Convention on Climate Change 1994, the Kyoto
Protocol on Climate Change 2005 and the convention to combat desertification 1997 (UNDP,
2008). Accordingly, Energy Policy of Ethiopia was enacted in 1994 followed by 1998-2002
EC strategic plans which include some gender concerns in its program and strategy (MME,
1998).

Different programs and projects were designed and executed to implement the Ethiopian
Energy Policy as well as Women’s Policy of Ethiopia Which was enacted in 1993.
Governmental, non-governmental and private organizations have been working to alleviate
problems concerning household energy, environment and women’s socio-economical
problems since then. GTZ (German Technical Co-operation in Ethiopia) is one of NGOs
which is undertaking different projects and approaches in cooperation with the Ministry of
Mines and Energy of Ethiopia.

One of the house hold energy project is the development of alternative energy technologies
such as the energy saving stoves specifically called ‘Mirt’ which is the focus of this research.
Mirt stove is used to make ‘injera’ which is the staple bread for most of Ethiopian people and
as gender division of labor usually prepared by women. The project gives emphasis to protect
the natural resource and biodiversity of the country through efficient use of household energy.
These stoves are believed to save 50% of the energy consumption as compared to the open-
three stone cooking stoves (GTZ, 2000).

These facts and figures are agreed upon different stakeholders who are working on projects
related to ESS. According to GTZ, using ESS means less time spent on fuel collection and
cooking, less frequency of collecting fuel wood which cause to have more free time for
women for productive endeavors, more time for adult education and child care, reduced risk
of assault and injury, enhanced prestige and empowerment (GTZ, 2009).

In accordance with policies and strategies drawn, major steps have been taken through
different projects on the household energy crisis. The emphasis of this research was to assess

3
particularly the integration of science and technology with our own ‘local’ voices and
indigenous knowledge. The integration of gender concerns in the formulation and
implementation of energy programs and projects (Naomi, ND).

The main subject of the study was to identify whether household energy technology produced
by the projects is usable, affordable, convenient and contextual to the person in question,
mostly woman in the study area, Bahir Dar City. More specifically, to understand the
meaning of our material solution measured from the perspective of the actor in question in
these case women who are actors in the provision and consumption of household energy in
Ethiopia.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Limited access to modern energy technology is a problem because it has disproportionate

effect on women, especially in rural areas. The differing work and social roles of men and
women are culturally established and vary from place to place. In many areas women are
responsible for gathering fuels and using them for cooking, heating and boiling in the process
women are usually exposed to health hazards (UNDP, 2000).

There is also a growing International concerns on climate change and carbon emission that are
highly associated with the current energy crisis. Depletion of traditional fuels because of land
clearing, deforestation, desertification and overuse together with current climate change have
affected women negatively. This has in turn deprived women from traditional benefits which
used to be previously obtained under community managed resources available to all (UNDP,
2000).

A study conducted in Gambia in 1991 on 500 children who always stay with their mothers
working on traditional kitchen were at risk of having acute respiratory illness six times higher
than a control group, cited in (Tadelech, 2003). Smoke from poorly ventilated indoor fires
that contain air pollutants like carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, formaldehyde and other
complex hydrocarbons accounts for close to 2 million premature deaths per year (UNDP,
2004).

Women usually bear the main burden of providing and using biomass energy sources so most
of their time, energy and money will be spent for this purpose. In addition to time and
physical burdens involved in gathering fuel, they also have to worry about threats of assault,
harassment and violence which sometimes end up in unwanted pregnancy (Clancy, 2003).
4
Many income-generating activities especially those undertaken by women are usually based
at the household level and are highly dependent on availability and efficient energy sources
but, husbands may not be interested in buying or acquiring new and improved energy
equipment and in effect the women will be lacking capital (Dankelman and Davidson, 1988).

What makes the situation worse in Ethiopia is that Biomass fuel constitutes the majority of
household energy which is 94% of the total energy source of the country. Further it breaks
down into 77% woody biomass, 8.7% crop residue and 7.7% dung. This being the general
situation, there is considerable variation in both supply and consumption patterns (GTZ,
2009).The fact that the major proportion is supplied by traditional energy sources, have
serious implications on the natural resource base. The fuel wood deficit is estimated to reach
47 million cubic meters in 2000 which is 4 times higher than the sustainable supply. The rate
of depletion of the natural forests is estimated between 150,000 and 200,000 hectare per
annum (GTZ, ND).

Household energy consumption pattern of Bahir Dar City, the study area shows that 89.1%
use biomass fuel of which the majorities use only fire wood accounting to 82.42%. The other
3.52% of them use firewood in combination with Kerosene and Electricity while only 6.64%
use electricity.

Household energy expenditure accounts as much as 35% of the overall household

expenditures and this is a big burden for low income families. Actions have been taken to
alleviate these interrelated problems from the Government side. Three major interventions on
household energy crisis at national level are supply enhancement, inter-fuel substitution and
improved stove dissemination (GTZ, 1998). In order to implement these initiatives various
policies, strategies and programs have been developed and finally became practical through
different projects.

Most policy makers view energy policies as gender neutral, but the fact is women and men
are affected differently by energy policies wherever their work roles differ, as is the case in
many developing countries. Usually, in problem identification, planners and experts are
involved but the end-users including community women from all income groups are not
represented. Consultation with women’s groups and collection of gender-specific data are not
exercised. Especially, in the process of monitoring and evaluation of energy projects the
criteria selected to measure successfulness of the project did not include women’s views who
are the end users (UNDP, 2004).

5
Solving the household energy crisis together with the environmental protection in general do
not reside in scientists and experts toolboxes, the tools will rather be found in the practical
application and indigenous knowledge of those who are enmeshed in the world out which the
objects of knowledge were extracted and refined ( Windy and Francis, 2005).

Although projects were mostly intended to benefit women, plans are rather based on
assumptions instead of considering objective facts about what women needs which often
proved unrealistic. Projects for provision of local energy are assumed to introduce better
technology which will bring benefits to the community and particularly to women in respect
to fuel wood saving, less time needed to gather fuel wood and healthier cooking condition
(Skutch, 1997).

However, energy projects fail to address the intended benefit to women and thus the common
problem is women strangely don’t seem to be interested in this wonderful new technology.
Mysteriously adoption rates are low and interest wanes rapidly and is very disappointing for
the energy planners (GTZ, ND). At the end of the day, when compared to project life and
financial investment, the objective of these projects are underachieved and goals are not easy
to attain (Skutch, 1997).

As a result, most of the existing literature on Household energy crisis in Ethiopia seems to
totally relate the problem to the impact of using biomass energy on the natural resource and
biodiversity of the country (GTZ, 2000). It seems that the consequence of household energy
consumption pattern is highly associated with environmental issues where it neglects and de-
emphasizes the impacts on women (GTZ, 1999). The objective of intervention strategies to
address this environmental issues looks devoid of gender concerns. Hence, the researcher
intends to obtain vital information relating the environmental crisis with women’s situation
and gender division of labor. Investigating women’s views towards the strategy of demand
management of household energy consumption or energy efficiency through dissemination of
energy saving stoves will be the primary focus of the research.

Hence, this research will give emphasis on the voice of women who have the experience on a
specific energy project, its services and its products more than any donor, policy maker or
project coordinator. It is the belief of the researcher that, the women who are the most
important actors in the energy cycle have to say about the whole process of energy projects,
its achievements and drawbacks.

6
1. 3 Fuel Wood Crisis, HHE Strategies and Gender Division of Labor.

Women are mostly responsible for providing and consumption of household energy in
Ethiopia as gender division of labor. As a result women are most affected by fuel wood crisis
and in-door air pollution during food preparation using biomass fuel. Energy Policy, strategy
and projects have been developed to address these interrelated problems of environment and
energy that resulted from using biomass energy in Ethiopia. It is stated in International and
National legal frame works that views, knowledge, and concern of women need to be
included in HHE policies and development. This research tries to look into the gender aspect
of energy policies, strategies and projects in relation to gender division of labor and fuel wood
crisis. Hence, the frame work shown below has been developed by the researcher in order to
define the research questions and formulate objective of the study.

Energy Energy Energy

Policy
Strategy Project
and
and and
gender
gender gender

HHE HHE

Provision Women Consumption

Fuel Problems
wood in using
biomass
Crisis

7
1.4 The Research Questions

The research questions considered are the following:

1. Are the different impacts of household energy issues on women and men taken into
consideration in energy policy and strategy of Ethiopia which household energy
projects have to adopt?

2. What is the influence of the project on fuel wood consumption pattern in Bahir Dar
City?

3. Is gender integrated at all stages of the GTZ-supported Mirt project cycle in Bahir Dar
City?

4. What are the views, problems and concerns of women related to the improved biomass
Injera stove ’Mirt’ in Bahir Dar City?

1.5 Objective of the Study

General Objectives

To assess the integration of gender concerns in Energy policy, Strategy and the GTZ-
supported ‘Mirt’ dissemination project and explore the views of women on the service and
product of the project in Bahir Dar City.

Specific Objectives

1. To find out how gender concerns are integrated in energy policy, strategy and
programs of Ethiopia especially in the household energy sector.

2. To evaluate the planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of the ‘Mirt’

project for its gender concerns.

3. To find out how the GTZ-supported Mirt dissemination project influence the fuel
wood consumption pattern in Bahir Dar City.

4. To identify views, experiences, problems and constraints of women related to ‘Mirt’ in

Bahir Dar City.

8
1.6 Significance of the Study

The study can serves as background for future researchers giving them insight into the gender
perspective of household energy problems and solutions. It contributes its part to the existing
literature on gender aspects of household energy as it contains facts, problems and
recommendations. It is also believed that this study will have its importance for policy makers
and development agencies to make them better understand the issues of household energy
sources and technologies from gender perspectives. Specifically, this study helps to design
appropriate policies for different problems, constraints, interests and priorities of the two
genders concerning household energy.

1.7 Structure of the Thesis

The thesis contains five chapters and the first chapter deals with the overall introduction of
household energy crisis covering women’s situation in Ethiopia, research questions and
objectives. The second chapter deals with description of the study area and methodologies
applied in the course of the research. The third chapter deals with literature review and
theoretical framework and Chapter four with findings, analysis of the findings and discussion.
Chapter five covers summary, conclusions and recommendations and sample of data
collection tools are annexed.

1.8 Scope and Limitations

The scope of the research covers the investigation of integration of gender concerns in Energy
policy of Ethiopia, strategy and GTZ-supported Mirt project including assessment of their
inter-related issues. In addition to assessing policies, strategies and projects this research
incorporates women’s views on the services and products of the GTZ-Mirt project.

One of the limitations of the research was a limited research and resources available on
energy and gender in which case it was not possible to associate or compare pervious facts in
relation to energy and gender. The second limitation of the study is inability of getting fully
dependable data on monthly income and expenditure of respondents on fuel. Therefore, it was
not possible to calculate the fuel expenditure per head and make comparative analysis with
those who have Mirt and have not. The third limitation is that sampling of quantitative survey
was dependent on the amount of the research fund and time availability rather than taking into
consideration the target population in the study area.

9
1.9 Definition of Terms
Policy: Public policies are an essential element in modern democracies in that they provide
guidance for government officials and accountability links to citizens. It could be defined as a
course of action or inaction chosen by public authorities to address a given problem or
interrelated set of problem. Every policy has three key elements. The first is the definition of
the problem, the second is the goals that are to be achieved and the third is the instrument or
means whereby the problem is to be addressed and the goals achieved (Leslie, 2005).

Gender Mainstreaming: It describes efforts to scrutinize and reinvent processes of policy

formulation and implementation across all issue areas and at all levels from a gender-
differentiated perspective, to address and rectify persistent and emerging disparities between
men and women. Gender Mainstreaming was established as a global strategy for achieving
sustainable economic development in the 1995 Beijing Platform for Action ratified by all
United Nations member states. It is now incumbent upon nation-states and international
organizations to carry out gender mainstreaming (True, 2003).

Project: In the broadest sense, a project is a specific, finite task to be accomplished. A project
is usually a one-time activity with a well-defined set of desired end results. It can be divided
into subtasks that must be accomplished in order to achieve the project goals (Jack, 1985).

Project-cycle: Like organic entities, project have life cycle. From a slow beginning they
progress to a buildup of size and then peak, begin a decline and finally must be terminated.
Some projects end by being phased into the normal, ongoing operations of the parent
organization. The ever-present goals of meeting performance, time and cost are the major
considerations throughout the project’s life cycle. The cycle of a project include conception,
selection, planning, implementation, evaluation and monitoring (Jack, 1985).

Improved Stoves: are those stoves that are developed through improved stoves program
taking in the energy scarcity of the country in to account that comes from unsustainable usage
of resources by the household sector. It saves energy and reduces the expenditure on fuel by
half from that of the traditional ones. It is a tool that offers a better way of cooking for a
particular area and group of people who can’t afford modern stoves such as Electricity stoves
(GTZ, 1999).

Biomass Energy: constitute fuel-wood, charcoal, agricultural residues and animal dung
which is used for household cooking, baking and other purposes (GTZ, 2000).

10
Energy Saving Stove (ESS): closed biomass stove which saves the amount of fuel used by
50% (GTZ, 2000).

Household Energy: energy used to cook heat and boil at the household level (EREDPC,
2002).

Open Stove: it is a traditional stove where the fire place is not closed and 10% fuel efficient
(REST, 1992).

In-door Air Pollution: The presence of one or more kinds of air contaminants in residential
or work places. Pollutants like carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, formaldehyde and other
complex hydrocarbons. Under slow- burning conditions, fuel woods are capable of producing
pollution such as benzopyren (a poisonous gas). These pollutants cause respiratory and eye
disease and can bring acute bronchitis, pneumonia and death where respiratory defenses are
impaired (APi, 2009).

Particulate matter: is a complex mixture of tiny particles that consists of dry solid
fragments, solid cores with liquid coatings and small droplets of liquids. In other words it is
tiny subdivisions of solid or liquid matter suspended in a gas or liquid (APi, 2009).

11
 CHAPTER TWO

2. THE STUDY AREA and METHODOLOGY

2.1 The Study Area: Bahir Dar City

Bahir Dar, the capital city of the Amhara Regional State (KILIL) is located in north western
Ethiopia. Situated Southern Shore of Lake Tana located approximately 578km north-
northwest of Addis Ababa. Having a latitude and longitude of 11° 36’ N and 37° 23’E with an
elevation of 1840 meters above sea level Bahir Dar city enjoys tropical type of climate with
an average temperature of 17.5°c (ARSPA, 2008).

Administratively Bahir Dar city is considered a special zone with overall diameter of 10km
radius and within 20 km radius three satellite cities are included such as Abay, Mechenti,
Zege, and 5 rural kebeles named as Dishet, Abaraj, wereb kora, tion, zenzelema and weramit.
The city is bordered by Tenta from eastern side, Sebatamit from South, Tana lake Wongta
from North, and Ybab Eyesus from west. Total numbers of kebeles are 13 where 9 of them
are kebeles in the city and the remaining are 4 rural kebeles (ARSPA, 2008).

Based on figures from Central Statistics Agency in 2005 the city has an estimated total
population of 167,261 of whom 86,355 were males and 80,906 were females; in rural and
urban kebeles. With estimated 28 kilometer square area the population density is 5,973 people
per kilometer square.

The municipality of the city of Bahir Dar was established in 1933 by ‘kegnazmach Tebeb’
now the city is developing fast into a place considerable social , political and economic
activities and becoming a top commercial center and tourist destination of Amhara National
Regional states. The total number of houses in the city is assumed to be 3603 which are
located in 9 kebeles of the city, out of which 2810 are residential 759 business houses and 34
serving as residential and business (ARSPA, 2008).

2.2 Methodology

To collect relevant data for the study, both quantitative and qualitative research methods were
employed. More focus was given to qualitative data in order to be able to find information

12
from participants perspective particularly women who are the focus of the research. The data
that was collected through quantitative methodology helped to acquire facts for
generalizations.

2.2.1 Sampling

Selection of the Project: The researcher who is interested in any project related to natural
resource protection has taken this research as an opportunity to look the connections women
have with energy and environment. By virtue of working in the Ethiopian Geological Survey
under the Ministry of Mines and Energy, the researcher had the chance to easily communicate
with the GTZ-ECO office.

Selection of the Study Area; GTZ-Mirt project had four pilot areas when the project started
operating in 1998. These areas were located in Guder (Ambo), Bahir Dar, Awassa and
Mekelle. Bahir Dar was selected by employing convenience sampling method.

Selection of Key-Informants: Four key informants for in-depth interview were selected using
purposive sampling from GTZ, Energy Coordination office in Addis Ababa and Bahir Dar
branch office. One person from Alternative Energy Resources and Technologies Promotion
and Dissemination Core Process under Ministry of Mines and Energy (MME) one person was
selected purposively who is currently working as a government counterpart with the project.
Gender Mainstreaming Process Owner from the Ministry was also selected purposively for
key-informant interview. In addition, one energy officer from Bahir Dar zone Energy Office
and two ‘Mirt’ producers in the study area were selected purposively as key informants. The
total numbers of key-informants selected were nine out of which four were women. All
selected individuals are believed to have responsibility and rich information about the project
that can be helpful to attain the research objectives.

Selection of Quantitative Survey Participants: In the case of quantitative survey the sample
frame was all households in Bahir Dar City which are located in 9 urban Kebeles. The target
populations of the research were totally women in every randomly selected household in
Bahir Dar city. Quota and random samplings were applied to select 32 women from 32
households from each Kebeles with a total of eight kebeles in Bahir Dar city. Then using
purposive sampling, questionnaires were distributed to women in randomly selected
households and these questionnaires were filled with the help of enumerators. The total

13
sample of women selected from 8 kebeles of the city was 256 and the remaining one kebeles
was covered with in-depth interview.

Selection of In-depth Interview Participants: For purpose of in-depth interview and personal
observation, 18 women from 18 household from one Kebele were picked randomly. Out of
the 18 women, 12 of them have Mirt and the rest do not.

A total of 274 women from 274 households were randomly selected for quantitative survey
and in-depth interview. The number of residential household in the nine urban kebeles of
Bahir Dar city is 2810 and thus, the number of household covered for this research is 9.7%.

2.2.2 Data Collection Methods and Tools

Key- informants Interview: Data from a total of nine individuals where four of them are from
the GTZ Addis Ababa office and branch office in Bahir Dar was collected using key-
informant interview. Three individuals also were interviewed from the government counter-
part and two Mirt producers in the study area. These key- informants are from Policy
implementing authorities, project administrators, both in the ministry of Mines and Energy
and GTZ. This method was applied to gather information on integration of gender concerns in
policy, strategy and particularly in household energy projects. Information on the projects
services, challenges encountered while Mirt production and feedback collected from Mirt
users were gathered from two Mirt producers and distributors women in the study using key-
informant interview. The time span for key-informant interview is between 50 minutes and
one hour. In the case of interviewing the Information Communication and PR Coordinator at
GTZ-ECO office the time taken was for 5 days and each time taking 40 minutes to one hour.

In-depth Interviews and Observation: The total numbers of women interviewed were 18
where 12 have Mirt and 6 of them don’t have Mirt. During in-depth interview with those who
have Mirt the condition and status of their Mirt were observed. The observation helps to see
how the users were using Mirt according to users guide or not. In addition it was observed
that if broken part is replaced and maintained with plastering .This method helped to gather
information on views and experiences of women about the Mirt project services and products
in the study area. Reasons, for not having Mirt were collected using the method. It has also
helped to collect information on problems and constraints they face concerning energy saving
stove particularly Mirt together with their suggestion for better Mirt adaptation. The time span
of the interview was between 30 and 40 minute for every individual.

