PRAGMATICS

PRESENTED BY
ICA ANNISA
NIM: 2409067005
 PRAGMATICS
❑ Pragmatics is a branch of linguistics dealing with language
use, language in context, language appropriateness, and
language awareness.

❑ It is the study of what speakers communicate and its

interpretation by the hearers.

❑ It is the study of language use which focuses on users‘ point

of view and how the language used affects communication.

❑ It is the study of how context influences the interpretation

of meaning in language. It goes beyond the literal meanings
of words to consider how language is used in real-life
situations.
SPEECH ACTS
Speech acts are a fundamental concept in pragmatics that explore how we use
language to perform various actions in communication. The theory of speech
acts, primarily developed by philosophers like J.L. Austin and John Searle,
categorizes utterances based on their intended function rather than their literal
meaning.

This type focuses on how we perform actions through language. It can be

categorized into:
SPEECH ACTS

Speech Act Theory, developed by philosopher J.L. Austin in his seminal work "How to Do Things
with Words," revolutionized the understanding of language by emphasizing that utterances can
perform actions rather than merely convey information. Austin's theory distinguishes between
different types of speech acts and highlights the performative nature of language.
Key Concepts of J.L Austion's Speech Act Theory
Austin categorized speech acts into three main types:
• Locutionary Acts: These refer to the actual utterance and its literal meaning. For instance, the
phrase "It's cold in here" is a locutionary act that conveys a specific statement about temperature.
• Illocutionary Acts: These are the intended meaning or function behind the utterance. In the
example above, the illocutionary act might be a request to close a window or an expression of
discomfort. The illocutionary force is what the speaker intends to achieve with their words.
• Perlocutionary Acts: These refer to the effects or responses that the utterance produces in the
listener. For example, if the listener feels compelled to close the window after hearing "It's cold in
here," that response is a perlocutionary effect of the utterance.
SPEECH ACTS
John Searle, an influential American philosopher, significantly advanced the field
of Speech Act Theory, which was initially introduced by J.L. Austin. Searle's work
built upon Austin's ideas, providing a more structured framework for
understanding how language functions in communication. His contributions have
been pivotal in the philosophy of language, particularly in exploring how
utterances can perform various actions.
Key Concepts of Searle's Speech Act Theory
• Assertives: Statements that convey information (e.g., "It is raining“, "She is a
doctor.").
• Directives: Requests or commands (e.g., "Please close the door“, "You should see
a doctor.").
• Commissives: Promises or commitments, it bind the speaker to a future action.
• (e.g., "I will help you with your task“, "I promise to call you tomorrow.")
• Expressives: Expressions of feelings or emotions, it allows speakers to
communicate their emotional responses. (e.g., "I apologize“, "I'm sorry for your
loss.“"Congratulations on your promotion!"
• Declarations: Statements that bring about a change in the world (e.g., "I now
pronounce you husband and wife“, "I hereby resign from my position.")
 CONVERSATIONAL IMPLICATURE
This concept refers to what is suggested in an interaction, even if it is not explicitly stated.

Types of Conversational Implicature:

• Generalized Conversational Implicature: This type occurs in most contexts and does not
depend heavily on specific circumstances. For example, if someone says, "Some of the cookies
are gone," it can be inferred that not all the cookies are gone, even if this is not explicitly stated.
The listener understands that "some" implies "not all.“

• Particularized Conversational Implicature: This type is context-dependent and relies on

specific situational factors. For instance, if a person asks, "Can you pass the salt?" and the
response is, "I’m busy right now," the implicature might be that the speaker is unwilling to pass
the salt at that moment. The listener infers meaning based on the context of the conversation.
 THE MAXIM OF CONVERSATION
• The maxims of conversation, proposed by H.P. Grice (British
philosopher (1913-1988) was a key figure in 20th century
philosophy and a major contributor to the field of pragmatics),
are fundamental principles that describe how effective
communication occurs in social interactions.

• These maxims are part of Grice's broader concept known as

the Cooperative Principle, which suggests that participants in a
conversation typically work together to achieve mutual
understanding.

Here’s a detailed look at each of the four maxims:

1. MAXIM OF QUANTITY
Definition:
This maxim emphasizes the importance of providing the right amount of
information in a conversation. It suggests that speakers should be as
informative as necessary but not provide excessive detail.

Implications:
A speaker should aim to give enough information to convey their message
clearly without overwhelming the listener with unnecessary details.

Example:
If someone asks, "What did you do today?" a short response like "I went to the
store and then studied" is appropriate, while an overly detailed account of every
activity may violate this maxim.
2. MAXIM OF QUALITY
Definition:
This maxim focuses on truthfulness and the need to provide information that is
accurate and supported by evidence. Speakers are expected not to say anything
they believe to be false or for which they lack sufficient evidence.

