Graphs

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 Deliverables

Graph Terminology

Types of Graphs

Graph representations

DFS and BFS

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 Graph-Basics
Graph: pair(V,E) where V is set of nodes called vertices E is a
collection of pair of vertices called edges. vertices and edges
are positions and store elements

Directed edge: ordered pair of vertices(u, v) where first vertex

u is the origin and second vertex v is the destination

Undirected edge: unordered pair of vertices for example

distance between two cities

In Directed graph all the edges are directed and in undirected

graph all the edges are undirected

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 Undirected Graph

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 Directed Graph

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 Weighted Graphs
Weighted undirected G Weighted Directed G

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 Graph-Applications
Graph Nodes Edges
Electronic Circuit Gates Wires
Transportation Crossings, Roads, Railway
Stations, Airports lines, Air Routes
Communication Computers, Fiber cables,
Mobiles Wireless Links
Internet Web Pages Hyperlinks
Software Systems Functions Function calls
Social Networks People Relationships
ER Diagrams Stores or Relation
Processes

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 Graph terminology
End vertices of an edge U and V are the
endpoints of a
Edge incident on a vertex a, d, b are
incident on v
adjacent vertices u and v are adjacent

Degree of a vertex : x has degree 5

sum of degree of all vertices is double the

no of edges of an undirected graph
parallel edges: h and i are parallel edges

Self loop : j is a self loop

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 Path
path-sequence of alternating vertices and
edges
begins with a vertex and ends with a vertex

each edge is preceded and followed by its

endpoints
Simple path- a path such that all edges and
vertices are distinct
v, b, x, h, z is a simple path

u, c, w, e, x, g, y, f, w, d, v is not a simple
path

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 Cycle
cycle- circular sequence of
alternating vertices and edges
each edge is preceded and followed
by its endpoints
Simple cycle : such that all its
vertices and edges are distinct
v, b, x, g, y, f, w, c, u, a, v is a simple
cycle
u, c, w, e, x, g, y, f, w, d, v, a, u is not
a simple cycle

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 DAG: Directed Acyclic Graph

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 Graph operations
incidentedges(v) insertvertex(o)
endvertices(e) insertedge(v,w,o)
isdirected(e) insertdirectededge(v,w,o)
origin(e) removevertex(v)
destination(e) removeedge(e)
opposite(v,e) numvertices()
areadjacent(v,w) numedges()
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 Graph
A connected graph
without cycles is a tree
A Collection of trees is
called a forest.
m=no. of edges n= no. of
vertices
For a tree m=n-1
If m<n-1 Graph is not
connected

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 Sub graph
Sub Graph: A Graph
consisting of Subset of edges
and subset of vertices of
another graph is a sub graph
of that graph.

Super graph of a graph G is

a graph of which G is a sub
graph.

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 Connected Graph

If there is a path
between any two pair
of vertices it is called a
connected graph

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Connected Component of Graph
Connected components of graph :
maximal connected sub graph

Given Graph is one graph

containing three connected
components
Connected component is that if we
can not add more elements to the
set and retain the connected
property. Any sub graph of a
connected component is not a
connected component

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 Strongly Connected
Not strongly Connected Strongly Connected

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 Euler Path
Eulerian path is a path in a
graph which visits
each edge exactly once and
returns to the starting
vertex. A Graph has a
Eulerian Path if all vertices
have even degree.

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 Hamiltonian Path

Hamiltonian path (or traceable

path) is a path in an undirected
graph which visits
each vertex exactly once.

Hamiltonian cycle (or Hamiltonian

circuit) is a cycle in an undirected
graph which visits
each vertex exactly once and also
returns to the starting vertex.

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 Independent Set
Independent set or stable set is a set
of vertices in a graph, no two of which
are adjacent. That is, it is a set I of
vertices such that for every two vertices
in I, there is no edge connecting the two.

Maximum independent set is a largest

independent set for a given graph G.
Maximum Independent set is { U,Z,Y}

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 Vertex Cover
Set of vertices such that each
edge of the graph is incident to
at least one vertex of the set. A
vertex cover of G is a set C of
vertices such that each edge
of G is incident to at least one
vertex in C. The set C is said
to cover the edges of G.
Minimum vertex cover is
vertex cover of smallest
possible size.
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 Dominating Set
Every vertex not in D is
joined to at least one
member of D by some
edge
Domination number is no
of vertices in smallest
dominating set for G.
Nodes covering all nodes
of graph

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 Clique
Clique in an undirected
graph G = (V, E) is a
subset of the vertex
set such that for every two
vertices in the subset,
there exists an edge
connecting the two.
Maximum clique is a
clique of the largest
possible size in a given
graph
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 Bipartite K3,3
In a bipartite graph, the
vertices can be divided
into two sets, W and X,
so that every edge has
one vertex in each of the
two sets.

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 Complete Graph
In a complete
graph each pair of
vertices is joined by an
edge, that is, the graph
contains all possible
edges. K5 is given.