14
Quantitative Survey: Questionnaires were designed to collect quantitative data such as
demographic data on the target population and other basic information concerning Mirt. The
questionnaire was translated into Amharic language and filled with the help of enumerators
by asking women who are selected purposively from randomly selected households in the
study area. This method has helped to understand facts concerning the project’s services and
products from women in the study area. It is also aimed at collecting data on various
concerns, constraints, problems and priorities of women concerning Mirt.

Document Review: both published and unpublished documents concerning GTZ-supported

Mirt projects were reviewed to collect relevant data. The type of document thoroughly
reviewed using gender in project cycle checklists includes project baseline survey, project
profiles/review, project impact assessment, project monitoring and evaluation documents.
Based on gender mainstreaming principle the documents were scrutinized whether gendered
problems, concerns and priorities integrated in problem definition, objective/goal and
strategies of the energy policy, strategy and GTZ-Mirt project in its project cycle. The
Ethiopian Energy policy, the five year energy strategy documents of both Ministry of Mines
and Energy and Amhara Regional States were reviewed from gender mainstreaming strategy
point of view.

Case Studies: This method was used to study the experience and knowledge of two Mirt
producers who have also been participating in key-informant interview. Using case study
method it was possible to gather detailed stories of these two women Mirt producers in
relation to the benefits they get from the project. Using the method an important data were
also collected from one woman who bakes bread for living but couldn’t afford to buy Mirt but
wished to have it. The time taken for the case studies for Mirt producers was for three days
and each time taking 30 to 50 minutes.

Data Collection Tools: Data collection tools used during the research are questionnaires for
quantitative survey, interview guide for in-depth and key informant interviews and a
Checklist for assessment of project related documents on Gender Issues.

2.2.3 Data Collection and Data Analysis Methods

Information and data were gathered by means of questionnaire, key-informant interview, in-
depth interview, observation and case studies. During in-depth interview, data were collected
by taking notes because most people were not pleased to be tape recorded. Photographing was

15
used as additional data collection tool during Observation, in-depth interview and case
studies.

Data from various sources were analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively. Descriptive
statistics available in the Microsoft Excel was used to analyze the data from questionnaires.
The data output from the questionnaires are presented in appropriate tables and graphs. The
data from key informants and respondents in-depth interviews were categorized thematically
and analyzed accordingly together with narrative analysis. All data from document review
was analyzed using gender mainstreaming principles and summarized in tables. The
presentation of the all the data from different resources are presented categorically by merging
them together. Finally, conclusions and recommendations are drawn from the available data.

2.3 Ethical Considerations

Some of the concerns of feminist research are the position from which distinctively the
question has to be asked, the political and ethical question in the research process including
politics of position, interpretation and publication. This research as feminist research had tried
not to misrepresent, misappropriating or distorting of the reality of the respondents in the
research process in any way (Kirsch, 1999).

In the process of data collection issues of willingness, confidentiality and privacy have been
taken care of. Before commencing any data collection the participant’s willingness was asked
and conformed for any oral interview or photographing. The consents of participants were
obtained to use their names together with their stories in the document otherwise their names
and profiles are presented separately. They have been assured that their responses will only be
used for research purpose and the principle of the study is such that it should respect privacy
of the participants. As it is ethically important to minimize the power imbalance between the
researcher and the research participants, maximum care was taken to do so in the research
process.

Briefing was given to the enumerators who filled in the questionnaires on the need to
minimize the power imbalance, to respect the participant’s privacy and willingness,
confidentiality and the principle of feminist research. Accordingly, during data collection
there was continues information exchange, feedback and discussion between the researcher
and the enumerators on how to handle properly the data collection process.

16
 CHAPTER THREE

3. LITRATUR REVIEW AND THEORITICAL FRAMEWORK

3.1 Literature Review

Literatures available on household energy crisis and efficiency mostly deal with issues from
environment and gender perspective. The literatures can be categorized in to two broad
groups those dealing with the household energy problem in relation to environment and those
giving emphasis to gender when dealing with household energy. The later one is mostly
considered by international organizations such as UNDP and Eco-feminists from abroad.

The literature review presented in this paper is grouped into related issues such as;
environment and gender, gender roles and fuel wood crisis, the need for household energy and
its efficiency, Improved stoves and its benefit to women, gender and energy policies, gender
mainstreaming in development project and gender content in energy projects.

3.1.1 Environment and Gender

For women, trees and forests are multifunctional, whereas men tend to concentrate on their
commercial potential for timber and other goods. Trees offer ‘fuel, food and fodder’-the three
F’s, as women say. Deforestation, the clearing of open and closed forests, is one of the
world’s most pressing land use problems. Other important factors are commercial timber
logging, planned migration and resettlement, land speculation, large scale construction
projects and the expansion of commercial ranches. At local level, forest fires, growing
demands for firewood and fodder, and grazing contribute to the loss of forest. Are women to
blame? With so much pressure on the land, women have little choice but to use forests
(Dankilman and Davidson, 1989).

Third world women often have no choice but to exploit natural resources in order to survive,
even though they may have the knowledge to promote sustainability. Senghor and Aidoo
stated that the principal victims of environmental degradation are the most underprivileged
people, and the majority of these are women. Due to complex cycles of poverty, inappropriate
development and environmental degradation, poor people have been forced into ways of
living which induce further destruction, cited in (Dankilman and Davidson, 1998). Their

17
problems and those of the environment are very much interrelated where both are
marginalized by existing development policies.

In Ethiopia the overall demand for fuel wood is five times the sustainable supply. According
to GTZ, the total projected fuel wood deficit of the country was 58.1 million cubic meters by
the year 2005 (GTZ, ND). The tragedy of this dependency on wood is that it is depleted
rapidly than any fossil fuel, and that its consumers have little political power. In 1983 a study
by FAO showed that more than 100 million people suffer an acute fuel wood scarcity and are
consuming amounts below the minimum required for cooking and heating. The loss of forest
is accelerating worldwide but the figures tell us nothing of the daily pressure which
deforestation and the degradation of forests lands place on women, cited in (Dankilman and
Davidson, 1998).

One can see that, due to agricultural overexploitation and industrial over expansion
environmental degradation particularly deforestation result in fuel wood crisis which is
household energy source of the poor. Demand for fuel wood exceeds the supply and in this
regard poor women in rural areas of developing countries suffer most in terms of lost labor
time, undercooked food and malnutrition of the family members due to low agricultural
productivity arising from environmental degradation (Grace Sunny, 1992).

Sometimes, fuel shortages may change eating practices as the number of hot meals is reduced
or foods that require longer cooking times are abandoned. It follows that fuel availability is
relevant to any development project that is designed to encourage the cultivation of certain
crops or affect food processing and preparation or general nutritional practices. e.g. in the
upper Volta region for instance soya beans introduced as part of large –scale development
project have grown well, but it is reported that the women don’t accept them because they
require longer cooking time than the traditionally grown cowpea (Dankilman and
Davidson,1998).

Environmental degradation and deforestation means that women have to walk further to
collect firewood and this takes its toll in terms of time and energy (REST, 1992). As a result,
they are forced to use dung and crop residues for fuel as alternative which is usually used as
traditional fertilizers in farmlands in Ethiopia. Out of the total 3% financial losses in GDP in
Ethiopia which is caused by environmental degradation, 98% is due to the use of dung and
crop residues for fuel (Tessfay, 2008).

18
3.1.2 Gender Roles and Fuel Wood Crisis
The burden of the fuel wood crisis in most third world societies is borne by women because
of their acquired responsibility to meet household energy needs largely by collecting biomass
fuel and preparation of food (REST, 1992).The fuel crisis for women is only half of the story
of the problems and the second half is attributed to the technology that women use for
cooking.

The crises in fuel supply combined with slow improvement in readily available cooking
technologies have affected women in severe ways. In using of open fire stove or traditional
stoves there are high emissions from biomass fuels which are dangerous sources of in-door air
pollutions (Mikell, 1997). Fuel woods are capable of producing pollution concentrations
which is higher than fossil fuels under slow- burning conditions and some studies show the
cook, mostly women, suffer most from smoke and pollutants than residents of the dirtiest
urban environment.

According to World Health Organization, a female cook can inhale an amount of benzopyren
(a poisonous gas from burning fuel) equivalent to 20 packs of cigarettes a day. In few places
chronic carbon monoxide poisoning is also evident. As a result respiratory and eye disease are
so abundant among third world women and children by wood and other biomass fuels.
Exposure can bring acute bronchitis, pneumonia and death where respiratory defenses are
impaired, cited in (Dankilman and Davidson, 1998).

Although commercialization of fuel wood means increased income for some, it also places an
extra demand, on family budgets, posing special dangers for the poor. The hike in the prices
of firewood has reduced women’s housekeeping money and has adversely affected the quality
of meals women can provide. Higher prices have also limited any small savings women could
otherwise make from careful management of money received from their husbands (Mikell,
1997). Whenever there is Fuel wood crisis and lack of money to buy fuel wood women in the
countryside scoured the fields for cattle droppings and stockpiled dung cakes which could be
used as fertilizer in the farmland (Harrison, 1993).

3.1.3 The Need for Household Energy and its Efficiency

In order to overcome household energy problems and bring sustainable energy intervention a
redefinition of household energy is needed. This definition must recognize the fact that energy
is one of the most important parts of our daily life at the same time energy supply and use

19
affect men and women differently. Addressing household energy issues can result in
opportunities for time and labor saving, income generation, health improvements, and social
empowerment especially for women because of their relationship to household energy (Joy
Clancy, 2003).

One avenue for bringing about sustainable society and a socially just world is through green
politics which according to Carolyn Merchant we are supposed to ‘think globally and act
locally’. To address social problems, there is a need to mainstream social theory, science and
technology especially mainstreaming cross-sectional issues like gender and environment will
be crucial if we are seeking sustainable development (Merchant, 1994).

Whenever we are talking about sustainable development it will be logical to talk about social
justice. Social justice is a key factor in the transition to a sustainable world and liberation of
nature and women. In turn social justice without fulfillment of human basic needs in
unthinkable. As a result, societies have to be able to obtain basic needs such as food, clothing,
shelter and energy and provide conditions for physical and emotional health (Merchant,
1994).

As part of redefinition of household energy, Carolyn Merchant has incorporated energy under
the short list of basic needs. It illustrates the need to look behind the ‘food’, which is basic
need, and recognize the importance of energy (Merchant, 1994). Aligned with the statement
of Carolyn Merchant ‘energy as basic need’, Dankilman and Davisdson in their book entitled
‘Women and Environment in the Third World’ stated that, energy although still not officially
considered as a basic human need such as food, clothing and shelter. It is essential for human-
being and as important as to cook food, boil, and heat and light the home (Dankilman and
Davidson, 1998).

It will be wise to discuss further the important point raised by Carolyn Merchant in stating
energy as basic needs for two reasons. The first important reason is that the type of food
people are consuming such as cereals need huge amount of energy for preparation. Typical
cooking patterns in Ethiopia are associated to agro-ecological zones. In highland areas where
agriculture is dominated by cereal production Teff (traditional bread of Ethiopia, Injera, made
out of). Injera is baked on a large clay pan (mitad) of about 55-60 cm in diameter and requires
a large size stove to accommodate the pan. Injera baking requires the bulk of the domestic
energy demand in large parts of Ethiopia. It is reported that injera baking alone contributes

20
50% of the total primary energy consumption of the country (GTZ, 1998).We can observe
that the basic food identified above requires huge amount of energy for baking before
consumption which makes energy basic need.

Secondly, in case of fuel wood crisis the alternative method to save fuel at individual level
will be mainly by eating uncooked food or eat those requiring less energy. Saving energy with
such practices have negative impact on nutrition of a family which will cause the family to
have health problems such as infection and malnourishment and this eventually result in
reduced agricultural productivity (Dankilman and Davidson, 1998). For these two basic
reasons, the researcher of this study argues that energy is one of the basic needs of human
race even if it is not stated so as food, clothing and shelter.

The problem of household energy is serious in a country like Ethiopia where about 60.8 % of
the population lives without electricity and 94 % and more of the household energy source is
Biomass (UNDP, 2008). Moreover, most people especially women use the three-stone fire
stoves and studies have confirmed that open fire stoves ( Three-stone open fire stoves) have a
very low efficiency estimated at 10-15% for cooking and about 7% for baking (Rest, 1992).
Thus, most of the potential energy 85-90 % is wasted. The low utilization efficiency of the
open fire stoves have resulted in a relatively higher demand for biomass particularly for
households that primarily or entirely rely on biomass fuel ‘the fuel of the poor’ constitutes
only 1% of energy consumption in developed world (Michael Atchia , 1995).

One way to increase cooking efficiency is introduction of improved stoves or closed stoves
which can save energy and are also environmental friendly. Under laboratory conditions,
improved stoves may save up to 50% of the wood which would have been used for the same
task over an open fire. Factors such as time saving, convenience, smoke reduction, house
heating and food test are at least as important for users to qualify these stoves as fuel efficient.
However, improved stove designs often fail to offer some of these qualities to the users. In
some cold areas the heat as in the open stove is needed and the smoke is also believed to
protect houses from worms and insects (REST, 1992).

Improved household energy supply can significantly contribute in reducing health problems
when compared to open stoves. Further improved stoves help to save time, money and to
generate income which will contribute to women’s advancement (Clancy, 2003). Especially,
when women are engaged in food processing, production and income generating activities a
reliable, affordable and safe energy sources are needed. It is only with affordable energy that

21
women can generate income since they are engaged in small scale and informal sectors. They
also need credit services, trainings and technical assistance to generate income using energy
efficient technologies (UNDP, 2004).

3.1.4 Improved Stoves and the Empowerment of Women

Empowerment includes change and transformation from one level or stage to another. These
changes can be in mind set, behavior and attitude which help to change one’s situation. It is
essentially a bottom-up process at individual level or up-bottom where different organization
can facilitate empowerment by creating conditions which can change women’s lives and their
families (Emebet, 1999).

According to Jo Rowlands, empowerment must be about bringing people who are outside the
decision-making process into it. This puts a strong emphasis on access to political structures
and formal decision-making and, in the economic sphere, on access to markets and incomes
that enables people to participate in economic decision-making. It is about individuals being
able to maximize the opportunities available to them without, or despite, constraints of
structure and state (Eade, 199).

Within the generative interpretation of power, empowerment also includes access to

intangible decision-making process. It is concerned with the process by which people become
aware of their own interests and how those relate to those of others, in order both to
participate from a position of greater strength in decision-making and actually to influence
such decisions.

Empowerment is also a key element in any development process as recognized by UNICEF

to be used as operational tool in any development endeavor (UNDP, 2004). Different
organizations be it GOs and NGOs can empower women by way of providing them credit,
skill training, consciousness raising trainings and technical assistance (UNDP, 2004). Any
stove program should include women from the start, as planners and designers, builders and
promoters and by doing so can contribute to the empowerment of women socially and
economically (Skutch, 1998).

Energy meets women’s practical, productive and strategic needs. In the form of improved
biomass (supply and conversion technology), improved health through better stoves and less
time and effort in gathering and carrying firewood, address women’s practical needs.

22
Improved biomass stoves can save time and minimize cost for productive activities whereby
it can address women’s productive needs at the same time empowering them (Clancy, 2003).

3.1.5 Gender and Energy Policies

Energy policies and projects alone will not change the role of men and women in a particular
society, but they can be used as entry points for promoting greater fairness in the allocation of
opportunities and resources. Given the critical role that women play as energy managers in
Ethiopia recognition of greater sensitivity to gender disparities in particular concerning
women could improve effectiveness of energy program. Although the application of gender
sensitivity to energy policies has not thus far been a regular exercise, some efforts have been
made to analyze the impacts of traditional energy usage on the situation of women. These
efforts have revealed several crucial aspects of how energy can affect the lives of women both
positively and negatively (UNDP 2000).

The fourth world conference on women, held in Beijing in 1995, emphasized the vital role of
women in sustainable development and the need to promote greater overall development
opportunities for women. With regard to energy, the Beijing Platform for Action called on
Governments to support the development of equal access for women to sustainable and
affordable energy technologies, including renewable energy and energy efficiency
technologies, through participatory needs assessments, energy planning and policy
formulation at local and national levels (UNDP, 2000).

As a result of the Beijing platform for action, The Durban Declaration, “Women in Energy
Ministerial Meeting’ was held in Durban South Africa from11-12 December 2000. This
declaration was made by African Ministers responsible for the development and utilization of
energy, in partnership with representatives of international organizations, NGOs, and the
private sector. The Conference discussed and explored possible policy, financial, and
economic solutions for problems experienced by African women with regard to the energy
sector (UNDP 2004).

According to UNIFEM the elements of gender- sensitive energy policies has four general
aspects namely political, economic, environmental sustainability and social (UNDP, 2004).
These four aspects address gender issues and especially emphasize on the need to give
attention to women’s empowerment and reduce inequalities between women and men by
improving access to energy services.

23
 The four general aspects of energy policy listed above need to be correlated with three
issues that lie at the heart of women’s energy needs; availability, affordability and
safety. The multidimensional aspects of energy policy can be combined with gender
issues in the form of a matrix and used in any intervention on energy conservation
(UNDP, 2004: 32).

However, Energy policy of Ethiopia has overlooked the necessity to conduct studies on
women’s access to and energy use. In addition, the need for women to participate in the
implementation and evaluation of energy projects is not mentioned (GTZ, 1999). It is also
clear that, the context in which the policy was formulated was different from the present day
and it was before the Beijing platform for action.

3.1.6 Gender Mainstreaming in Development Projects

As it was agreed upon during the fourth world conference in Bejing in 1995, Gender
mainstreaming was adopted as a strategy to bring gender equity and equality as well as
sustainable development. Gender mainstreaming is about assessing the implication for women
and men of any planned action, including legislation, policy, program and project in all areas
and levels. It is also understanding of gender relations and their implications for development
policy and implementations (UNDP, 2000).

This developmental approach perceive gender issues in a balanced way rather than see
women crushed further under the burden of their traditional work in unchanging divisions of
labor. As human survival is now the world’s most pressing problem, gender mainstreaming
strategy help to see that women are crucial to that survival, then the empowerment of women
is essential for the emergence of new, creative, and cooperative solutions (Eade,1999).

There have been considerable discussions in the development circles about the need for a
‘people centered’ approach to projects. The process of gender mainstreaming helps us to
identify people’s needs through gender analysis tools. Accordingly, any program or project
must ensure full incorporation of roles, needs and participation of women and men in
development processes (Eade, 1999).

Incorporating the perspectives of women provides a unique and powerful vantage point from
which we examine the effects of development programs and strategies (Fenella, 1999). This
point of departure is fruitful for a number of reasons: first, if development goals primarily
targeted to improve the standard of living of people, reduction of poverty and create dignified

24
employment and ending of reduction in societal inequality, then it has to start with women
who constitute the majority of the poor, underemployed and socially disadvantaged (Gita,
ND).