Implications:
Adhering to the maxim of quality means that speakers should avoid making
misleading statements or exaggerations.

Example:
If someone claims, "I can run a mile in four minutes," but they cannot, they are
violating this maxim. Listeners rely on the assumption that the information
shared is truthful.
3. MAXIM OF RELATION/RELEVANCE
Definition:
This maxim asserts that contributions to a conversation should be relevant to
the topic at hand. Speakers are expected to provide information that pertains to
the ongoing discussion.

Implications:
When a speaker strays from the topic or provides unrelated information, they
violate this maxim.

Example:
If during a discussion about vacation plans someone suddenly starts talking
about their favorite movie, it may confuse the listener and disrupt the flow of
conversation.
4. MAXIM OF MANNER
Definition:
This maxim emphasizes clarity and orderliness in communication. It suggests
that speakers should avoid ambiguity and obscurity, presenting their ideas in a
clear and organized manner.

Implications:
It means using straightforward language and structuring thoughts logically.

Example:
Someone is saying "The meeting is at 3 PM in the conference room" is clear,
while an unclear statement like "We should gather later" lacks clarity and may
lead to confusion.
DEIXIS
This aspect of pragmatics involves words and phrases that require contextual
information to convey meaning.

It is a fundamental concept in pragmatics that refers to words and phrases whose

meanings are context-dependent. These expressions require additional contextual
information to convey their full meaning, as they point to specific entities, times,
or locations relative to the speaker and listener. Understanding deixis is crucial for
interpreting language accurately in real-world situations.
 TYPES OF DEIXIS

1. PERSONAL DEIXIS (PERSON)

Definition:
Personal deixis involves expressions that refer to the participants in a
conversation, typically using pronouns. The meaning of these pronouns changes
depending on who is speaking and who is being addressed.

Examples:
• "I" refers to the speaker.
• "You" refers to the listener.
• "They" refers to others not present in the conversation.
 TYPES OF DEIXIS

2. TEMPORAL DEIXIS (TIME)

Definition:
Temporal deixis relates to expressions that indicate time, helping to situate events
in relation to the moment of speaking.

Examples:
• "Now" refers to the current moment.
• "Then" refers to a time in the past or future.
• "Tomorrow" indicates the day after the current one.
 TYPES OF DEIXIS

3. SPATIAL DEIXIS (PLACE)

Definition:
Spatial deixis involves expressions that indicate locations or directions in relation
to the speaker's position.

Examples:
• "Here" refers to the location of the speaker.
• "There" refers to a location away from the speaker.
• "Above" or "below" indicates relative positions.
 TYPES OF DEIXIS

4. DISCOURSE DEIXIS
Definition:
Discourse deixis refers to expressions that point to parts of the discourse itself,
such as segments of the conversation or written text.

Examples:
• "This" can refer to a statement just made.
• "That" can refer to something mentioned earlier in the discourse.
 TYPES OF DEIXIS

5. SOCIAL DEIXIS
Definition:
Social deixis involves expressions that convey social relationships and status
between participants in a conversation.

Examples:
• Terms of address like "Mr.," "Dr.," or "Your Honor" indicate respect or
formality.
• Pronouns that reflect social hierarchy, such as "tu" (informal) versus "vous"
(formal) in French.
CONTEXTUAL MEANING
Pragmatics emphasizes the importance of context in understanding meaning.

Definition:
Contextual meaning refers to the interpretation of an utterance based on the
surrounding circumstances, including the speaker's intentions, the listener's background
knowledge, the physical environment, and the social dynamics at play. It highlights that
meaning is not fixed but can change depending on various contextual factors.

Components of context:
CONTEXTUAL MEANING
Components of Context:
• Linguistic Context: This includes the words and sentences that precede or follow an
utterance, which can provide clues about its meaning. For example, the meaning of
"it" can vary significantly depending on what has been previously mentioned in the
conversation.
• Situational Context: The physical setting in which communication occurs can
influence meaning. For instance, saying "It's cold in here" in a room with air
conditioning may imply a request to close a window or adjust the temperature.
• Cultural Context: Shared cultural knowledge and norms shape how language is
interpreted. Certain phrases or gestures may have different meanings in different
cultures, affecting how messages are understood.
• Social Context: The relationship between the speakers, their social roles, and the
power dynamics at play can impact meaning. For example, a command given by a
boss may carry different implications than the same command given by a peer.
EXAMPLE OF CONTEXTUAL MEANING
Ambiguity and Inference:
Consider the statement, "Can you pass the salt?" In a context where two people are at a
dinner table, the request is clear. However, if the same question is asked in a different
setting, such as a classroom, the meaning may shift, and the listener might infer that the
speaker is asking about the ability to pass the salt rather than making a request.
Conversational Implicature:
Contextual meaning often involves implicature, where the speaker implies something
beyond the literal meaning. For instance, if someone asks, "Do you want to go to the
movies?" and the response is, "I have a lot of work to do," the contextual meaning suggests
that the person is not interested in going, even though they did not explicitly say so.
Politeness and Social Context:
The phrase "Could you help me?" can be interpreted differently based on the relationship
between the speaker and the listener. In a formal setting, it may be seen as a polite request,
while in a casual context among friends, it might be perceived as a straightforward ask for
assistance.
POLITENESS THEORY
Politeness Theory:
It developed by Penelope Brown and Stephen Levinson in the 1980s, is a
significant framework within pragmatics that examines how individuals manage
social interactions and maintain relationships through language.