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 Planar Graph
Graph F is planar if it can
be drawn in such a way
that no edges cross each
other. K5 and K3,3 are not
planar.
Kuratowski Theorem:
finite graph is planar iff it
does not contain a sub
graph of K5 or K3,3
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 Graph isomorphism
Graphs G and H are
isomorphic if vertex sets
of G and H any two
vertices u and v of G are
adjacent in G if and only
if ƒ(u) and ƒ(v) are adjacent
in H
ƒ(a) = 1 ƒ(b) = 6
ƒ(c) = 8 ƒ(d) = 3
ƒ(g) = 5 ƒ(h) = 2
ƒ(i) = 4 ƒ(j) = 7

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 Graph Minor
Undirected graph H is called a minor
of the graph G if H is isomorphic to a
graph that can be obtained by zero or
more edge contractions on a sub graph
of G

Edge contraction is an operation which

removes an edge from a graph while
simultaneously merging together the
two vertices it used to connect.

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 Regular Graph
If all vertices have the same
degree it is called the
regular graph.
Given graph is 3-regular.

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 Peterson Graph
Undirected graph with
10 vertices and 15 edges.
It is a small graph that
serves as a useful
example and
counterexample for
many problems.

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 Rooted tree graphs
Given a tree T,
choose a root
node r and
orient each edge
away from r.

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 2-Edge Connectivity
A graph is 2-edge
connected iff it remains
connected after removal
of any one edge.
Means it should not have
any bridge
Graph has a bridge and
adding one edge parallel
to the bridge will make it
2-edge connected

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 Knot in a graph
A knot in a directed graph is
a collection of vertices and
edges such that every vertex
in the knot has outgoing
edges, and all outgoing
edges from vertices in the
knot terminate at other
vertices in the knot. Thus it
is impossible to leave the
knot while following
directions of the edges
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 Graph Coloring
It is a way of colouring the vertices of a
graph such that no two adjacent
vertices share the same colour; this is
called a vertex colouring.
Edge colouring assigns a colour to each
edge so that no two adjacent edges
share the same colour.
Minimum Coloring of a Graph is to use
minimum number of different colors
while holding the above conditions.
Any Planar Graph or any graph with
clique of four or less can be colored in
four colors.

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 Steiner Tree
Given a set V of vertices,
interconnect them by a
network (graph) of shortest
length, where length is sum of
lengths of all edges. Difference
between Steiner tree and MST
is that, in Steiner , extra
intermediate vertices and
edges may be added to the
graph to reduce length of
spanning tree. These new
vertices are known as Steiner
points or Steiner vertices.

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Graph representation-Incidence Matrix
The graph is represented by a matrix of size |V| (number of
vertices) by |E| (number of edges) where the entry [vertex,
edge] contains the edge's endpoint data (simplest case: 1 -
incident, 0 - not incident).
U V W X
A 1 1 0 0
B 0 1 0 1
C 1 0 1 0
D 0 1 1 0
E 0 0 1 1
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 Adjacency Matrix
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
2 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0
3 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1
4 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
5 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0
6 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
7 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
8 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0

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 Adjacency Matrix
nXn matrix A, where n is the number of vertices in the graph.

If there is an edge from a vertex x to a vertex y, then element ax,y is 1

, otherwise 0.

Every element in matrix can be represented by a single bit. However

in case of sparse graphs it can be a waste of space and time.

In computing, this matrix makes it easy to find sub graphs, and to

reverse a directed graph. Space O(n2)

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 Adjacency Matrix
Checking if (u, v) is an edge takes O(1) time.

Identifying all edges takes (n2) time.

For undirected graphs it will be always symmetric matrix along the diagonal

Good for dense graphs

For non-weighted graphs only a Boolean matrix will work

In weighted graphs actual weights will be written instead of 1

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 Adjacency List

1 2 3

2 1 3 4 5

3 1 2 5 7 8

4 2 5

5 2 3 4 6

6 5

7 3 8

8 3 7

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 Adjacency List
An array indexed by vertex numbers points to a singly-linked list of the
neighbors of each vertex.
Space proportional to O(m + n) so it is Space efficient

Checking if (u, v) is an edge takes O(deg(u)) time.

Identifying all edges takes O(m + n) time.

Good for sparse graphs

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 Incidence List
Incidence list edges are represented by an array containing
pairs (tuples if directed) of vertices (that the edge connects)
and possibly weight and other data. Vertices connected by
an edge are said to be adjacent.
(2,4)
(5,6)
(5,9)
(1,2)

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 Classification of edges
Tree edges of a directed graph are
edges which belong to the spanning
tree.

An edge except tree edge in the

forward direction of the tree is the
forward edge. Back edges point from a
node to one of its direct ancestors, and
cross edges, which do neither.

If original graph is undirected then all

of its edges are tree edges or back
edges.