Second, women’s work is under remunerated and undervalued while objectively seen as being
vital to the survival and ongoing reproduction of human beings. Therefore, it will be logical
and necessary to understand and address the hidden gender power exiting within relations
caused by gender division of labor. In food production and processing, in responsibility for
fuel, water, health care, child rearing, sanitation, and in the entire range of so-called basic
needs women’s labor is dominant. Hence, if we are to understand the impact of development
strategies on these same needs, the viewpoint of women as the principal producers and
workers is an obvious starting point (Charlton, 1984).

On the contrary most development projects Project evaluations and reviews are difficult to
obtain and uneven in quality. The methodology varies considerably from study to study, and
most evaluations are devoid of larger analytical frameworks especially of gender analytical
tools and frameworks. Most of the time both project and higher level management are either
not fully committed or insensitive to changing women’s situation or unaware of important
aspect of a development project strategies like gender sensitive planning and evaluation
(Eade, 1999).

Additionally most projects suffer from a lack of baseline information about the
socioeconomic situation of project beneficiaries, and economic requirements of the project in
terms of available market. Most importantly these baseline studies do not sufficiently break
down by gender and class concepts such as the household or the family and it takes the
household as a point of analysis ignoring the gender power relation lying behind each
household ( Charlton, 1998).

Household is frequently targeted as the frontline of implementing agencies in a range of

schemes that aim to increase productivity and reduce poverty. Most policy –makers are
reluctant to be intervening directly in intra-household norms and relations, the private domain.
Research in intra-household relations has revealed asymmetrical distribution of resources and
responsibilities embedded in domestic norms (Gita, ND). A gender – aware approach to the
design of anti-poverty programs and projects requires that policy makers are clear, consistent,
and well informed about the relevance of gender in specific contexts to their goals, objectives
and strategies (Eade, 1999).

25
3.1.7 Gender Content in Energy Projects

As most of development projects and programs, energy projects have often failed to achieve
their objectives in the past, in part because the needs and potentials of the target groups have
not been properly considered and mapped. Women were not consulted about the type of
stoves and were not trained to make them or to repair them (Skutch, 1997). There is often
little attention paid to women’s opinions about the technology involved or their real
possibilities as regard to these technologies or becoming involved in the projects from the
start.

An approach where women are part of the project plan and implementation had been followed
by an ILO/World Bank Stoves Feasibility Project in Ethiopia as reported by Gebresslassie,
cited in (Dankilman and Davidson, 1998). It was focused on urban users in Addis Ababa and
survey was made of characteristics of the households using different stoves, appliances and
fuel types. Different methods of marketing and dissemination, such as the sale of stoves
through women’s groups, were also tested and collaborating with neighborhood women’s
association was found to be effective. This project showed how women, the end users, can be
involved in a program from the start.

According to Skutch, it is affirmed that improved stoves have not been widely accepted. An
evaluation of program in Gujarat, India, demonstrated that sponsoring agencies assess their
success primarily in terms of the number of stoves which have been built. Only in few cases,
had the sponsoring agency tested whether the stoves built were less smoky or more efficient
in practice than traditional fire places. Further explaining the reasons, Skutch pointed out that
little is known about the sustained performance of new stoves, for most surveys are carried
out soon after they have been installed. Many stoves use, under field conditions, almost as
much fuel as an open fire; laboratory testing alone cannot replicate the field situation (Skutch,
1985).

To assess the impact of any stove, a systematic collection of gender disaggregated data such
as who does what, when and who controls the important resources, who is using these
technologies and their efficiency are essential instead of depending only on laboratory
testing. Monitoring and evaluation should be conducted on other socio-economic variables to
be able to identify complete information on availability of the knowledge to install, use and
maintain these technologies (Skutch, 1997).

26
On the other hand, even if energy projects are considered as ‘women’s projects‘ still in the
eye of the majority of women, these projects are not taken seriously. According to Skutsch,
this is so perhaps women are responsible for daily small scale purchase including wood or
charcoal and men for capital expenditures and purchase of large items. If the household is
conceptualized as an economic unit, it would be expected that investment in an improved
stove would be seen as an advantage. But if the household does not perceive itself to be an
economic unit but in fact as two parts which may even be in competition with each other, it is
clear that the capital for the stove will not easily be made available (Skutch, 1997).

Even if the capital for the stove can be raised at one go, there are other features the energy
planners give attention to than energy efficiency. These features which are more important to
the women, the cooker, are speed and ease of cooking, safety, compatibility with existing pots
and pans, ability to use different types of fuels at different seasons (Dankilman and Davidson,
1989). What is important to the women? In this case the energy planners have to sit and
discuss with the women about what the situation is. If the concern of the planners is that
deforestation is taking place as a result of firewood extraction, but the women don’t perceive
any serious problem, then it is no use building a project around the idea that women will be
motivated to participate because they will save time and drudgery (Skutch, 1997).

3.2 Theoretical Framework

Feminist theory and writing provides a basis for understanding every area of our lives and
proposes strategies for activism and action. The basic issue that concerns feminist theory is
inequality of women and focuses in trying to explain the cause and condition of inequality
while examining the structure of domination. Feminist theory tries to explain women’s
situation using gender as an element of analysis. The theory is progressive, multifaceted, with
cumulative history and has a history of persistent change.

Accordingly, there has been a debate on women, environment and sustainable development
which has given rise to ecological feminism or Eco-feminism. The rise of ecological
feminism or Eco-feminism has created a chance to give attention to poor women’s problem
and women are seen by many researchers involved in the women environment and sustainable
development debate as privileged environmental managers, or the source for solutions to the
environmental crisis.

27
In this research the overall situation and condition of women as household energy providers
and mangers is seen from feminist theoretical perspective. Accordingly theories of Eco-
feminism, contemporary socialist feminism and Material feminism are used to explain the
condition and situation of women in relation to the course of intervention about fuel wood
crisis.

3.2.1 Eco-feminism

In her 1962 book entitled “The silent spring”, Rachel Carson warned Americans that unless
they begin to take care of their environment, all man assaults upon the environment including
the contamination of air, land, Rivers, and sea with dangerous and even lethal materials will
undoubtedly shatter or alter the very material upon which the shape of the future depends
(Warren, 1997).

Eco-feminism is relatively a new variant of ecological ethics. In fact the term Eco-feminism
first appeared in 1974, in Francoise d’ Eaubonne’s book entitled” Le Feminisme ou la mort”.
In this work, she expressed the view that there exists a direct link between the oppression of
women and the oppression of nature. According to Eaubonne in order, to find solutions for
ecological problems feminist perspective is important. In her explanation, she further
elaborated the fact that the liberation of women cannot be effective without the liberation of
nature from destruction. Her argument asserts that the domination of woman was the original
domination in human society from which all other hierarchies of rank, class and political
power followed (Warren, 1997).

The theory of Eco-feminism gives emphasis on women’s displacement from productive

activities by the expansion of development. This is because development projects destroyed
the natural resource base used for subsistence and survival. It destroyed women’s
productivity, by removing land, water and forests from their management and control, as well
as through the ecological destruction of these resources, impairing nature’s productivity and
renewability. Women are the first victims of ecological destruction because of their gender
roles and responsibilities (Tong, 1998).

Eco-feminists brought new ground when they began arguing that the capitalist exploitation of
resources was connected to the degradation of nature and women. Especially the radical Eco-
feminists affirm the women-nature connections and domination of nature and abuse of

28
women’s bodies while socialist Eco-feminists repudiate the women –nature connection
(Warren, 1997).

Ecological feminist claim that any feminism, environmentalism and environmental ethic
which fail to take these connections seriously is grossly inadequate. The women–nature
connection, according to Warren is very strong. Hence, any feminism has to look this
connection and look the position of women in relation to nature (Warren, 1997).

In 1974 there was a movement by women called Chipko in Hindu for ‘to embrace or hug’
where women were against the cutting down of trees. Trees and forests are inextricably
connected to rural and household economies governed by women especially in the third world
countries (Braidotti, 1994). Shortage of trees is a concern for women, because women are the
actors of the household economies and suppliers of food, fuel, fodder and products for home
including herbal medicines from trees.

We can see that deforestation means environmental change or change in weather and the
disproportionate effect on fauna and flora of a country for an environmentalist. When it
comes to the women it is a question of survival in every aspect of life. First of all women are
the primary sufferers of environmental degradation in a way that they have to take a walk
farther for fuel wood and fodder.

Thinking of remedies for environmental degradation, one needs appropriate technology which
is also an Eco-feminist issue. Usually, the household technology is need of women which new
development projects have failed to adequately address. So the environment-feminist project
and its success require the revaluation of women’s caring labor. Whereas third world
development is also a feminist project because the women’s work has to do with sustainable
development for those who cares for other but never being cared for them (Warren, 1997).

Agencies who seek to develop without appreciating what women tend to know about the
environment will usually end up being unsuccessful. There is an epistemic biases with women
knowledge example about traditional medicine it is the masculine biases in dualism favors the
modern scientific, rational, global and high-tech over the traditional, small-scale and low-tech
(Braidotti, 1994).

Warren provides a useful schematic for conceptualizing ecological feminism the intersecting
and complementary spheres of feminism, indigenous knowledge, and appropriate science,
development, and technology. These create an Eco-feminist development rationale which

29
takes seriously epistemic privilege, women’s issues, and technologies which work in
partnership with natural systems (Warren, 1997).

Science and technology are needed to solve environmental problems still Eco-feminism not
only welcomes appropriate science and technology but, as an ecological feminism, requires
the inclusion of appropriate insights and data of scientific ecology. However, Eco-feminism
also insists that data about the historical and interconnected exploitation of nature and women
and other oppressed peoples be recognized and brought to bear in solutions.

Hence, energy projects in a country like Ethiopia have to give attention to the voice of women
and consider their problems in relation to energy crisis and environmental degradation. The
insights of women, who are the main household energy providers and consumers, have to be
an integral part of any energy project, program and strategy. The constraints, problems, and
views of women have to be part of energy planning and implementation process of any
energy intervention on energy crisis.

An ideology of ecological feminism is an alternative of a moral universe which is not focused

on power and control or on the accumulation of material at the expense of human and
environmental system. The two most important tools to create this moral universe is gender
analysis and gender training that can address basic organizational and personal change which
humans find it difficult to unlearn the habits of centuries. These habits are the habits of
plundering environmental resources as well as exploiting the natural resources and the under-
privileged and the marginalized where most of them are women (Merchant, 1994).

3.2.2 Material Feminism

Material feminism is one of the variant of feminism. The purpose of Material feminism is to
bring the material, the materiality of the human body (bodies) and the natural world (nature)
to the forefront of feminist theorization. This theory takes Eco-feminism one step ahead and
offers comprehensive and compelling transformation of the category of nature. Material
feminists don’t take the nature /culture divide instead in continuity among actors between
human, non-human and technological (Haraway, 1991).

The theory advocates that, human bodies within specific environmental contexts as biological
as they are political, as material as they are social. The theory emphasizes the need for
feminist theory to re-think, the materiality of human corporeality, pain, illness, physicality of

30
bodies. It shows how the personal, the political and material are braided together (Haraway,
1991).

According to Material feminists, with the advent of postmodernism and post-structuralism,

many feminists have turned their attention to social constructionist models. Though the social
constructionist model has allowed understanding how gender has been articulated with other
volatile markings, such as class, race, and sexuality within cultural system of difference
postmodern feminist theories are criticized for loss of the material. Environmental feminists
have long insisted that feminism needs to take the materiality of the more-than-human world
seriously (Alaimo, 2008).

According to Alaimo, the mainstream feminist theory has more often than not relegated Eco-
feminism to the backwoods, fearing that any alliance between feminism and
environmentalism could only be founded upon a naïve, romantic account of reality. Alaimo
argues, predominantly feminist theories have persuaded a flight from nature. Clearly feminists
who are also environmentalists cannot be content with theories that replicate the very
nature/culture dualism that has been so injurious-not only to non-human nature but to various
women (Alaimo, 2008).

Within material feminism interactionist ontology acknowledges both the agency of materiality
and the porosity of entities. Separating the natural from humanly, genes from environment is
impossible as a result bodies and sexes are fluid and emergent. As we are producers of
environmental change we need to articulate biological and social. Since biological bodies are
within the physico- chemical environment which affects us (Alaimo, 2008).

Gender division of labor gives to women the responsibility to provide and use household
energy in Ethiopia where women are exposed to different physico-chemical environment than
man. Due to environmental degradation, lack of modern energy sources and inaccessibility of
improved energy technology women are impacted negatively from biological, economical,
social and political aspects.

According to WHO report, an example a female cook can inhale an amount of benzopyren (a
poisonous gas from burning fuel) equivalent to 20 packs of cigarettes a day, cited in
(Dankilman and Davidson, 1998). In few places chronic carbon monoxide poisoning is also
evident. Exposure can bring acute bronchitis, pneumonia and death where respiratory

31
defenses are impaired. This implies the negative impact of household energy crisis needs to
be looked by taking the materiality of the more-than-human world seriously.

3.2.3 Contemporary Socialist Feminism

The integration of the social aspect in development agenda comes from environment crisis,
the growth of poverty and gender inequality. It is also clear that it is a common interest to all
humanity, surviving on increasingly scarce natural resources.

The dominant development has been critiqued, for its way of marginalizing women from the
process since poor women are usually trapped in gender–division of labor. One of the
proponents of Socialist feminism, Iris Young suggested that only a gender-sighted category
such as ‘division of labor’ has the conceptual power to transform Marxist feminist theory into
a socialist feminist theory. According to her, the category ‘division of labor’ enabled to
discuss women’s entire estate which is women’s position in the family, the workplace,
reproductive and sexual roles as well as women’s productive roles (Tong, 1998).

Mostly women’s work despite under remunerated and undervalued is vital to the survival and
ongoing reproduction of human beings in all societies. In food production and processing, in
responsibility for fuel, water, health care, child-rearing, sanitation, and the entire range of so-
called basic needs, women’s labor is dominant. Thus to understand the impact of development
strategies on these same needs, the viewpoint of women as the principal producers and
workers who are not paid for their labor is crucial (Charlton, 1984).

According to Braidotti, patriarchal culture tends to locate women’s practices at the border
between nature and culture. These involve caring for others like mothering, cooking , health
care and certain kind of simple , traditional agricultural labor that are low paid or unpaid, such
a weeding and tending to livestock (Braidotti, 1994).

When it comes to household energy supply commercial fuels can’t compete with fuel wood,
because it is gathered free from forests. In this case good energy solutions like energy saving
stoves to real human problems and to fulfill real human needs are the victims of market
economies because some elements in the equation are non-monetized. Women’s labor usually
not monetized, but value is attached to it thus, it is expected that for Government to step in
and counter balance the negative effect of the market to protect the natural resources. It can be
debated, that provision of the stove freely or by subsidy means the country is saving money,
labor and natural resources. In order to do that it will be wise to consider household energy as

32
basic need. Women’s fuel gathering time plus risk is equivalent to marketed fuel wood even
ignoring the value of forest in environmental terms (Eade, 1999).

It is clear that women in Ethiopia, because of the gender–division of labor are engaged in
unpaid labor of productive, reproductive and community maintenance. Women usually carry
out tasks to maintain household and ensure reproduction. One of these tasks is to supply and
use household energy and this has negative health and safety impacts. In addition they suffer
from fuel wood crisis which result walking long distances to collect it, paying high prices and
serving undercooked food.

It is important that women’s work in many cases is given monetary value in NGOs which are
not controlled by market forces. Policy have to balance financial sustainability versus the
unvalued labor and public property protection instead of moving against financial subsidy in
the energy sector and cash payment by the consumer for energy services provided.
Eventually, societal and global redistribution of power, which is sought by socialist feminism,
could be true (Charlton, 1984).

Socialist feminists are also interested in undermining the power-over system of capitalist
patriarchy through empowerment. They believe that, this can be accomplished best by a
societal and global redistribution of power, as opposed to placing their hopes in the
empowering capacity of feminine traits. As a result, socialist feminists are most active in
socialist revolutions and women’s economic movements, organized around such issues as
women on welfare, women in development, and effects of economic globalization on women
(Tong, 1998).

Jo Rowlands further explains, feminist interpretation of power lead to a still broader

understanding of empowerment, since they go beyond formal and institutional definitions of
power and incorporate the idea of the personal as political, cited in (Eade, 1999). Since these
affect the ability of less powerful groups to participate in formal and informal decision-
making, and to exert influence, they also affect the way that individuals or groups perceive
themselves and their ability to act and influence the world around them.

Empowerment is thus more than simply opening up access to decision-making, it must also
include the process that lead people affected come to see themselves as having the capacity
and the right to act and have influence (Eade, 1999). In-addition existing gender division of
labor and resources the interests of poor men and women are not same. Empowered women

33
start to exercise grater bargaining power within the household and active participation in
community life (Eade, 1999).

Moreover, the objectives of developmental initiatives and agencies are advancement and
empowerment of women then according to socialist feminists they have to open chances for
women in decision making process. It must also include the process that lead affected people
come to see themselves as having the capacity and the right to act and have influence. Women
who are the main actors in the household energy provision and consumption must have the
right to positively influence the overall energy project cycle so that their voices become an
integral part of the solution to household energy crisis in Ethiopia.

34
 CHAPTER FOUR

4. ANALYSIS OF FINDINGS and DISCUSSION

4.1 Women’s Views and Concerns on GTZ-Mirt Project

4.1.1 Profile of Quantitative Survey Respondents
The number of questionnaires completed with the help of enumerators amounts 256 and was
directed to women purposively selected in every household picked with quota and random
sampling in Bahir Dar City. The target group includes women who do and do not possess
Mirt since the type of questions asked to a woman who uses Mirt differs from that of a
woman who does not have Mirt. All the variables in the questionnaire are not addressed
equally with the entire respondents. Therefore, the percentages of responses are calculated out
of 256 for questions applicable for the two groups, out of 159 for questions raised on Mirt and
out of 97 for questions raised on not having Mirt. The data collected focuses on technicalities
of Mirt in the cases of 159 women and on financial and other related issues in the case of 97
women. The profiles of respondents shown in (Table 4.1) who have participated in the
quantitative survey are summarized as follows.

Out of the total 256 respondents, the majority which is about 60% of them are between the
age of 21 and 40. Respondents within the age range of 41 to 61 constitute about 25% of the
respondent while those who are younger than 21 years of age and those who are older than 61
years of age take a share of 5% each. Details of respondent’s age are presented in ranges in
(Table 4.1).

Regarding marital status of the respondent’s the result of the survey showed that majority of
them as married which amount 64.45%, and those living single are 13.67%. The divorced,
widowed and those living separate places constitute 10.15%, 9.37%, and 2.34% respectively.
In relation to this, the family composition is dominantly of male headed which is 61.32% as it
is indicated in (Table 4.1).

As far as the educational status of respondents is concerned, the majority are found to be
between grades one to twelve constituting almost half. About 30.46% of them don’t have

35
education at all while 16.40 of them have basic education and can read and write. Only 3.51%
of them have attended higher education as indicated in (Table 4.1).

Concerning the occupational status of the respondents, the result of the survey showed that
the majority of the respondents are housewife constituting 50.00%. Those who have paid
occupation are around 42% and these women are either civil servants or engaged in small
private business. Detailed occupational statuses of the respondents are summarized under
(Table 4.1).

Monthly income of family of these respondents largely belongs to the low income group
which is less than 500 birr per month. Analysis of the results of the survey showed that the
average income of the households is 2550 Birr per month and it ranges from 100 Birr to 5000
Birr. As it is indicated in the second chapter of this study the respondents were not
comfortable telling the family income to the enumerators so this data is believed to show at
least the pattern of family income in the sampled households.