This area examines how language is used to manage social relationships and
convey respect. It involves strategies for maintaining face (self-esteem) in
communication, such as:

a. Positive politeness: Strategies that seek to enhance the listener's self-esteem

(e.g., compliments).

b. Negative politeness: Strategies that minimize the imposition on the listener

(e.g., hedging requests)
 POLITENESS THEORY
Examples of Positive Politeness Strategies:
Compliments:
Offering compliments is a direct way to enhance someone's self-esteem. For instance, if a
colleague presents a project, saying, "You did an amazing job on this presentation! Your
insights were really impressive," not only acknowledges their effort but also boosts their
confidence.

Expressions of Interest:
Showing genuine interest in the listener's feelings or experiences can also serve as a
positive politeness strategy. For example, asking, "How was your weekend? I hope you had
a great time!" demonstrates care and consideration for the listener's personal life.

Inclusive Language:
Using inclusive language can create a sense of belonging. For instance, saying, "We all
know how hard you've worked on this project," emphasizes teamwork and shared effort,
making the listener feel valued within the group.
 POLITENESS THEORY
Examples of Negative Politeness Strategies:
Hedging Requests:
Hedging is a common negative politeness strategy that softens requests to reduce their
imposition. For example, instead of saying, "Close the window," a speaker might say,
"Could you possibly close the window if it's not too much trouble?" This phrasing
acknowledges the listener's autonomy and minimizes the demand.

Apologizing:
Apologizing before making a request can also serve as a negative politeness strategy. For
instance, saying, "I’m sorry to bother you, but could you help me with this?" shows
awareness of the potential inconvenience and respects the listener's time.

Using Indirect Language:

Indirect requests can soften the impact of a statement. For example, instead of directly
asking someone to lend a book, one might say, "I was wondering if you might have that
book I could borrow." This approach allows the listener to feel less pressured to comply.
PRAGMATIC MARKERS
Definition and Function

▪ Pragmatic markers are often short words or phrases that do not contribute to
the literal meaning of a sentence but serve important functions in
conversation.

▪ They can indicate the speaker's attitude, signal the structure of discourse, or
manage the flow of interaction or conversation.

▪ Common examples of pragmatic markers include words like "well," "you

know," "like," "actually," and "I mean."
KEY FUNCTIONS OF PRAGMATIC MARKERS
Managing Interaction:
• Pragmatic markers help regulate the dynamics of conversation. For instance, using "you know"
can invite the listener to engage or indicate shared knowledge. This fosters a sense of
connection and encourages participation in the dialogue.

Expressing Attitude:
• These markers can convey the speaker's feelings or attitudes toward the content of their
message. For example, saying "I mean" before a clarification can signal that the speaker is
emphasizing their point or correcting a misunderstanding.

Signaling Discourse Structure:

• Pragmatic markers can indicate shifts in the conversation or highlight important points. For
instance, "firstly," "on the other hand," or "to sum up" help organize thoughts and guide the
listener through the speaker's argument or narrative.

Mitigating Face Threats:

• In conversations where the speaker's message might threaten the listener's face (self-esteem or
social identity), pragmatic markers can soften the impact. For example, saying "Well, I think
you might want to consider..." instead of a direct critique can help maintain politeness and
respect.
PRAGMATIC MARKERS IN USE
Examples:
"Well":
• This marker can indicate hesitation or a shift in thought. For example, "Well, I guess we should
start the meeting now," suggests a transition and prepares the listener for a change in focus.
"You know":
• Often used to create rapport or emphasize shared understanding, as in "It's a tough job, you
know?" This invites the listener to relate to the speaker's experience.
"Like":
• Frequently used in informal speech, "like" can serve as a filler or a way to introduce examples. For
instance, "I was, like, really surprised by the news," adds a casual tone and reflects the speaker's
emotional response.
"Actually":
• This marker can introduce a correction or clarification, as in "Actually, I think the meeting is
next week." It signals that the speaker is providing important information that may alter the
listener's understanding.