Regarding the number of person living in each household the study showed that it ranges
from single to 14. The majority of the respondents have an average family size between 2 to 5
which amount 64%. The average family size of this study almost matches the national
average family size which is around 4 people per family. In relation to this the family
premise ownership showed that about 37.11% own a house while the remaining of the
respondent rent a house from Kebele, private tenant as indicated in (Table 4.1).

Finally, the analysis of the study shows that out of 256 respondents 62.11% are using Mirt for
Injera baking in the study area. Only 5.47% of the respondents uses electric stove for Injera
baking while about 28% are using open fire stove. About 3.51% are using traditional enclosed
stove by building the stove from local raw material themselves.

36
Table 4. 1. Background of Survey Participants
Items Category Frequency Percentage
Age < 21 14 5.47
21-30 95 37.11
31-40 67 26.17
41-50 37 14.45
51-60 26 10.16
61 and above 17 6.64
Total 256 100
Religion Orthodox 218 85.16
Muslim 27 10.55
Protestant 11 4.30
Total 256 100
Marital status Married 165 64.45
single 35 13.67
Divorced 26 10.15
separated 6 2.34
Widowed 24 9.37
Total 256 100
Household Composition Male headed 157 61.32
Female headed 97 37.89
No response 2 0.78
Total 256 100
Educational status Illitrate 78 30.46
Read and write 42 16.40
Grade 1-6 48 18.75
Grade 7-12 78 30.46
Above Grade 12 9 3.51
No response 1 0.39
Total 256 100
Occupation Housewife 128 50.00
private business 76 29.68
civil servant 31 12.10
students and retired 20 7.81
No response 1 0.39
Total 256 100
Income <500 110 42.97
501-1000 82 32.03
1001-1500 19 7.42
1501-2000 11 4.30
2001-2500 2 0.78
>2501 5 1.95
No response 27 10.55
Total 256 100
Premises Ownership Kebele rent 89 34.77
own house 95 37.11
rent from private 72 28.13
Total 256 100
Family Size only one 12 4.69
2-5 163 63.67
6-10 77 30.08
11-14 2 0.78
No responses 2 0.78
Total 256 100
Stoves Used Electric stove 14 5.47
Traditional enclosed stove 9 3.51
Open fire stove 74 28.90
Mirt Stove 159 62.11
Total 256 100

37
4.1.2 Impacts and Benefits of Mirt

Mirt Injera Stove is an improved stove in its energy efficiency. Mirt stove as any other
improved stoves is developed through improved stoves program taking in the energy scarcity
of the country in to account that comes from unsustainable usage of resources by the
household sector (GTZ, 1999). According to the designers of the stove it is a tool that offers a
better way of cooking and which use no more fuel than the traditional stoves or open fires. It
encloses the fire and the smoke is removed through a short chimney at the back.

It is recorded by MME that fuel saving in family ranges 33-57% by using Mirt (MME, 2008).
According to GTZ, Mirt reduces fuel consumption by about 50% as compared to traditional
methods. Moreover, the GTZ stove test result indicates carbon monoxide (CO) in parts per
million is 69, 02 PPM for open stove while with Mirt stove it is 7.37 PPM. Particulate matter
(mg/cubic meter) for open stove is 0.68mg/cubic meter and 0.51mg/cubic meter in Mirt that is
30% over the open fire (GTZ, 2010).

Mirt has six parts after production then assembled and fixed as a complete set in a leveled
position. Four parts out of six make the circle where the pan or Mitad is rested on. These four
parts additionally makes the wood inlet and the smoke outlet of the stove. The two remaining
part one on top of the other make the short chimney and pot rest. All together six parts of the
stove weighs 69.8 Kg in the case of ordinary Mirt and 38.18 Kg for Slim Mirt. Slim Mirt is a
type of Mirt which is designed taking into consideration the high price of cement. The weight
of the Slim Mirt is 38.18kg while the ordinary Mirt weighs 69.8kg which means fewer raw
materials is used without compromising the efficiency.

There are few basic guides to be followed for best result of Mirt and make it efficient and
these are the following: Do not put too much fuel wood at the in-let of the stove; lit the fire
around the inlet; circulate the fire around and put a pot or pan to boil or cook at the smoke
escape and use hardboard to blow the fire whenever it is out (GTZ, ND).

The impacts and benefits of Mirt as stated by GTZ, is that for 150,000 Mirt stoves, fuel wood
saving amount to 56,250 tons per year, household expenditure savings amount to 31.5 million
Birr per year, annual fuel wood savings are equivalent to 11,250-15,000 ha of forest
plantations (eucalyptus) and avoids re-forestation costs estimated at 71.2 million birr per year.
Improved stoves contribute to reduce net carbon emission and improve quality of life by
providing convenience and comfort. It also improve kitchen environment (GTZ, ND).

38
As collected from respondents, the benefits are multidimensional and these include fuel,
money, and time saving. In addition smoke reduction, protection from fire hazard,
convenience and comfort are additional qualities mentioned by the respondents. Answering
on who is benefiting the most by using Mirt among wives, children and husbands majority
(99.37%) agreed women benefit the most followed by children and then husband. Only one
respondent believes that the beneficiaries are in the order of husband, wife and children.

Fuel and Money saving: According to respondents, the amount of fuel and money saved
expressed in percent are equal. Fuel and money savings stated by respondents range from
20% to 50% as compared to traditional stoves and some of them believe that the saving is
insignificant. Out of 159 respondents who possess Mirt about 61.62% of them believe that
the saving amounts to 50%. Those who assume the saving to be 40-45% amounts to 8.9 %
and 30%-20% savings constitute 12.5% of the respondents and 16.98% did not respond.

The findings from the in-depth interview with Mirt users doesn’t go along with the finding
from the quantitative survey instead most of them believe that the saving is very minimal (not
more than 25% ) when compared to open stoves. One woman from in-depth interview
participant explained that the only reason she is using Mirt is for her protection from fire
hazard, otherwise she did not observe any fuel or money saving by using the stove.

She further stated the following: ‘‘I really don’t know the secret how people save half of their
fuel wood and money but as for me it doesn’t make any difference’’. Later it was observed
that the respondent’s Mirt is in bad shape and looks like almost the traditional stove. The
short chimney is totally removed and the inlet part is broken. The reason why she removed
the short chimney she said that ‘The chimney is totally useless and what it does is blocking the
air and putting off the fire’.

Mirt of the above respondent was located in a common kitchen with other two Mirts and was
possible to look the physical status of the stoves. Same as the first woman, the other two
women have also removed the short chimney which makes a total of three chimneys-less
stoves in one common kitchen (See Picture 4.1).

On the contrary, report on stove testing and advertizing promotions made by GTZ states that
the specific fuel consumption compared to open fire stove is about 50.7%. However, these
tests were conducted under laboratory conditions where all factors were under control (GTZ,

39
2010).The indicated fuel saving was attained in a controlled kitchen test, thus the efficiency of
these stoves can’t be expected to be same in real life situation.

Picture 4. 1: A common kitchen where three Mirt located and short chimneys taken off

In- efficient use of the stove is further evidenced by lack of information as shown in (Table
4.2). Out of the total respondents 22.64% of them do not know even how to plaster their stove
when it is cracked. The crakes when left without plastering mean negative influence on the
efficiency of the stove. Above all, 66.66% of the women who are using Mirt don’t know that
they could buy parts of the stove if their Mirt is broken partly. Unless the broken part of the
stove prohibits them from using it they will continue using it according to some of the in-
depth interview participants. Using the stove while it is broken consequently has a negative
influence on the efficiency or fuel saving capacity.

Table 4.2. Information on How to Maintain Mirt

Information on; Yes Percentage No Percentage No Percentage Total

% % Response %
How to plaster 109 68.55 36 22.64 14 8.80 159
possibility 52 32.7 106 66.66 1 0.06 159
of purchasing parts

40
Reduction of In-door Air Pollution: stating the reasons why respondents bought the stove
96.13% of them responded for its ability to save firewood and its property of being
smokeless. The remaining 1.94 % bought only for it being smokeless and equally the rest
1.94% bought it only for saving firewood.

During in-depth interview with women, the performance of Mirt in real life situation was
observed while women were baking Injera. Additionally, the overall situation of performance
was observed during interview of those cases where Mirt was not seen operational. As a result
it was learnt that most of them have removed the smoke escape or pot rest to reduce the
congestion of the smoke and believe that it is useless.

None of respondents use the side pot for cooking for many reasons. According to them,
cooking while baking injera will be inconvenient because the smoke instead of going up
return by the pot to the main part of the stove. One of the in-depth interview participants and
who owns a small restaurant explained;

‘‘If we cook food on the stove while baking, it will test smoky and our customers will
complain about it. Even the pot we use happens to be metallic pot then it will be
blackened. The only thing we can use the smoke escape is to heat water with a small
kettle, which can only be used to wash dishes. ‘’

According to energy advisor of GTZ, the principle behind Mirt in air pollution reduction is
based on a proper and total combustion of the biomass. The report on stove testing also
shows that emission reduction of Mirt over the open fire stove is 92.28% on the average
(GTZ, 2010). It is clear that emission reduction by using Mirt is only possible with the proper
use of the inlet and outlet of the stove as stated in the user’s guide. Responding on users
comment, on the smoke escape as useless, one key informant stated the following:

‘‘They are considering the smoke escape as a drawback because they are not aware
about the use of the inlet and outlet of the stove. Moreover, if cooking on pot rest of
Mirt is considered to make the food smoky what about when cooking with open stove
which is smoky than this one. Generally, it is more of attitudinal and awareness
problem from the users side that they mention so many Mirt related problems’’.

41
Picture 4. 2: Mirt being used in contrary to user’s guide

In most cases the pot rest is not being used while baking for the reason that they can’t cook
wot while baking (See Picture 4.2). According to the in-depth interview participants, it is
impossible to stir since it is at the rear end of the stove. They further commented, why
designers of Mirt don’t think of a thin and light smoke escape which goes out of the house
instead of making a chimney which is short at same time heavy and thick.

In line with this finding Celcelski, stated that improved stoves have many different shapes and
sizes and are frequently made from locally available material. Moreover, chimneys made of
sheet-metal are critical to improved stove performances, cited in (Dankilman and Davidson,
1989). Hence, as the women suggested for improved stoves to have best performances
chimneys which is made of sheet-metal that can go beyond the roof is the best options.
According to these women, the smoke could be removed totally from the cooking space with
long chimney but with the short chimney smoke reduction of Mirt is difficult to notice.

Almost all the findings on benefits of Mirt especially in respect to in-door air pollution
reduction, fuel wood and money saving are not as intended by the designers of Mirt or stated
in the stove testing report. As it has been evidenced from the observation and in-depth
interview, most of the users are using it not more than the traditional enclosed Mitad. In a
condition where the smoke escape is taken off, broken part not replaced or not plastered
immediately, the impacts and benefits claimed by the project can’t be attained. From the
GTZ-Mirt project part and other stakeholders, the impact is calculated from the number of

42
Mirt disseminated and theoretical assumption which gives us to save 50% fuel. These benefits
and impacts can be attained if and only if users are using Mirt properly according to the user’s
guide prepared by the project which is not addressed to most users.

The above findings are in agreement with Skutch’s argument, that sponsoring agencies assess
their success primarily in terms of the number of stoves built and distributed. Only in few
cases, had the sponsoring agency tested whether the stoves built were less smoky or more
efficient in practice than traditional fire places (Skutch, 1985). Little is known about the
sustained performance of new stoves, for most surveys are carried out soon after they have
been installed.

In most of the households where in-depth interviews were conducted and from observations
made the stoves are not being used efficiently for reasons such as: removal of the smoke
escape and broken parts not replaced. This happens mainly because users are not aware of the
importance of the parts. They don’t have the information that they can buy parts of the stoves
if partly broken and don’t know how to plaster it. Generally information on how to install,
repair and use Mirt is lacking.

This finding is in line with Skutsch argument, why some energy programs under achieves
theirs goals because of lack of analyzing the impact on both men and women. Where women
were not consulted about the type of stoves and were not trained to make them or to repair
them (Skutsch, 1999).

Time saving: all respondents agree that using Mirt for baking makes the process faster. In
their responses they were not able to decide how much faster their cooking is in using Mirt.

Comfort and Convenience: improving quality of life by providing convenience and comfort
in the kitchen is one of the benefits mentioned by the project. Agreeably, women have
positive remark in this respect and these remarks are: its protection from burning hazard,
comfortable, compatible with pan and pots, easy to control fire and easy to use different types
of fuels. For most of the questions listed in the table concerning features of Mirt, women who
used Mirt have responded positively. The positive response on these qualities ranges from
least 85.53% to 98.74% as it is indicated in detail in (Table 4.3).

The most important quality appreciated by most of respondents is Mirt’s durability. The life
span of Mirt ranges from 1 to 12 years. About 13.84 % of those who have Mirt have used
them from 5-12 years and the remaining groups have used Mirt between 1 to 5 years.

43
Table 4.3 Responses on Convenience and Comfort of Mirt

Feature of Mirt Yes. Y.% No N.% Mo. Mo.% Total

1 Mirt taking space 10 6.28 145 91.19 4 2.52 159
3 Protect from burning hazard 149 93.71 4 2.52 6 3.77 159
4 Mirt comfortable to cook 152 95.60 5 3.14 2 1.26 159
5 Comfortable to polish (Massess) 30 18.87 127 79.87 2 1.26 159
6 Mirt compatible with pan 136 85.53 4 2.52 19 11.95 159
7 Stove compatible with pots 145 91.19 8 5.03 6 3.77 159
8 Control heat easily 157 98.74 0 0 2 1.26 159
9 Easy to use different types of fuels 148 93.08 5 3.14 6 3.77 159
Note: Mo. stands for moderate and massess in Amharic is to polish the clay pan or Mitad after
each and every baking with oily seed to get best result.

About 78.87% of them don’t feel comfortable to polish the mitad while baking Injera. It is
recognized that the group of women who have responded that their Mirt is not comfortable
while polishing most of them are who acquired Mirt 4 years and less as shown in graph 4.6.
The timing of the discomfort coincides with the introduction of Slim Mirt, kind of Mirt which
is less in weight and without edge or shoulder to carry the mitad.

Slim Mirt needs frequent maintenance on its part where the Mitad lies because it doesn’t have
the shoulder part unlike the ordinary or old Mirt. The mud that is used to plaster easily dried
and crumble out due to exposure of the fire (GTZ, 2010). So if the need for frequent
plastering was communicated to users would have done it and the problem of discomfort
could have been solved.

The in-depth interview with Mirt producers also revealed that they get frequent feedback from
users about (slim Mirt) not being comfortable while pan polishing. The producers agree that
this is happening because ‘Slim Mirt’ doesn’t have an edge or shoulder which can carry the
Mitad. In that case while polishing the Mitad there is a risk of the Mitad to go down and needs
frequent plastering.

When slim Mirt, the improved stove was on market many women have complained about the
quality that so thin and easily brake according to the producers. On the contrary the producers
believe that Slim was a product of technological improvement pushed by high price of
cement.

44
Graph 4. 1. Time Mirt Acquired Versus Comfort to Polish Pan

comfortable

somehow
comfortable

Uncomfortable

By considering the price of cement and its impact on the price of Mirt the previous 6cm
thickness of Mirt is reduced to 4 cm. As a result one quintal of cement which is used to
produce 5 pieces of Mirt rose to produce 8 Mirt. Hence it was not possible to create shoulder
for Slim Mirt out of 4 cm thickness according to one key informant from GTZ.

4.1.3 The Impact of Mirt Project on Women’s Life

The impact of Mirt-project in women’s life is seen from two aspects. First the impact of Mirt-
project was assessed on the life of women who are producing and marketing which was
collected from two producers in Bahir Dar. Second it was gathered during in-depth interview
how Mirt impacts women’s life when they are using it.

Mirt Producers: Two producers of Mirt in Bahir Dar city were interviewed by the name of
Tigist and Genet to see how the project assisted these producers, what experience they have,
what challenges they face and what their relations are with Mirt users. Accordingly, the cases
of these two women are presented below to show how life changing and beneficial the project
was to them just from their stories.

Case 1: Tigist Tefera, Mirt producer in Bahir Dar

Tigist was trained in the production of Mirt in 1988 where 16 people trained out of
which 13 are women. During this time she had completed grade 12 and was working as
daily laborer. After completion of her training she was given 2 quintals of cement, ten
quintals of sand and mold for Mirt to start with.

45
 She and others were working inside Mines and Energy compound then later she
managed to rent a working place. In the beginning, she had to promote Mirt by moving
door to door until concerned bodies started promoting. With the help of these marketing
promotions it was possible to sale large amount of Mirt. Starting from 1992, GTZ was
operating the commercial dissemination of Mirt and things changed positively
especially in the area of marketing promotion.

Starting with 150 birr capital, Tigist now has 600,000 Birr in cash and in fixed asset
from production and sales of Mirt. In 1994 she hired one person who could help her in
Mirt production and marketing but now she managed to hire 7-10 people per day. In
order to promote and market Mirt she participates actively in different exhibitions,
demonstrate Mirt during kebele meeting and participate in bidding rounds.

Her customers are usually women and some organizations like Injera baking association
namely ‘Lemlem Injera bakers association’ which supply injera to Bahirdar University.
She stated that:

‘‘Generally the business of Mirt production is good because it contributes to the

protection of natural resources. However there are challenges such as shortage of
mold, red-ash, cement and lack of store where I can buy cement and store. On top of
this the major challenge is lack of permanent working space.’’

In the future she is planning to work in agricultural related business while producing
Mirt. She believed that staying in Mirt business for long time and going through many
challenges helped her to develop confidence. She further elaborated how the business
shaped her to be active participant in social and economical forms as follows:

‘‘I was founder and chairperson of Bahir Dar women’s Entrepreneur’s association. This
had helped me to get different skill training on Entrepreneurship, to know different
laws, strategies and regulation on Trade and business. Many women come and consult
me on business management and I am happy to share my experience how they can be
successful in their business and encourage them. I was able to help women who are
very poor and helpless by providing Mirt for free so that they can bake injera and
sale.’’

Nowadays, Tigist is producing energy saving pot stove which is adapted from Keneya that
works with wood called ‘Fetenech’. Since a new improved Injera stove called ‘Gonzie’ is in

46
the market now and is being promoted many people are asking Tigist why she is not
producing or selling this stove. Gonzie is made up of clay, same material as the Mitad and
cheap. Gonzie now is so popular because it only costs 30 birr around Bahir Dar and can be
dismantled and be used for pots and pans. It can also be stored if not used means no need to
fix it in one place. Tigist is now planning to sell Gonzie by establishing a connection with
producers who lives 90 km away from Bahir Dar in Hawi zone. Tigist also suggested that
introducing Gonzie into the market is a good alternative and timely.

Case 2: Genete Tadesse, Mirt Producer in Bahir Dar

Genet is married and has a family size of 10. Until 2005 she was housewife with no
means of income. She was recruited in 2006 by the Kebele Women’s Association and
trained by GTZ on Mirt production and Marketing. She was given theoretical and
practical training for five days and she was able to get working place from Kebele.

To start Mirt business GTZ has supplied her with mold, 2 quintals cement and ten
quintals of red ash. After her first round production she was faced with lack of market
and she explained her challenges as follows:

‘‘In the beginning I was faced with lack of market and the products were stored with
200 Mirt in number. As a solution I started to promote the product in kebele meetings as
well as women’s traditional association like Edir and Ekob. I displayed it during Kebele
meetings by baking Injera. As a result even some men came and asked me to install the
Mirt in their home.’’

She sells Mirt for long term payments for those who can’t afford to buy at once. In
collaboration with the women’s association in the kebele she started to sell in 3
payments. Additionally, coupon system was introduced by the regional government and
people were encouraged to buy Mirt because in this case they were expected to pay only
44 birr only.

Nowadays, Tigist has additional rooms for rent in her compound built from profit of
Mirt business. She is getting money which is more than enough to support family by
renting these rooms. She said that her husband on top of his job is now supporting her
projects. She is getting respect from friends, neighbors and women in the area.

47
 As indicated above, we saw that to what extent the life of Tigist and Genet is changed,
being involved in the production and dissemination of Mirt. This shows how energy
projects could be used to empower women and enhances advancement of women. The
cases of Tigist and Genet indicate the contribution of the GTZ supported Mirt
dissemination project in the empowerment of women. This is evident from the capital
they possess now and their increased participation in the community.

These women while being involved both in production and distribution of these stoves passed
through many challenges in which they have learned a lot. Their disappointments in the lack
of market have made them devise other alternative strategy to sell these stoves. As a result
they were able to promote the stoves through women’s affairs office, kebele as well as
traditional women’s groups such as Edir and Ekobe. They have made women buy these stoves
by organizing Ekobe and credit system through community organization. Sometimes they
have to donate these stoves to poor women so that these women can use the stove and
improve their living.

These women participate in different social and economical forums and having economical
power causes their acceptance in the society to be very high. As a result one of the producers
has become founder and chairperson of Bahir Dar women Entrepreneur association and in the
process was able to know and gather important regulations and procedures in business and
trade.

The process of empowerment as Jo Rowlands argued has a different meaning for feminists
than the formal definition of it. It affects the ability of less powerful groups to participate in
formal and informal decision-makings, and to exert influence. It also affects the way that
individuals or groups perceive themselves and their ability to act and influence the world
around them. In relation to this one can clearly see that women who got the chance to engage
in Mirt production were empowered economically through the project’s intervention. Further
one of the producers has been the founder and chairperson of Bahir Dar Women Entrepreneur
Association. This tells us how women when empowered economically will have the ability to
influence the world around them as Jo Rowlands stated (Eade, 1999).

Empowerment is thus more than simply opening up access to decision-making. It must also
include the process that lead people affected to come to see them as having the capacity and
the right to act and have influence. As it is indicated in the cases of these women, having a
chance to get training, financial support and other support have helped them to produce Mirt

48
and raise money which has changed their lives. This phenomenon indicates how energy
projects could be used to empower women and be used for the advancement of women. To
strengthen the position of women in society generally energy projects can offer some support
in this process of empowerment strengthening women in their ability to organize , express
their views, and tackle forces that have opposed them (Skutsch,1999). Accordingly the GTZ
supported Mirt dissemination project has contributed to empowerment of women
tremendously like Tigist and Genet.

Socialist feminists are also interested in undermining the power-over system of capitalist
patriarchy through empowerment. Socialist feminists believe, this can be accomplished best
by a societal and global redistribution of power, as opposed to placing their hopes in the
empowering capacity of feminine traits. As a result, socialist feminists are most active in
socialist revolutions and women’s economic movements, organized around such issues as
women on welfare, women in development, and effects of economic globalization on women
(Tong, 1998).

Mirt Users: data from the survey and in-depth interview show that women have recognized
the use of Mirt as multidimensional such as fuel wood and money saving, reduction of in-door
air pollution, comfort and convenience. It was also clear from the study that the benefit these
women get depend on the efficient use of the stoves. However, these benefits have impact on
women’s life even if the degree varies.

For most women, who are in small scale business and other business at institutional level
benefit most from the saving they get because of using Mirt. The impact of using these
technologies has enabled women to save both money and time as it is stated in section 4.4.
These women with improved cooking stoves were able to work faster and have a better health
condition. Additionally, many women were able to use these stoves and create small scale
business of baking injera and bread for a living. Associations like’ Lemlem injera baking
Association’ largely uses these stoves and empowered economically while protecting natural
resources according to one of the Mirt producers.

As one of the in-depth interview participants stated, the saving even if it is minimal it is
important for the woman in the house who has to manage the household expenditure. She
further says:

49
 These stoves on top of saving some amount of money protect us from burning hazards. I
don’t have to worry about my little baby while baking. It is not as dangerous as the open
fire stove where the flame goes around the mitad. It is also relatively clean since it is
enclosed and create cleaner kitchen environment if we use it properly.

4.1.4 Information and Marketing Promotion on Mirt

One of the interventions made by the government and other non-governmental agencies to
address the household energy crisis is dissemination of Mirt stove. Accordingly, information
on Mirt and its benefits were made available so that people could adopt the improved stove
and protect the environment. Based on the findings of this study, respondents irrespective of
possessing the stove had information on Mirt since 12 years at maximum and one year at
minimum whether the respondents have Mirt or not. It also indicated that the number of
people who were informed about Mirt during the last two years and the first 6 years is
minimal amounting 18.75%.

The Sources of information about Mirt include both formal and informal. The informal
sources are friends, relatives and neighbors. Formal sources are marketing tools used by the
project and other stakeholders includes TV, Radio, Public demonstrations, Billboard, flyers
and publications as indicated in (Graph 4.2).

Out of the total 256 respondents 41.80% of them have learnt about Mirt through TV and
15.62% were informed by a friend. The promotional advertisement through Radio, public
demonstration and billboard takes a share of 2.34%, 3.13% and 1.18% respectively. The
remaining 35.93% don’t have specific media they remember through which they learnt well
about Mirt. This finding shows that most of respondents have learnt about Mirt from TV and
friend.

From the total 159 respondents who possess Mirt responding to which of the information or
marketing advertisement they were influenced to buy the stove, 58.3% of them, majority
were influenced by a neighbor, a friend and a relative. The other 22.43% have decided to buy
Mirt by being influenced by promotional demonstration and the rest 19.23% were influenced
by Kebele or women’s affairs office as indicated in (Graph 4.3).

The above finding shows that even if most respondents learn about Mirt from TV, no one was
influenced by it to buy the stove. On the other hand most of the women who bought Mirt were
influenced by the word of mouth of their neighbors, relatives and friends or influenced by
50
public demonstrations. So one can conclude that in order women to buy Mirt either they have
to see the stove functioning physically or need someone who they trust to assure them that the
stove is good.

Graph 4.2. Sources of Information on Mirt

According to Dankilman and Davidson, (1989), several factors have influenced the spread of
most efficient stoves: their design and development, their cost, the need for infrastructural
change (including extension services and credit facilities) and the attitudes and status of
women. In relation to this one can see that the kind of information that has power to influence
women in the study area comes not from modern marketing tools. Instead the information that
influences them comes from someone who is close and trustful which is indicative of the
attitudes and status of women.

One of Mirt producers named Ms. Tigist stated that, one of the problems in the area of Mirt
dissemination is the promotional strategies used Even if most of the information sources on
Mirt are informative not influential. Further, she shares her experience on alternative
marketing strategies as follows:

Even if there are promotions of Mirt on TV, Radio and Billboard etc. still these
promotional strategies don’t have the power to influence people. The most effective
promotion so far is the demonstration. It is far better to demonstrate in market places by
baking Injera in which case even men who came to the market place were influenced and
interested to buy it.

51
According to Mirt producers Genet and Tigist, working together with community associations
like Edir and Ekob is more effective in disseminating Mirt where people can have access to
raise money without difficulty. The findings obtained from one of the producers are in line
with the finding from the quantitative survey that shows even if TV is most informative it is
not the most influential tool.

Therefore, we can observe that in any energy or other developmental projects it is important
to give sound attention to gender through consultation (participatory planning), with women’s
groups. According to Eade, it helps the planners to understand cultural norms and work with
women. While collecting baseline data understanding of socio-cultural phenomena at village
level and project site is very important (Eade, 1999).

Graph 4. 3. Information that Influence Respondents to buy Mirt

Sustaining the above argument, out of the entire respondents amounting 60.15% of them had
told to their friends and relatives about the benefit of Mirt. Out of which 88.96% of them were
able to influence those people to buy the stove. This finding together with the fact stated
above where women were influenced by friends it is obvious in this case that word of mouth
is influential source of information to disseminate the stoves.

4.1.5 Decision on Stove Purchase

As an objective reality in the Ethiopian context, women and girls in the household have the
responsibility to cook food. Finding from this study showed that, among the people who cook
food, women account to 76.34%. Young girls and house maids account to 23.27% and only
one person was found to be a man. In the case of making decision to purchase the stove it was

52
the wife who decided the most and this accounted to 49%. About 45% of them decided
together with their husbands, 2.65 % by husband and 3.3% by other family members
respectively.

As shown in (Graph 4.4), the reactions of husbands in buying Mirt were various where most
encourages and some even bought the stove themselves. About 65.40% of the women
obtained encouragement from their husbands out of the 159 respondents. Only few (1.25%) of
husbands discouraged the wives when they buy the stoves. On the other hand 6.91% of
husbands bought the stoves while 20.75% have shown no involvement in the process of
acquisition while the remaining 5.66% did not responded to the question.

Graph 4. 4 Husband’s Reaction in Buying Mirt

It is unquestionable that since women are responsible for food preparation in every household
any problem related to household energy sources affects them most. Despite the problem
attributed to fuel wood and its inconveniences is associated to women the decisions of buying
Mirt include men as we have seen from the data above in which 45% of the time the decision
was made both by men and women. Above all 65.40% of respondents at least had to get
encouragement from husbands to buy the stove. Therefore as stated by Eade, energy data and
projects must have data further from household and look into the gender power relation and
its impact on the adaptation of these technologies (Eade, 1999).

Sustaining the statement of Eade, it is also argued by Skutsch most of the time women are
responsible for daily small scale purchase including wood or charcoal and men for capital
expenditures and large items. If the household is conceptualized as an economic unit, it would

53
be expected that investment in an improved stove would be seen as an advantage. But if the
household does not perceive itself to be an economic unit but in fact as two parts which may
even be in competition with each other, it is clear that the capital for the stove will not easily
be made available (Skutsch, 1999).

One respondent from in-depth interview stated that she doesn’t have Mirt unlike most of her
neighbors. She wanted to buy the stove but couldn’t since she doesn’t have any income.
When she was asked how she couldn’t afford Mirt while having a TV in her house. She had to
respond the following:

My husband doesn’t want to miss news and sporting events so he had to buy the TV.
Maybe I was not able to convince him about the benefit of the stove so that he allocates
money to buy Mirt. From what I observed if men are the one responsible for baking
Injera and tolerate the flame of the open fire stove Mirt would have been a priority than
TV.

In light of the argument by Skutsch stated above, out of 97 women who don’t have Mirt, 18 of
them or 19% of them said that if they had the power to decide on the purchase, they would
have bought the stove. So this shows the gap between the need of these women and the ability
to decide on financial matters at home.

Out of 159 women who possess Mirt the level of education between grade 6 and 12 is about
33.33%. Those who are illiterate are also the next majority of those who possess Mirt. In this
finding, Mirt possession is not associated with educational status as it is learned from the
descriptive statistics. This to some extent shows that, the educational background of the
women is not positively associated with their ability to decide on stove purchase. Instead
most of the women who possess Mirt are married which constitute 55.35 % irrespective of
their educational status. One reason for high number of married women in possessing Mirt
comes from the high number of married women in the sampled households.

These finding ,where most of the women who possess Mirt being housewife and married
make us see beyond basic needs regarding an entry-point of any development interventions.
According to Eade, this need is basic and stemming from gender- specific constraints and
gender division of labor where men and women terms of responsibility and roles are different
(Eade, 1999).

54
Majority of women who don’t have Mirt are housewives and those who have private business.
These women had the information about Mirt and might have liked to have it but they lack the
capital or no support from husbands.

4.1.6 Financial Issues

The price for Mirt varies from time to time and producer to producer and at the time of the
study the price of Mirt stove was 84 birr in the study area. For Mirt with metal claddings and
long metallic chimney costs about 500 birr. Even though the price of Mirt seems relatively
small, majority of women who do not have Mirt expressed that lack of money is main reason
for not purchasing the stove.

Out of 97 women who don’t have Mirt, considerable amount of them accounting to 31.95%
don’t have money to buy the stove as indicated in (Table 4.4). On the other hand, 16.49% of
them don’t have space since Mirt should be fixed and is not mobile. The remaining 51.56%
have combinations of the above reasons including not having trust in the use of Mirt. As few
in-depth interview participants stated instead of spending money for it is possible to make an
enclosed stove from local material for free. Further about 78% of the respondents stated that
their neighbors are not using Mirt due to lack of money.

Table 4. 4. Reasons for Not Having Mirt

Reasons Frequency Percentage

Lack of Money 31 31.95
Lack of Space 16 16.49
Lack of Information 7 7.21
Not Believed in the use 7 7.21
Lack of Money and Space 6 6.18
Other Reasons 30 30.92
Total 97 100.00

Finding from a case study of a woman in Bahir Dar city is presented below. The woman who
is not using Mirt but wishes to have one and her evidence for the lack of finance to acquire
these stoves can be shared by most women.

Case 3; A woman in Bahir Dar

She was baking in the open air using an open fire stove. The wind was blowing and
putting off the fire repeatedly. She was putting fire wood which is mostly dry leaves
55
 into the fire as (see picture 4.3). She was asked why she does not use kitchen and her
reply reads as follows:

‘‘I rented one room from my tenant with no kitchen. In the rainy season I have to cook
inside the house but in dry season I cook outside because I can’t bake bread everyday
and live in the same house. For a living I have to sell home- made bread, as I am
cooking right now with tea mostly to students in the area.’’

She was married to an ex-soldier and now divorced and has one 5 years old girl. For the
moment she doesn’t have much choice since she has lost her land when she moved out
of rural area. She thinks that her husband divorced her because she is poor and don’t
own land. She used to work as a maid in Addis Ababa but now having a child she can’t
do that anymore. She had tried to sell Tella (local beer) like many other women in the
area but because of strong competition she stopped the business.

Now her source of income is only from baking bread, making tea and selling it to
students who pass by her house. She makes tea by putting the tea pot near to the open
fire while baking. When she was asked whether she knows availability of Mirt which
can make her life easier she responded the following:

‘‘I know and have used it when I was working in Addis Ababa but now I don’t even
consider buying it for two reasons. The first reason is I can’t afford buying it as I don’t
earn any extra income and what I am getting is just for survival .The second reason is
that I can always collect twigs, dry leaves and fire wood from the nearby forest for free
thus saving firewood is not my priority.’’

However, even if she has the option to collect firewood for free she wishes to buy Mirt
if she can afford it because of its qualities being smokeless and safety from fire hazard.
She said that it would have been good to have it since she has a serious eye problem. In
addition animals like goats from the neighborhood come closer to the fire while she is
baking and this makes her uncomfortable. According to her if she can afford Mirt she
will fix it in her one -room house and will be protected from smoke and fire hazard and
stop worrying about rain.

As shown in (Table 4.5), out of 156 women who possess Mirt 40.25% of them had to use
their savings to buy the stoves. Those who bought the stove from wages amount 38.99% and
those who bought with Ekob are 8.81%. Only 4.40% of them get the Mirt with donation and

56
5.66% get credit to buy it. On the other hand out of 256 of the respondents 96.37% believed
to organize a credit to buy theses stoves as necessary.
Types of financial resources illustrates that the capital to buy the stove is not readily available
and not affordable to most of the respondent’s income level. Majority of them have to use
their savings to buy the stove and can’t allocate it easily from their monthly income. Usually,
savings are meant to be for emergency like medical and other family problems. In this case
these women have to decide with their husbands to use this saving which is meant to be for
emergencies for stove purchase. In this case, one can see that using saving needs decision and
negotiations at household level. The process of deciding on saving makes it difficult for the
women to acquire the stove which can make their life easier.

Picture 4.3: A Woman in Bahir Dar Baking in the Open Air

On the other hand, about 8.81% of the respondents have to collect Ekob. Collecting Ekob
means they can’t pay from monthly expenditure as the cost of Mirt is 84 birr currently.
Instead, women had to organize themselves into small Ekob groups where the number of
women ranges five to ten. Then women contributing 10 birr each month and one woman get
the chance to buy the stove. Hence for most of the respondents the cost of the stove is not
within their monthly expenditure. As a result 96.37% of them wishes if there are credit
services in terms of long payment and cash credit for the purchase. They believe this credit
can be organized through small scale business offices (Tikankina Aneshtena) or women’s
affairs office and associations.

57
Mrs. Genet, one of the Mirt producers, has also indicated though many women have the
awareness and the readiness to use Mirt still can’t afford it. Hence, it is Genet’s belife that to
organize credit service and organize strategies to disseminate Mirt for the very poor in order
to protect the environment. Speaking on slow adaptation and dissemination of Mirt Genet
states that:

The problem of slow adaptation is related to the price and affordability. This is because
most people can’t pay this amount of money at once above all women don’t have the
resource to pay like 84 birr. As solution some women organize Ekob just for Mirt and
then every member will collect the Mirt when their turn comes.

According to Skutsch, some of the reasons why improved stove programs are not successful
are, the women’s inability to raise the money in one go or the capital cost of these stoves.
Thus the majority of respondents who possess Mirt have allocated budget from saving. This
indicates that purchase of these stoves is not within the limit of monthly income of most
families. On the other hand three out of four respondents believe that facilitating credit is
important (Skutsch, 1999).

Table 4. 5. Financial Sources to Purchase Mirt

Financial Sources frequency Percentage (%)

Saving 64 40.25
Ekob ( Traditional fund raising ) 14 8.81
Wages 62 38.99
Donation 7 4.40
Credit 9 5.66
No responses 3 1.88
Total 159 100

Both from the quantitative survey and in-depth interview as well as the case studies, it is
revealed that women have their own experiences, knowledge and problems concerning Mirt.
It will also be natural to see how these gendered concerns, needs and priorities are treated in
the overall project cycle. In order to assess the integration of gender concerns both key-
informant interview and documents review were conducted and presented in the next chapter.

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4.2 Integration of Gender Concerns in Energy Policy, Strategy and GTZ-
Mirt Project

4.2.1 The GTZ-Mirt Project Profile

In the past ten years, GTZ was working with the Ethiopian Government and other partners to
introduce energy-saving methods and products to the local market while strengthening the
country’s ability to provide sustainable energy services. The office is still supporting
sustainable energy services in Ethiopia through; rural electrification, advising the Government
on improved energy service delivery structures and promoting energy-saving stoves. AMES-
Cooking under GTZ-ECO is currently working on promoting energy saving stoves which
reduce firewood consumption which is the focus of this research.

Specifically the Mirt project started in 1998 after the signing of a bilateral agreement between
the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia and the Federal Republic of Germany. Until
recently it was implemented by the Ministry of Agriculture (MOA) and GTZ, GmbH
commissioned by the German Federal Ministry of Economic cooperation and Development.
The project was operating under different titles for different phases and being financed by
different donors (GTZ, ND). For the purpose of this research the project is referred as GTZ-
Supported Mirt Project.

Energy Efficiency is one of the initiatives of ECO and AMES-Cooking was introduced and
promoting the Mirt injera baking stove in Ethiopia. The Mirt stove was designed by the
Ethiopian Alternative Energy Development and Promotion Center (EADPC) of the Ministry
of Mines and Energy. It is assumed to reduce fuel consumption for baking the Ethiopia’s
national dish, namely Injera, by about 50% in comparison to traditional methods. It is also
believed to save 33 ETB Birr per month and the benefit is more for commercial consumers.
For rural households the time saved is assumed to accounts for 6 hours per week on average
but varies from household to households (GTZ, ND).

To date 455 small-scale producers were established in 225 districts and in five regions of the
country. The commercial approach adopted by AMES-C with a decentralized production
process and involvement of the private sector to sell the stoves resulted in the sale of over
325,750 Mirt stoves by the end of 2009 and in Amhara Regional State number of Mirt stove
sold were 78,174. Most of the stove producers are not VAT registered as their business are
running under small scale.

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Currently ECO is working together with the Ministry of Mines and Energy, partner of the
project, to implement effective strategy for improved energy supplies. Operational plans are
currently being developed within the Ministry as well as Ministry’s implementation offices,
such as the Ethiopian Alternative Energy Development and Promotion center (EAEDPC).

4.2.2 Fuel Wood Consumption Pattern of Bahir Dar

The kind of household energy sources used by respondents are various and some use
combinations. Accordingly 89.1% use biomass fuel of which the majorities use only fire
wood accounting to 82.42%. The other 3.52% of the respondents use firewood in combination
with Kerosene and Electricity while only 6.64% use electricity as shown in (Graph 4.5).
These findings match with the fact that in Ethiopia, only 6% of household energy comes from
electricity or petroleum products and almost 94% comes from biomass such as wood, crop
residues and dung(GTZ, 2009).

Biomass fuel further breaks down into 77% woody biomass, 8.7%crop residue and 7.7% dung
(GTZ, 2009). The general situation of household energy in Ethiopia where the dominant
household energy supply is biomass, the pattern of consumption and its implication on the
depletion of the natural forest is huge and this in turn causes subsequent negative effect like
soil erosion, deterioration of watersheds, decreasing soil productivity. The principal victims of
environmental degradation are the most underprivileged people, and the majority of these are
women (Dankilman and Davidson, 1989).

Out of the 256 respondents, those who get biomass fuel by buying are 89.1%, those who
collect are 2.34% and those who buy and collect are 1.17%. The finding of the survey showed
that women in the study area are spending 20% to 30% of their income to buy the fuel wood
per person. This shows that fuel wood consumption and its related expenditure put forth its
pressure on women. This finding is in line to Mikelle’s arguments which indicates the hike in
the prices of firewood reduced women’s housekeeping money and has adversely affected the
quality of meals women can provide. Higher prices have also limited any small savings
women could otherwise make from careful management of money received from their
husbands (Mikell, 1997).

The main food types consumed in the study area are Injera and wot and amounts 99.20% of
the total responses. The amount of energy needed to bake Injera constitutes 50% of the total
household energy consumption in Ethiopia (GTZ, 2000). Hence, the kind of food consumed

60
in the study area implies the need for huge amount of energy and special type of stove which
accommodate the Injera pan ’mitad’. Majority of the respondents, amounting 62.11% are
using Mirt, the improved stove to bake Injera and 5.47% use Electric Injera stove whereas
32.42% use traditional stoves.

Graph 4.5 Energy Sources Used by Respondents

Moreover, out of 83 women who use traditional stove to bake Injera 89.16% of them use
open fire stove and 10.84% use traditional enclosed stoves. The enclosed stoves are made by
the women from local material such as stone and mud. The enclosed stove equally protects
them from fire hazard and is better in fuel wood consumption than the open fire stove and it
costs them nothing. For wot (traditional sauce) cooking 11.33% of the respondents use
improved stove such as ‘Fetenech’ and ‘Lakech’ while the remaining 88.67% use open
traditional pot stoves.

This finding illustrates, using Mirt stove is a familiar experience in the study area where more
than half of the respondents are using the technology. Under laboratory condition, this stove
can save about half of fuel wood which in turn is assumed to impact fuel wood consumption
positively and contribute to forest protection. Clancy elaborates, in this line that improved
household energy supply can significantly contribute in reducing health problems when
compared to open stoves. Further, improved stoves help to save time, money and to generate
income which will contribute to women’s advancement (Clancy, 2003).

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On the other hand, only few women are supplementing their fuel wood by planting trees in
their compounds as shown in (Table 4.6). Accordingly, a total of 11 women (4.29%) where 4
women (1.56%) who live in Kebele house, 6 women (2.34%) who own house and one woman
living in house rented from other people plant trees. This finding showed that even if people
own the Kebele or their own houses do not plant trees and do not supplement their
consumption. Accordingly, the finding from in-depth interview also showed that none of the
participants plant tree for fuel wood supplement. The kinds of plant they have in their
compound are either ornamental or herbs used as traditional medicine. Hence, they have to
buy the firewood which mostly comes from the surrounding rural Kebeles.

Table 4.6. Fuel Wood Supplement by Respondents

Responses on planting trees to supplement fire wood consumption

Premise
Ownership yes Yes (%) No No No % for No
(%) Responses Responses
Rent from Kebele 4 1.56 83 32.42
Own a house 6 2.34 70 27.34
Rent from people 1 0.39 63 24.61
Total 11 4.29 216 84.36 30 11.72

Sharing her experience, one of the in-depth interviewee has explained that fuel wood was not
at all a problem in her earlier days of marriage. She used to bring fuel wood from relatives
who reside in rural areas for free. Nowadays, no one in the rural area is willing to give it for
free as a result she has to buy fuel wood from the local market. She further says;

‘‘The good thing in Bahir Dar is that fuel wood is always available in the local and open
markets in every village. On the contrary the price is sky rocketing from time to time.
Just within two years the rise in price for fire wood is more than double. Whatever the
price of the fuel wood is, you can’t avoid it other than using it economically.’’

This is witnessed by, the researcher of this study; by being in the market day of the study area
physically that many people from all age groups and both sexes carry wood to the city to sell
(See Picture 4.4). According to Mainborg, on global scale it is the urban rather than the rural
who are responsible for high consumption of wood that resulted in depleting rural wood

62
supplies, cited in (Dankilman and Davidson, 1998). As it is noted from the findings, people in
the city of Bahir Dar are consuming firewood while only few people are planting and
supplementing their consumption which clearly put much pressure on the forests of the
surrounding rural Kebeles. As the firewood becomes source of money in the rural areas and
with the depletion of fuel wood supplies, poor people are forced to switch to other cheap
biomass substitute such as straw, crop residues, and animal dung (Tessfay, 2008).

One can clearly see the consequences of pattern of biomass consumption for a woman. As
wood supplies become scarce in the city and hiking price of firewood will be a problem of the
woman who is responsible for household energy provider and user. Equally, the depletion of
firewood in the rural areas made worse by wood trafficking to cities means rural women will
walk substantially longer distances and spend more time and energy in fetching firewood.

Picture 4.4: Women and Men Carrying Fire Wood to Bahir Dar for Sell

To tackle this complicated household energy crisis at national level there have been
interventions namely supply enhancement, inter-fuel substitution and improved stove
dissemination. These strategies suggest implementation of sound forestry management policy
to enhance the supply of fuel wood and taking measures to increase the end-use energy
efficiency (GTZ, 1998).

The major strategy followed by GTZ-Mirt dissemination Project is natural resource protection
through introduction of energy saving technologies. Even if the project is focusing on

63
development, production and promotion of energy saving stoves it is also involved in natural
protection through supply enhancement. As part of GTZ-SUN program (Sustainable
Utilization of Natural Resources for Improved Food Security) it also gives attention to
forestry and water shade development. As Part of this effort, supply enhancement or fuel
wood plantation numbers of seedlings are planted. Through Woreda Ardo and model farmers,
individual basis, in Oromia 101,368 Eucalyptus seedlings are distributed to 49 model farmers.
In Amhara Region through ORDA local NGO 357,202 seedlings have been planted by
farmers, government institution and CBOs (GTZ, ND).

However, Bahir Dar city being one of the pilot areas of the project majority of respondent is
neither aware of the need for fuel wood supplement nor ready to plant trees even if they own a
compound. Even those who plant trees to supplement their needs are doing it from their
personal initiatives rather than the project’s effort.

According to Muzira, there were similar efforts made in Uganda where dissemination of
stoves integrated with promotion of community forestry. In Uganda, since 1983 the National
Joint Energy and Environment Project (JEEP) were engaged in educational work to promote
public awareness of the energy crisis. It broadcasts a short message daily on radio and
television, promotes agro forestry at the village level and improves stoves in urban areas,
cited in (Dankilman and Davidson, 1998).

According to Cecelski, integrated forestry is the best method for local community
development or social forestry but local residents have to be informed and participated.
Integrated projects which attain several objectives are valuable and women taking leading
attempts could be exemplary to reverse the destruction by planting trees, cited in (Dankilman
and Davidson, 1998). As stated in the project objectives energy sector is linked to
environmental conditions and the situation of women when wood is the predominant cooking
fuel.

In line with this, Eco-feminists suggest that Science and technology are needed to solve
environmental problems and welcomes not only appropriate science and technology. Rather
Ecological feminism requires the inclusion of appropriate insights and data of scientific
ecology and insists that data on historical and interconnected exploitation of nature and
women and other oppressed people should be recognized and brought to bear in solutions
(warren, 1997).

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4.2.3 Role of Women and Women’s Organizations in GTZ-Mirt Project

As explained by one key informant from GTZ there are few criteria applied by GTZ – Mirt
project to select Mirt producers so that the production and marketing process would be
efficient. Most importantly to have a working space for Mirt production is one of the
important criteria that have to be fulfilled by the producer. In addition the selected producer
is expected to have physical fitness to carry out the production process. Either the producer
must have family members who could take care of the production which demands physical
fitness. Further the capacity to learn technical skill is needed since stove production needs to
work with molds and other materials. It is also preferable if these people have communication
ability for marketing and promotion.

Stakeholders included in Mirt producer’s selection are small scale business administration in a
Woreda (Tikakinina Anestena), Kebele administration, energy as well as agricultural offices.
Women’s Affairs Offices are not usually involved in the process of Mirt producer selection.
At the stage of promotion, it is common to work with women’s affairs offices and use their
forum to promote the stove. The Women’s affairs offices work with the project people since
these offices work on health packages together with Health Offices in Woreda. One of the
health packages is indoor air pollution reduction and these offices use Mirt to meet this
purpose.

According to the informant from the project, generally women’s organizations attend
promotional and Technical workshop. Otherwise these groups are not communicated directly
for producer selection. The projects neither give any special attention to recruit women
trainees nor give any affirmative action to include more women in the training. Out of the
total Mirt producers women constitutes 35% and in Amhara Regional State women producers
are 51.03% out of 145 producers.

Most women believe that it is appropriate to consult women before large dissemination of any
stove designed and this response amounts to 97.99% out of the total respondents. According
to Skutsch, improved stove programs are unsuccessful mainly because, the stoves are
designed by male engineers who mostly have no experience of cooking. Often, the primary
concern of engineers is energy efficiency in order to save fuel. Most of the time these
properties are much less important to women, the cook of the household, than other aspects
such as speed and ease of cooking, safety, position , compatibility with existing pots and pans
, ability to regulate heat and other related issues (Skutsch, 1997).
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Out of the total respondents most of them have discussed strategies how to acquire the stove
in community associations where 92.8% of them answered that they have discussed it in their
Ekob and Edir. On the other hand 82.26% of the respondent believed that women’s affairs
office could contribute in the dissemination of these stoves.

Mirt producers have reported that women have financial problems to buy Mirt that need to be
addressed for better dissemination. As indicated by the women in the case study, even if
women’s attitude and the need for Mirt are positive they lack the capital to buy the stove.
Hence working together with formal and informal women’s groups is important according to
the producers. Groups like Edir, Ekob and women’s affairs offices are best venue to market
stoves.

Eade argued that, working together with women’s organization for an energy project is best
strategy in improving the projects efficiency. Women don’t benefit from energy project
because don’t have resources (Eade, 1999). According to Charlton, to fix credit program for
women or using revolving fund both from government or nongovernmental sides is
inevitable. Further Charlton debated that, provision of the stove freely or by subsidy means
the country is saving money, labor and natural resources (Charlton, 1989).

Further women who were in-depth interview participants suggested the project should address
women’s issues recognizing what had been done so far by the project in general as good. One
of the in-depth interview participants suggested:

The energy advisors must think of a thin smoke escape which goes out of the house
instead of making a smoke escape which is short but same time heavy. In my opinion
these stoves have been there forever without any improvements. I think to make the stove
more efficient the designers have to find a better raw material that can use only much less
fuel wood.

Most of the respondents also had same idea and suggested building long smoke outlet for Mirt
that reach the roof top or that can vent out through the wall of the kitchen to the outside. The
rest of the in-depth interview also suggested that demonstration and promotion must be
carried out even to the rural areas. Additionally, information through producers must reach
how to install, maintain and use Mirt effectively. One respondent from in-depth interview
suggested:

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 The project people must supervise the producers properly for the quality of the stove they
are producing. I am emphasizing on this because recently the stoves break easily. I
suspect that because the price for cement is high the amount used by the producers might
not be as required. Sometimes it is good that the government people listen to our side of
the story.

4.2.4 Integration of Gender Concerns in the GTZ-Mirt Project Cycle

Assessment was carried out on the practice of the project which is written and unwritten from
gender perspective through key-informant interview and document review. Examination of
organizational rule from gender perspective according to Bridget Walker is an important area
of feminist enquiry into women’s subordination. For organizations with a mandate to promote
equitable human development, this kind of enquiry is an essential and important task (Fenella,
1999). The finding from the interview of the Project revealed, how and to what extent gender
concerns are integrated in the project cycle.

Gender mainstreaming starts by recognizing that gender differences which shape policy and
development process and outcomes. It has traveled from the realm of feminist theory to local
and global policy application. It implies, to re-invent the process of design, implementation
and evaluation by taking into account the gender specific and often diverse interests and
values of differently situated women and men (True, 2003). Hence, the findings on gender
mainstreaming of the project is generalized into five groups such as policy, planning and
implementation, monitoring and evaluation, organizational culture and technical capacity.

Policy: from the interview it was made clear that there is no gender policy or action plan that
is applied in the course of the project. On top of that most of the key-informants are not aware
of the Ethiopian women’s policy. Both the interview and the document review have showed
that, even if the project is working closely with women’s groups these groups are not stated as
stakeholders.

It was found out that, most of the documents related to the GTZ- Mirt project, as shown in
(Table 4.9), while mentioning other relevant policies in the development initiative doesn’t
mention any policy in relation to women. As it is clearly stated, in the Ethiopian constitution
of Article 35 number 6, women have the right to be part of any developmental activities and
project in the country in principle.

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Responding on the fact that women’s policy of Ethiopia is not mentioned as relevant policy
in relation to the project one key- informant commented that;

‘‘It is true that Women’s Policy of Ethiopia is not considered and included in the project
as one of the development policy objective as Environmental and Natural Resource
Protection Policies. However the rest of the staff and I believe that our organization and
the project value and see the program as beneficial to women’s life.’’

In contrast data collected during key-informant interview in the government counterpart of the
project, Ministry of Mines and Energy, reveals that gender mainstreaming strategy is adapted
to some extent. Both key-informants from the government Energy offices are aware of the
Ethiopian women’s policy and practiced the gender mainstreaming strategy.

It was collected during document review of related document that the Ethiopian Energy
policy has given less attention to the position of women in the problem, strategy and goal of
the policy statements. However, the Ethiopian energy policy was formulated before the
Bejing platform for action and it explains why it is not formulated with the principle of gender
mainstreaming. Otherwise both strategic plan of MME and the ARSMEPA are informed with
gender concerns and have mainstreamed gender in their goals, objectives and as well as
strategies as indicated in (Table 4.7). Even if the Five Years Energy Strategic Plan of MME
had integrated gender concerns in its goals and objectives some of the activities and strategies
mentioned in the document did not consistently address gender issues.

Planning and Implementation: though the energy policy gives less priority to gender
issues, the 5 years Strategic Plan of MME has made gender issues as one of institutional
priorities as indicated in (Table 4.7). The gender mainstreaming office of the Ministry has
contributed its part for gender concerns to be part of the strategic plan. In line with these any
annual plan, program and project executed under the Alternative Energy Sources and
Technology Core Process is screened for its gender concerns according to the process owner
and Gender Mainstreaming Process. According to Gender Mainstreaming Process Owner,
learning from the previous policy weaknesses and with the principle of gender mainstreaming
strategy the gender mainstreaming process of the Ministry is ready to mainstream gender in
the coming Energy policy.

Hence, gender concerns are included at all stages of planning, implementation, and
monitoring and evaluation process and activities of the AESTCP. All the planning papers are

68
checked against a checklist to screen gender concerns by their respective planning
departments and from Gender Mainstreaming Process. According to the Owner of Gender
Mainstreaming Process there is also evaluation from gender aspect of any planned action and
accountability for not integrating gender. This fact is further evidenced from document review
of documents from gender perspective as indicated in (Table 4.8).

According to informants in GTZ-ECO, the project proposal process include criterion which
concerns gender. It is also the belief of the project staff that the project services and products
benefit women above all even if these things are not recorded and gender concerns are not
included systematically in the project cycle. On the other hand, the organization doesn’t use
full participatory methods to incorporate views and preferences of both male and female staff
members in project design.

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 Table 4. 7. Assessment of National Policy and Strategies from Gender Perspective

Document reviewed/ Topics covered Content Gender Perspective

National Policy on Energy Problem, solution and strategy on States only women are victims of collection and use of
energy biomass fuel.
MME Strategy (2005-2010)
Problem statement Biomass use Women and girls being victim in the process of fuel
wood collection
Capacity building Training and education of energy GM in all capacity building programs
planners and advisors to give efficient
services
Energy technology development Biomass energy is given due attention Incorporating gender issues in Energy technology is not
and its problem associated with explicitly mentioned
deforestation
Socio-economic study of energy resources and Study why energy technology The relevance of gender analysis in the socio-economic
potentials adaptations are low study of energy resources is not stated
Amhara Regional State, EMRDPA (2005-2010) Strategy
Problem statement Dependency on biomass energy and its women’s drudgery mention as a problem
consequences
Sex –disaggregated data Available Not consistent but shows 54% of trainee on Mirt
production are women
Planning Planned to make sure 30% at least are participated in
every activity
Source: MME, (1998). Ministry of Mines and Energy /1998-2002G.C./ strategic plan: Addis Ababa Ethiopia: Ministry of Mines and Energy

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 Table 4.8. Assessment of Improved Stoves Technology Package from Gender Perspective: Mirt and Gonzie Packages

Item Content Gender Perspective

States women and children as primary sufferers of
The impact of using biomass fuels and traditional biomass fuel collection and use
Problem Statement open fire stoves
Environmental protection and improve women’s Improve women’s situation
General Objective of the package condition stated as general objective
Reduce women’s drudgery and improve negative To Improve women’s health condition and reduce
health impact of traditional open fire stoves workload stated as specific objective
Specific Objective of the package
Protect from fire hazard, fuel saving and helps Recognized, that the potential of Gonzie
women and children from spending so much time production to create job opportunity to women
Benefits of Mirt and Gonzie on fuel wood collection who are potters
working together with women’s associations in
Strategies Working together with farmers associations organizing women for Gonzie production
Through extension workers, Elders, Influential Through women’s associations and women’s
Promotion people , market place posters and flyers organizations are recognized as stakeholders
Places of Implementation By focusing in deserted areas Where there is Women’s Associations
Sources: MME, (2008). Mirt Package; Improved and Fuel Saving Stoves: Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: Ministry of Mines and Energy

MME, (2008). Gonzie Package; Improved and Fuel Saving Stoves: Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: Ministry of Mines and Energy

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According to Eade, donors from the western liberal democracies take a very strong line on the
empowerment of women at least in their policy statements as a result project proposal process
of GTZ-Mirt project including criterion on gender. However, in the project goals and
objectives gender concerns are being diminuend in the process. Responding why gender
concerns are not included in the project cycle one of the key-informants stated;

‘‘The major objective of the project is protection of natural resources through improved
energy technologies as it is signed with the government of Ethiopia and Germany. In
addition the projects output directly and indirectly benefit women especially those who
are engaged in stove production. We are also careful of agenda-hijacking since there are
many organizations working on gender issues.’´

As Bridget Walker put it, gender must not be seen as an issue to be addressed in isolation
from other issues but as a defining perspective on development. There are no issues or
development initiative which is gender neutral as feminists argue instead to achieve change
and bring about equity and equality the process designed from the start of any program or
project to be participatory. To consult women and to consider women’s organization as
important stakeholders is important. According to Bridget Walker, the introduction of
planning and evaluation procedures which develop analysis requiring the participation of all
stakeholders has the potential to transform organizational understandings and actions on
gender and development. Commitment from staff with authority is needed to take this forward
(Fenella, 1999).

According to the informants of GTZ-Mirt Project, there are no checklists or manuals which
are used to mainstream gender in the planning process of the project. As indicated in (Table
4.9), GTZ- Mirt project documents show that problem statements usually mention that with
the use of biomass energy women are vulnerable and victim of fuel wood crisis. Apart from
the problem statements and women stove producers with their success stories it is indicated in
the document that gender concerns are not part of project goals, objectives, strategies and
activities.

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 Table 4.9. Assessment of GTZ-Mirt Project Brief and Review from Gender Perspective

Item Content Gender Perspective

Purpose of the project Promoting the dissemination of improved stoves by focusing Gender neutral
on the demand side of management intervention
problem statement Pattern of biomass consumption in Ethiopia and its subsequent Stated how traditional fuel wood consumption and supply
negative effect on Natural resources affect women and children during collection and
consumption.
Development policy objective Based on policy objectives of the Federal Democratic Republic The document doesn’t mention any policy or action plan in
of Ethiopia as outlined in The conservation strategy of Ethiopia relation to women
(CSE) and The Environmental Policy of Ethiopia (EPE).
Project planning Stakholders included in the planning are MOWA or BOWA at regional level are not mentioned as
MOA,MOH,BOA,BOWME stakeholders
Project objective ‘The efficient use of biomass resources has been improved by The project objective is totally devoid of gender concerns.
integrating household energy measures into national
development programs’
Project goal Protection, and sustainable utilization of biomass resources are No goals stated in relation to women’s advancement or
improved empowerment.
Capacity building Developing human resources including individual private No topics of gender and household energy in the stakeholders
sector entrepreneurs. Topics covered are environmental, and in the topics covered.
economic, and social and health impacts of biomass energy
consumption.
source: GTZ/ MOA, (2000): Project Brief, First phase (January1998-December 2000):Addis Ababa, Ethiopia:GTZ.

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Monitoring and Evaluation

Even if it is not consistent most of the time sex-disaggregated data are collected with
emphasis on women and men who produce Mirt. The documents of the GTZ-Mirt project
which were reviewed for the purpose of this study presents participants of workshop, trainings
and seminars attended by, stove producers and experts are not consistent in having sex
disaggregated data.

Some documents as indicated in (Table 4.10) state users of ‘Mirt’ as consumers in general and
don’t identify them as women and men. A document while stating 85% of customers who
watched cooking demonstrations were influenced with the promotion and made their
purchase decision it doesn’t mention who these customers are whether they are women or
men (GTZ, ND). According to all of the key- informants from the project, the process of
monitoring and evaluation as well as impact assessment gender related criteria are not
included. Most of the time these evaluations take the household as a target of the project
instead of looking into the gender power relations in the household. Additionally, there is no
accountability system or mechanism that can make a staff member for not to collecting these
data or integrate gender in the whole process.

During impact assessment and baseline survey as indicated in (Table 4.10), closer attention to
gender concerns was not given and the difference between men and women in viewing energy
problems was not assessed. All the documents take the household as a target of the project
and most of the data on benefit Mirts in terms of time and money are presented at a household
level. So it states the respondents as users and assessing the impact of the stoves indicates
only the number of the stoves in the households.

This finding is in line with the idea that most projects suffer from lack of baseline information
about the socioeconomic situation of project beneficiaries and economic requirements of the
project in terms of available market. According to Charlton, baseline studies do not
sufficiently break down by gender and class concepts instead such as the household, or the
family (Charlton, 1984). Sustaining the idea of Charlton, Bridget suggests that women may
use different indicators to assess the success of a project from those of the NGO engaged in
the project and the outcome may be different and unexpected even if the project is beneficial
to the target group.

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 Table 4.10. Gender perspective of ‘Impact assessment of the GTZ-Mirt Project’
Item Content Gender Perspective
Project output Number of producers at work and number of Some data not disaggregated by sex
Mirt disseminated
Impact of Mirt on consumers Benefit in terms of fuel, money and time The consumers are not defined as men or
saving women as their gender division of labor
Impact of promotional strategy Identification of promotional strategy which The promotional strategy appropriateness and
are most influential In cases of rural / urban the power to influence is not shown by gender
Language used More general and gender neutral
Different impacts and benefits The contribution of Mirt to realize the MDGs Only health aspect of women mentioned but
not empowerment of women
Sustainability Issues to be looked at for better Mirt Gender and Gender issues in relation to Mirt
commercialization, like technology, policy, dissemination not mentioned or studied
finance and market
Impact on stakeholders Any organizations working on health , gender An organization working on gender stated as a
,child care and environment or improving stakeholder
household access to energy are stakeholders
Actions recommended Conduct market survey, supplement Mirt Not recommended to look at the gender aspect
promotion, identify additional market outlet, of these activities
Source: GTZSUN Energy/ MORAD, (ND). Impact Assessment; GTZ-SUN Energy Approach on Commercialization of Mirt Biomass Injera Stove : Megen power Ltd.

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Organizational Culture: all informants agree that the organizational culture is gender
friendly. Women staff members are encouraged and sponsored by the organization to attend
higher education. Currently, in Addis Ababa GTZ, AMES-cooking branch women have taken
top position at decision making levels. According to Skutsch, bringing more women to energy
sector will help to give attention to grassroots women’s energy needs and problems. On the
other hand Skutsch forwarded, a strong argument saying if awareness, skill and knowledge on
gender is lacking the role of professional women in changing the goals of planning is
debatable (Skutsch, 1999).

According to one of key-informant, maximum care is taken in the process of releasing any
promotional documents such as flyers, billboard, drama and other forms of advertisement
through different media. Consultation of expert on the area to screen these documents from
gender perspectives is a routine procedure before any publication is released to the
community at large. Encouragingly, as shown in (Table 4.11), all promotional document
flyers, drama and other documents are free from gender blind approaches or languages as
collected during document review. In promoting Mirt both drama and flyers create awareness
on gender equality and HIV.

Technical Skill: though two most important strategies employed to enhance development
with women are gender mainstreaming and gender training. Except the Executive Project
Manager at Addis Ababa AMES-Cooking all the key-informants don’t have the training and
skill to understand neither gender issues nor no one assigned to coordinate the effort of gender
mainstreaming. Since most of the staff didn’t get any training on gender the skill to
mainstream gender or incorporate gender concern is lacking.

Additionally, while assessing different documents related to the project it is revealed that in
the process of training and workshops gender training is not included in the package. Topics
covered in these capacity building activities included environmental, economic, and social
and health impacts of biomass energy consumption. Training on gender in the course of these
training did not take place.

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 Table 4.11. Assessment of Promotional Flyers and Brochures of the GTZ-Mirt Project from Gender Perspectives

Title of the Publication Objective Gender Perspective

The Drama ‘Tikikil’ Create awareness on ESS and HiV It conveys the message on gender power
relation, violence and HIV.
Household energy, the environment and the It explains the natural resources situation, Concerning gender equity it states how it
households. Energy a key to development , flyer impact and benefits of Mirt stove. Improved reduce workload of women for fuel wood
stoves and the MD GS. collection, more time for other activities and
improve status of women

Sustainable Utilization of Natural Resources for GTZ-SUN; Energy intervention, its States women and children are most affected
Improved Food Security Program, flyer objectives and strategies, implementation and by the diminishing access to and traditional
potential benefits of Mirt stove open fire use of biomass energy. Gender equity
not mentioned in objective, in potential
benefits.
Improved Mirt Biomass Saving Injera Stove, Manual on installation, how to use, and other
flyer basic information on Mirt maintenance
Energizing Development Access to Modern Energy Services-Ethiopia Gender neutral
sources: GTZ-SUN energy, (2005). ‘Tikikil’ TV Drama and ‘Yebanchayehy Mugit’: Addis Ababa: GTZ-SUN.

GTZ-ECO, (ND). Household energy, the environment and the households; The Ethiopian Context:GTZ.

GTZ, (2009). Sustainable utilization of Natural Resources for improved food security program: Report, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: GTZ

77
Again as evidenced in the above section, there is fundamental difference in having gender
analysis and mainstreaming skill among Government counterpart and the project itself. Those
who are working as government counterpart have got necessary training and got the skill to
conduct integrating gender in their planned action and implementation. They work closely
with women’s affairs offices and collect sex-disaggregated data.

According to Eade, gender training is powerful tool to change and influence an organizational
strategy to be gender sensitive which in other will increase project efficiency. It is a way of
sensitizing so the personal become the political. Since every society has gender concerns , an
organization to be efficient and achieve its intended goals has to incorporate these concerns
and gender training helps to gain the skill needed not only awareness raising (Eade, 1999).

As long as government counterpart in MME and the GTZ-supported Mirt dissemination

project have one and the same goal that is the protection of natural resources by demand
management of household energy sources the strategy they have to follow also must be
compatible. It is obvious that to bring sustainable development of the country the Ethiopian
government is exercising the gender mainstreaming strategy in all areas and at all levels of
developmental endeavors.

It is clear to recognize the contribution Mirt dissemination project has made to the
empowerment and advancement of women is paramount. On the contrary the project is not
taking the gender mainstreaming strategy as one of its strategies and tools to achieve its goals.
Not taking gender integration approach into the project planning and implementation as
evidenced in this research had an impact on the efficiency of the project.

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 CHAPTER FIVE

5. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Summary

The Objective of this research is three fold. The first is to find vital information related to
environmental crisis, women’s situation and gender division of labor in relation to Energy
policy and Strategies of the country. The Second is to investigate women’s views, experience
and problems related to energy saving stoves the case of GTZ-Mirt dissemination project. The
third is to evaluate integration of gender concerns in the project cycle based on gender
mainstreaming strategy.

In order to attain these objectives, quantitative and qualitative research methodologies were
used. Different methods of data collection such as quantitative survey, in-depth interview
together with observation, case study and document interview were applied. Accordingly, the
findings collected were analyzed and presented categorically. The findings are:

Mirt Injera stove commercialization efforts are more than a decade old and the amount of Mirt
sold so far is two million. The amount Mirt sold through GTZ is 325,624 until the end of
December 2009 and the number of Mirt produced is 379,001 (GTZ, 2009). Considering the
size of population 73,918,505 where proportion for energy sources in Ethiopia in which 6% of
the household energy comes from electricity or petroleum products and almost 94% comes
from biomass such as wood, crop residues and dung (GTZ, 2009) the amount of Mirt sold so
far can be considered as insignificant.

Looking the amount of effort the project is putting on to advertize and disseminate Mirt, the
project life versus the amount of Mirt sold so far it is concluded that the coverage of the stove
is very little. The dissemination of improved stoves is frequently very slow despite the fact
that the payback period in terms of fuel saved is quiet short (GTZ, ND). At this point, it will
be natural to explore the impact of the project in terms of the stove dissemination by assessing
it from gender perspective.

 The Findings of the research showed that the GTZ-ECO has contributed its part to
environmental protection through dissemination of Mirt stove. In the Process the
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 project has contributed in capacity building and strengthening of institutions and
individuals in the areas of household energy technology development, production and
promotion. Out of the total Mirt producers trained and assisted by the Project to
produce and distribute Mirt about 35% are women at national level and 51% in
Amhara Regional States are women. Hence, the project by providing technical and
economical assistance to these women has helped them to be empowered
economically and socially as it is indicated in this study.

 When the practices of the project are examined from gender perspective it was made
clear that gender mainstreaming strategy is not applied in the course of the project
cycle. The skill development and training on gender analysis and mainstreaming are
absent. Consequently, monitoring and evaluation as well as impact assessment takes
the households as target of the project instead of breaking it further down. Hence,
gendered needs, problems and constraints are not considered in the process.

 The government counterpart, MME and ARSMEA, of the project is implementing the
strategy of gender mainstreaming. All key-informants from these government offices
are aware of the Ethiopian Women’s Policy and have the necessary training and skill
to integrate gender in their planning and implementation. Since the counterpart of the
project has been assigned only in 2010, it will be early to judge why it doesn’t copy
this strategy to the project.

 The five years strategic plans of MME and ARSMEA have incorporated gender issues
in their plans. The other packages and activities as illustrated in the document review
show that gender is systematically integrated. According to ‘The Gender
Mainstreaming Process Owner’ gender concerns are screened by checklist of any
planned action of the Alternative Energy Sources and Technologies Core Process.

 It was found out that the major household energy source in the study area is biomass
fuel where it constitutes 89.1% of which fire wood accounts for 82.42%. According to
respondents spend 20-50% of their household income for firewood and this is in turn
causing pressure on women who are managers of family expenditure. The Kind of
major food types consumed in the study area is Injera and wot and account to 99.20%

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 of the total respondents. Respondents accounting to 62.11% are using Mirt improved
stove for Injera baking and this has a positive contribution to the fuel wood
consumption pattern of the study area.

 The project benefits claimed by the GTZ-Mirt project include in-door air pollution
reduction, saving of fuel and money and convenience and comfort. In addition 50%
fuel saving over the traditional open fire stove which the impact of 150,000 Mirt
stoves the fuel wood saving will amount to 56,250 tons per year. However, in real
situation it has been found that saving of fuel wood and money stated by the women
ranges from 20-50% and sometimes insignificant and in-door air pollution reduction is
not that much appreciated while protection from fire hazard is most important.

 It is also indicated that although there are user’s guide to be followed by users for best
result the information on how to use and maintain the stove is not communicated to
users. Conformably, the findings of this research showed that the intended benefit of
Mirt can fall under question due to improper use of the stove. The main reasons for the
misuse of the stoves are lack of information and this is manifested by removal of
Mirt’s chimney, un-replaced broken part and lack of knowledge on the possibility of
purchasing part of the stove.

 Women who do not purchase the stove have stated that financial problem is their
major problem for not purchasing it. Even those who acquire the stove have to use
financial resources such as saving and Ekobe. To this effect, many suggested to have
credit service to be organized and working closely with women’s organization for
better possession of Mirt.

5.2 Conclusions

 The main objective of the GTZ-Mirt project is to protect natural resources through the
use of Mirt. The success of the project was intended to be measured in terms of
number of stoves distributed in the society. The measure of impact estimated by GTZ
was based on the assumption that the stove saves half the money and firewood over
the traditional stove. However, for technological, applicability to the real situation of

81
 the society and Gender aspect considerations, Mirt stove is not fully benefiting the
society as intended by the designers of the stove. As a result the benefits and impact of
the stove evaluated from the users side, largely the women in this context is not in line
with the objective given by Ministry of Mines and Energy and GTZ.

 Improvement of the technology of the stove did not involve women who are mainly
users. As a result there are features of the stove which are not convenient and
comfortable from the user’s side. The technology as illustrated from consumer needs a
long chimney like feature going beyond the roof or wall of a house is essential to be
developed.

 The project in its overall cycle is not considering Gender issues or not applying
Gender mainstreaming strategy. The subject of Gender division of labor and gender
relations which affect the selection of marketing tools, financial issues and obtaining
of information on how to use the stoves are not part of the project’s planning and
implementation activities.

 There is no compatibility in the type of strategies used by the Government counterpart

and the GTZ in implementing the project objectives. The strategy, alternative energy
packages, programs and activities in the Ministry of Mines and Energy are at least
checked against a checklist for their inclusion of Gender concerns while in Mirt Stove
Project the skill and personnel for Gender mainstreaming is lacking.

 From the collective results obtained in this study it is concluded that the objective of
using Mirt Stove can only be attained if and if only Gender aspects are fully
considered and implemented.

 Mirt stove objective shall only be attained by employing twin track approach strategy
which means stove disseminations to be undertaken in parallel with fuel wood supply
enhancement through community forestry programs. Dissemination of Mirt Stove by
itself cannot solve the problem of deforestation and fuel wood deficit as demand is
five times than the supply.

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5.3 Recommendations

It has to be acknowledged that the project has contributed in empowerment of the poor in
which the majorities are women. It had a tremendous contribution in improving the condition
of women individually and collectively. Women who are using Mirt at individual level have
saved time and fuel wood, time and protected from in-door pollution whatever the extent and
efficiency is. Above all the life of women Mirt producers have changed and these women
have been empowered socially and economically. However the achievement of the project
could have been far better than if gender has been mainstreamed and the views, concerns,
knowledge and problems of both women and men included systematically in the project
cycle. Hence, the following recommendations are forwarded:

1. Conduct further research on the situation of household energy in Ethiopia in relation

to gender, environment and energy before formulation of policy, strategy or project.

2. Whenever the Ethiopian Energy Policy has a chance to be revised it will be

appropriate to include gender concerns in its problem statements, goals and strategy.
This will help projects to equally consider gender concerns in the projects cycle while
implementing the Energy policy.
3. Put accountability mechanism in place in the MME’s Government counterpart of the
project for a better implementation of Women’s Policy of Ethiopia and women’s
constitutional rights.
4. The project should open a gender office or at least have a gender focal person both in
the main ECO, Bahir Dar GTZ and other branch offices. The person in charge can co-
ordinate and facilitates the effort of gender mainstreaming in the project.
5. Provide gender training to all staff members of the project will be important. This will
help project managers, coordinators, advisors and experts to mainstream gender at all
levels and areas of the project activities.
6. Give gender awareness training to producers so that they can understand gender issues
and convey important messages and information by understanding the needs and
priorities of women and men. This will help producers to devise a compatible Mirt
dissemination strategy by understanding gendered concerns and problems.
7. Put in place a system for gender mainstreaming once staff members acquire the
necessary knowledge and skill in gender analysis and mainstreaming through sector
specific gender training. This will have paramount importance for staff members to

83
 mainstream gender from starting from proposal writing to monitoring and evaluation
stages of the project cycle.
8. Learn from Ministry of Mines and Energy (The counter part to GTZ Project) how to
deal with the subject of gender mainstreaming and work together for better success.
9. Work closely with women, women’s group and women’s organization on the aspect of
improvement and dissemination of these technologies. Networking with women’s
organization and feminist advocates who can also help the project to get assistance on
gender training and gender work.
10. Collect sex and gender disaggregated data during monitoring and evaluation as well as
impact assessment instead of considering the household as target of the project. This
will enable the project to get information and identify gap which has negative impact
on the project efficiency.
11. Since women are the main household cook it will be logical for the project to give
attention in the provision of important information on how to use and maintain the
stoves to women. In doing so the project has to take into consideration the educational
and other important personal limitations.
12. The project should facilitate credit or other financial arrangements in collaboration
with women’s formal and traditional organization.
13. The project together with the producers should exploit different traditional and formal
associations and organizations to demonstrate and promote Mirt stove.
14. Create awareness and encourage users and women in general to supplement their fuel
wood by planting trees within their compound.

84
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 Annex A: Questionnaire for Quantitative Survey

Ababa University
Faculty of Development Studies
Institute of Gender Studies
Addis Ababa
Questionnaire on ‘Assessment of household energy projects from Gender perspectives’: The
case of GTZ-supported Mirt commercial dissemination project in Bahir Dar city, Ethiopia.
Addressed to female respondents
Name of enumerator_______________________ Study area_______________________
Date of Interview _________________________
Sample No.___________________________ Code No.______________________
Introduction: This questionnaire is designed to collect data and relevant information on views,
concerns and opinion of women on household energy products in this case ‘Mirt’ injera
baking stove. You are kindly requested to give accurate and necessary information as much as
possible, Thank you.
Part 1: Personal data of respondents or Demographic data
1. Marital Status
A. married B. Single C. Divorced D. Widowed E. Separated
2. Religion
A. Orthodox B. Muslim C. Protestant D. Catholic E. Others
3. Type of household composition
A. Female headed B. Male headed
4. Total number of family members__________________
5. Educational Status
A. Illiterate B. Read and write C. Grade 1-6 D. Grade 6-12 E. Other (Specifiy)
6. Settlement A. satellite city B. city
7. Ownership status of the premise
A. own house B. rented from kebele C. rented from owner D. other; spacify
8. Total family size___________
9. What is the amount of your household income_________
10. What is your major source of income ___________
11. Age _______________
Part 2: General Information about household Energy consumption
2.1 How many years did you live in this area ___________-
2.2 Do you cook in your house? A. yes B. no
2.3Who did the household cooking mostly A. myself B. husband C. children D. waged
cooker

89
 2.4 What kind of kitchen do you have A. in same room with other section B. separate
2.5 What kind of household energy source did you use?
A. Electricity B. Kerosene C. Firewood E. dung and agricultural residues
2.6 What are the major food types do you consume?
A. Injera and Wot B. Others (Specify)__________
2.7 If you are using firewood and other biomass how do you get it?
A. collecting B. Buying C. Buying and occasionally collecting
2.8 If you are buying how much money do you spend monthly___________-
2.9 If you are collecting how much time do you spend weekly____________
2.10 If you are collecting is there shortage of fuel wood in the area________
2.11 Who is collecting the firewood
A. Husband B. wife C. Son D. Daughters E. Others_________
2.12 Have your family members encountered any problem while collecting firewood
A. Yes B. No
2.13 If yes what kind of problem; Specify______________________________
2.14Do you supplement your firewood supply by planting trees in your compound or
Surrounding? A. Yes B. No
2.15 If yes who come up with the idea of planting the trees
A. husband B. wife C. children D. others, Specify___________________________
2.16 Are there any other method you use to save fire wood other than planting tree and using
energy saving stoves? ________________________________
2.17 What kind of stoves do you use in your house?
A. Electric B. Kerosen stove C. Energy Saving stoves E. Traditional open fire stove
Part 3: Information on Mirt , Promotion and communication questions
3.1 When do you learn about Mirt ______________years/months?
3.2 Do you have Mirt Stove in your house? A. yes B. No
3.3 How did you learn about Mirt ?
A. from a friend B. TV C. Radio D. Billboard E. public demonstration of Mirt
F. Others (Specify) ____________
3.4 From where do you purchase the improved stove?
A. from shops B. from producers C. from local markets
3.5 Who did the installation of Mirt for you?

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 A. professional B. self-made C. others; specify
3.6 How were you influenced to buy Mirt stove?
A. Promotional demonstrations B. Friend C. Relatives D. Neighbors
D. Others, Specify _____________
3.7 have you ever told to your friend or relatives about Mirt and its benefits?
A. Yes B. No
3.8 Did you influence them to buy the stove? A. yes B. No
Part 4: Purchasing and ownership of the stove
4.1. Why do you decide to buy the stove?
A. Because it saves firewood B. Because it is smokeless C. Both E. others__________
4.2 Who makes decisions on expenditure in the house most of the time
A. Husband B. wife C. together D. others
4.3 How do you allocate money to buy the stove?
A. from monthly Salary B. from saving C. Ekobe D. others___________
4.4 Who decided to buy the stove in the family?
A. Husband B. Wife C. together D. others___________
4.5 If you do not have the Mirt what are the reasons
A. you are not convinced with its benefits B. you don’t have the information C. you
don’t have money D. you don’t have the space E. you are using other stoves
4.6 If you don’t have the money to buy the stove does it have something to do with decision
making and money allocation in the household? A. yes B. No
4.7 If yes, do you think if you were to decide on spending you will have the stove?
A. yes B. No
4.8 Do you think Mirt is affordable with your income level?
A. yes it is affordable B. It is expensive C. It is moderately expensive
4.9 Have you purchased Mirt with credit money? A. yes B. No
4.10 If yes, which credit organization? _________________________________________
Part 5: Benefits of the stove
5.1What do you benefit from the stove in terms of the list below and which comes first and
second ?
In Saving; firewood (Qantify)_____________________________________________

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 Money ___________________________________________________________
Time _____________________________________________________________
Health related benefits_______________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
5.2 Who do you think benefit most from the stove in terms of the above mentioned indicators
Put it in the order of beneficiary of Mirt at household level.
A. Husband_____ B. Wife ________ C. Children _______E. All________
5.3 Do you think Mirt is beneficial to protect the environment? A. Yes B. No C. I don’t know
5.4 Do you use other energy saving stove other than Mirt? A. yes B. No
5.5 If yes, which type of stove?
A. Gonzie B. lakech C. Fetenech D. Others____________
5.6. If you have one of them what are the reasons to have these stoves? A. Because they are
cheapB. Because they don’t take space
C. because of their additional feature, specify __________
5.7 For what purpose do you use Mirt?
A. Injera baking only B. Injera and bread C. Injera and wot together D. Others;
Specify_______________________

5.8 What is the frequency of using Mirt

A. Once a week B. twice a week C. daily D. Others;
Specify________________________
Part 6: Convenience and Comfort of Mirt
6.1 Do you have a problem of space at home because of having Mirt which is fixed in one
place A.Yes B. No C. Moderately
6.2 Do you like the quality of Mirt of being smokeless? A. Yes B. No
6.3 If no, what are the reasons? ____________________________________
6.4 Does cooking with Mirt safe from burning hazard A. Yes B. No C. Moderately
6.5 Is the position of Mirt comfortable for you while cooking? A. Yes B. No C. Moderately
6.6 Is it comfortable to polish the pan while cooking? A. Yes B. No C. Moderately
6.7 Is Mirt always compatible with the pan you buy and? A. Yes B. No
C. Moderately
6.8 Is the side stove of Mirt always compatible with the pots you use?
A. Yes B. No C. Moderately
6.9 can you easily control the heat while using Mirt? A. Yes B. Moderately C. No

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6.10 can you use different types of fuels in different seasons and situations? A. Yes B.
Moderately C. No
6.11 can the height of the stove allow you to sit while cooking? A. Yes B. Moderately C. No
6.12 Is it comfortable to stir the adjacent cooking pot while baking injera? A. Yes B. No
C. Moderately
Part 7: Durability of Mirt and other Constraints
7.1 If you have Mirt for how long did you use it _________
7.2 If you had changed the Mirt what was the reason__________________
A. accidentally broken B. due to its life span C. because of its poor quality
D. Other; Specify_________
7.3 After your first or broken Mirt have you decided not to replace it? A. yes B. No
7.4 If the answer is yes what was the reason? ________________________________
7.5 If your Mirt is disconnected do you know how to repair it? A. Yes B. No
7.6 If you know who told you or showed you? __________________________________
7.7 If you have changed your Stove do you notice any difference between the old and the
new ? ________________________________________
7.8 If your Mirt is broken A. do you change it partly B. Do you change the whole part?
7.9 Do you know that you can buy Mirt partly to replace only the broken part? A. yes B. No
7.10When you are not baking injera what do you use for small pots?
A. The pot stove adjacent to Mirt B. Other stoves
7.11 If you are using the slim Mirt, the new model, do you have any problem in?
A. stability of your mitad B. plastering frequently C. both D. none

7.12Have you try to use homemade closed stove which is similar to Mirt? _____________

7.13 If yes who constructed it? A. you B. Friend C. Professional

Part 8: Adaptation of the technology and resistance to change
8.1 Do you think most people in your neighborhood acquired Mirt? A. yes B. No
8.2 If not why do you think is the main reason_______________
8.3 To whom do you think creating awareness about acquiring the stove will be good among
A. women B. men C. both

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8.4Have you ever discouraged people from buying Mirt? A. yes B. No
8.5 If the answer is yes what was the reason?_____________________
A. Because it can be done at home B. it is expensive C. there is a cheaper and better injera
stove
8.6 What was your husband’s reaction when you buy Mirt A. he is the one who bought it B.
he encouraged you C. no comment at all D. discouraged you
Part 9: Suggestions and opinions on Mirt’s project and last practice
9.1 Has anyone ever asked your opinion about Mirt? A. yes B. No
9.2 Do you think it is appropriate to consult women before producing any model of energy
saving stoves ? A. yes B. No
9.3 Do you think there could be a cheaper and local way of producing ‘mitad’ which is
equivalent to Mirt? A. yes B. No
9.4 Have you ever complained about Mirt to the producers or disseminators? What kind of
response did you get? _________________________________________
9.5 Which way of promotional strategy is appropriate to you?
A. Radio B. Tv C. demonstration D. others; Specify
9.6 Do you think Edir and Ekob can be used to promote and disseminate Mirt ? A. yes B. No
9.7 Do you think credit system should be organized to for those who can’t afforded
to buy Mirt with a single payment? A. yes B. No
9.8 Have you ever heard any suggestion in your Ekobe or edir to buy Mirt in turn for its
members? A. yes B. No
9.10 Do you think women’s affairs office can help in acquiring the Mirt? A. Yes B. No
9.11 Do you think long term payment system is important to acquire the stove if so through
whom this service should be organized? A. husband B. wife C. for both
9.12 General comment, suggestion and opinion on Mirt in its production and dissemination
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
__________
General Comment of the Enumerator

‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐
‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐
‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ Thank you for your cooperation.

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 Annex B: In‐depth Interview Guide with Mirt Users

Is there any fuel wood scarcity in the area?

Do you plant trees to supplement?
How much do you spend on fuel wood purchase out of the total family income?
How do you learn about Mirt?
What makes you decide to buy it?
How do you raise the money and what was your husband’s contribution?
Who installed it for you?
Did you get information how to maintain and use the stove from the distributors?
Do you know how to maintain your stove?
Have you purchased part of the stove in-case it broken partly?
What do you benefit from Mirt and who benefit the most?
Do you use Mirt for Injera and Wot same time?
What are the problems you faced in using Mirt if there are any?
What do you think the contribution of women and women’s groups in Mirt
Dissemination?
What is overall suggestion and comment concerning this stove?

Thank you for your cooperation

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 Annex C: In‐depth Interview Guide with Mirt Producers

What was your educational and occupational status before you start Mirt Production?
How do you get recruited to be trained of Mirt Production?
How do you start the production?
What kind of assistance do you get from Governmental and Non-Governmental
Organizations?
How do you see your life before and after Mirt Business?
What challenges do you faced?
How do you overcame these challenges?
Can you describe what you gained economically and socially from the business?
Do you think Mirt’s coverage is satisfactory?
What kinds of feedbacks do you get from your customers?
What are the major problems of your customers?
What suggestions do you have in Mirt project and other household energy
technologies?

Thank you for your cooperation

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 Annex D: Interview Guide for Key‐informants /Stakeholders of the Project

Name of key informant: ________________ Status :__________________

Responsibility: ______________________________________________________

Gender Policy or Gender Equality Action plan

 Are You aware of the Ethiopian Women’s policy ?

 Does the organization have a gender policy or action plan ? If yes
 Are there any goals imposed by donners concerning empowerment of women ?
 Do you think management takes responsibility for the development and
implementation, monitoring and evaluation of the gender action plan or the women’s
policy?

1. Programme Planning and Design

 Are gender equity goals and objectives included in program/project design and
needs assessment?
 Are gender questions or criterion included in your program/project proposal
approval process?
 Does your organization use participatory methods to incorporate the views and
preferences of both male and female staff members in project design?

2. Programme Implementation
 Do your project implementation strategies and plans take into account existing
gender roles and interests of both male and female participants?
 Do you think female beneficiaries of your organization’s programs/projects value
and see the programs/projects as beneficial to their lives?

3. Technical Expertise
 Is there a person or division responsible for gender in your organization and do
you exactly know it?
 Is there assigned staff responsibility for gender integration in your department?
 Do you think staffs in your department have the necessary knowledge, skills and
attitudes to carry out their work with gender awareness including training in
gender planning and analysis?

4. Monitoring and Evaluation

 Is gender disaggregated data collected for projects and programs?
 Is the gender impact of projects and programs monitored and evaluated?
 Is there any accountability mechanism concerning gender mainstreaming?

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5. Organizational Culture

 Have you witnessed any discrimination based on sex, nationality, language, disability
or sexuality? If so what measures were taken?
 Does the organization comply with gender sensitive behaviors, for example in terms
of language used, jokes and comments made?

6. Human Resources

 Are there flexible work arrangements in your organization?

 Do you think maternity and paternity leave policy equally being implemented?
 Is gender awareness including in job performance criteria, staff evaluation?
 Is there training of staff in gender awareness and sensitization?
 Is good performance in the field of gender is rewarded in your organization?

7. Advocacy and communication

 Are advocacy campaign and initiatives planned and informed by a gender

perspective?
 Are your advocacy policies and plan influenced and advised by women’s
organizations, networks and gender experts?
 Is gender incorporated in your organization’s communications, fund-raising and
media strategies?
 Is a gender perspective reflected in your publications, for example, books,
brochures, and newsletters?

8. Additional questions : from document review

 Is the project the only one in Ethiopia addressing and promoting household energy
efficiency and improved stove dissemination in Ethiopia?
 The developmental objective of the project mentions the conservation strategy and the
Environmental policy of Ethiopia as a background why not the Ethiopian women’s
policy or package?
 As stakeholders, Ministry of Health and Agriculture and Bureau of agriculture and
other stakeholders are mentioned why not Ministry or Bureau for women’s affairs?
How are the needs and interests of women represented in the project?
 Regional stakeholders which are mentioned in the document are BOA and BOWME
not BOWA while women are main actors in acquiring and using the stoves, how are
these two points looked at in the project management?
 In the process of capacity building at any level, does training on gender and related
issues considered?
 In Workshops and seminars organized through the projects are topics of gender and
household energy part of it?

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 Are the training courses developed by the project informed by gender aspects and
concerns?
 Does the engineers who adopt the energy saving stoves do some research in the
kitchen before improving any stove?
 Do they understand the real design requirement, eg. Slim not having the fitting place
for the mitad?
 Do they consider ease of cooking, position and compatibility of cooking pans and
pots?
 Do you think women can rise in one go the money to buy the Mirt?
 Does the project have any alternative means of dissemination of Mirt using other
financial alternatives?
 Does the energy consultant and engineers do field tests of improved stoves other than
laboratory test about the overall compatibility of the stove with the cook, the women?
 Do energy planners sit and discuss with women about what the problem and the
solution is?

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 Annex E: Profile of In‐depth Interview Participants

Name Educational Employment Having Mirt Age

status or Not
Anchinesh Belay Read and Write House wife No 35

Shewaye Hayle Grade 12 civil servant No 28

Beletu Mulu Grade 7 House wife Own Mirt 25

Werknesh Ayele Grade 12 House wife Own Mirt 28

Haimanot Kebede Read and Write House wife No 43

Bayush Belachew Illitrate House wife Own Mirt 40

Demoze Anteneh Read and Write House wife Own Mirt 50

Messeret Read and Write House wife Own Mirt 34

Getachew

Mena Kebede Technical civil servant Own Mirt 27

diploma

Sofia Ahameed Grade 12 restaurant owner Own Mirt 34

Amarech Yeraga Illiterate small business No 29

Betelhem Aragaw Diploma civil servant Own Mirt 23

Wagaye Belete Read and write small business Own Mirt 33

Tigist Abebe Grade 10 restaurant owner Own Mirt 36

Mulunesh Grade 8 house wife No 52

Yebeltal

Asayech Read and write civil servant No 28

Daganchew

Nigist Worku Read and write House wife Own Mirt 44

Felekech Ayele Illiterate house wife Own Mirt 47

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 Annex F: Profile of Key‐informant Interview Participants

Name and Status of Key Informants Sex

1. Mr. Samson Atsbha, Excutive program officer with responsibility of
Monitoring and organizing progress reporting and communicating
with donors,GTZ-ECO Male
2. Mr. Alemayehu Zeleke , Energy and Technical advisor for all
stoves, GTZ-ECO Male
3. Ms. Konjit Negussu, Information communication and PR
coordinator , responsible for promotion and marketing, GTZ-ECO Female
4. Mr. Tewodros Berihun, Project Manager, responsible for managing
project execution, GTZ-ECO, Bahir Dar branch Male
5. Mr. Abebe Ayehu, Energy sources development expert in Bahirdar
Zone Male
6. Mr. Alemayhu Tesfaye; Alternative Energy resources and
Technology Development and promotion Core process, Training Male
officer, MME
7. Mrs. Sofia Mohamed, Gender Mainstreaming Management Process
Owner, MME Female
8. Ms. Tigist Tefera, Mirt producer, Bahir Dar Female
9. Mrs. Genete Tadesse, Mirt producer, Bahir Dar Female

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Annex G: Pictures Taken During the Study

Ms. Tigist in her house built from Mirt produced by Ms. Tigist Mrs. Genet with her Mirt production

Mirt Profit

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 DECLARATION

I, declare that this thesis is my original work and has not been presented for a degree
in any University and all the sources of material used for the thesis are duly
acknowledged.

Name: MESSERET LEGESSE BURUSSA

Signature:__________________________

Date:______________________________

Place: Addis Ababa

This has been submitted for examination with my approval as a University advisor

Advisor’s Name: Dr. MULUMBET ZENEBE

Signature:__________________________________

Date:______________________________________

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 legend

Kebele14
Kebele7 and 17
Kebele11
Kebele4, 5 and 6
Kebele8, 9
Kebele13
Kebele16
Kebele3 and 15
Kebele 10

Annex –H. Bahir Dar with its surrounding rural kebeles and satelite towns