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 Graph traversal-DFS
DFS is an uninformed search that progresses by expanding first child
node of search tree that appears and thus going deeper and deeper until
a goal node is found, or until it hits a node that has no children. Then it
backtracks, returning to most recent node it hasn't finished exploring.
In a non-recursive implementation, all freshly expanded nodes are
added to a stack for exploration. DFS on a graph with n vertices and m
edges takes O(n + m ) time

DFS can be further extended to solve other graph problems. Like find
and report a path between two given vertices.

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 DFS-example

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 DFS traversal for a Tree
DFSTree(T)
Push(Stack, Root(T))
While !Empty(Stack)
v← Pop(Stack)
visit(v)
for all Children(v)
Push(Stack, Children)

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 DFS Search Algorithm using stack
1. Push the root node onto a stack.
2. Pop a node from the stack and examine it.
3. If the element sought is found in this node, quit the
search and return a result.
4. Otherwise push all its successors (child nodes) that have
not yet been discovered onto the stack.
5. If the stack is empty, every node in the tree has been
examined – quit the search and return "not found".
6. If the stack is not empty, repeat from Step 2
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 DFS Vs. BFS
DFSTree(T) BFSTree(T)
Push(Stack, Root(T)) Enqueue(Que, Root(T))
While !Empty(Stack) While !Empty(Que)
v← Pop(Stack) v← Dequeue(Que)
visit(v) visit(v)
for all Children(v) for all Children(v)
Push(Stack, Children) Push(Que, Children)

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 DFS example

1/u v w
1/u 2/v w

x y z
x y z

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 DFS example

1/u 2/v w
1/u 2/v w

x 3/y z
4/x 3/y z

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 DFS example

1/u 2/v w
1/u 2/v w

4/x 3/y z 4/5

3/y z
x

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 DFS example

1/u 2/v w 2/7

1/u
v
w

4/5 3/6 z
x y 4/5 3/6 z
x y

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 DFS example

2/7
1/u
v
w 1/8 2/7
u v
w

4/5 3/6 z
x y 4/5 3/6 z
x y

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 DFS example

1/8 2/7 9/
u v w 1/8 2/7 9/
u v w

4/5 3/6 z
x y 4/5 3/6 z
x y

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 DFS example

1/8 2/7 9/
u v w 1/8 2/7 9/
u v w

4/5 3/6 10/

z 4/5 3/6 10/
x y z
x y

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 DFS example

1/8 2/7 9/
u v w 1/8 2/7 9/12
u v w

4/5 3/6 10/11

z 4/5 3/6 10/11
x y z
x y

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 Recursive Algorithm
DFS(V, E) DFS-VISIT(u)
for each u ∈ V visited[u] ← True //discover u
for each v ∈ Adj[u] //explore (u, v)
do visited[u] ← False do if visited[v] = False
for each u ∈ V Then DFS-VISIT(v)
do if visited[u] = False visited[u] ← BLACK
then DFS-VISIT(u)

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 What we get free
Each call to DFS-visit gives us connected components of a
graph.

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 DFS with labels
Algorithm DFS(G) Algorithm DFS(G, v)
Input graph G Input start vertex v
Output labelling of the edges of G as setLabel(v, Visited)
discovery edges and back edges for all e ∈ G.incidentEdges(v)
for all u ∈ G.vertices() if getLabel(e) = Unexplored
setLabel(u, Unexplored) w ← opposite(v,e)
for all e ∈ G.edges() if getLabel(w) = Unexplored
setLabel(e, Unexplored) setLabel(e, Discovery)
for all v ∈ G.vertices() DFS(G, w)
if getLabel(v) = Unexplored else
DFS(G, v) setLabel(e, Back)

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 Key points of label DFS
Property 1 • Each vertex is labeled twice
DFS(G, v) visits all – once as unexplored
vertices and edges in – once as Visited
connected component of • Each edge is labeled twice
v – once as unexplored
Property 2 – once as Discovery or Back
The discovery edges • Method incidentEdges is
called once for each vertex
labeled by DFS(G, v)
form a spanning tree of • DFS runs in O(n + m) time
provided the graph is
the connected component represented by the
of v adjacency list structure

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 Path Finding
We can specialize the DFS to find Algorithm pathDFS(G, v, z)
path between two given vertices u setLabel(v, Visited)
and z S.push(v)
if v = z
G is a connected Graph return S.elements()
for all e  G.incidentEdges(v)
if getLabel(e) = Unexplored
Call DFS(G, u) with u as start vertex w  opposite(v,e)
if getLabel(w) = Unexplored
setLabel(e, Discovery)
Use a stack S to keep track of the path
S.push(e)
between the start vertex and the
current vertex pathDFS(G, w, z)
S.pop(e)
As soon as destination vertex z is else
encountered, return the path as setLabel(e, Back)
contents of the stack
S.pop(v)
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 Cycle finding
Algorithm cycleDFS(G, v, z)
setLabel(v, Visited)
S.push(v)
for all e  G.incidentEdges(v)
We can specialize the DFS to find a if getLabel(e) = Unexplored
simple cycle w  opposite(v,e)
S.push(e)
if getLabel(w) = Unexplored
Use stack S to keep track of path setLabel(e, Discovery)
between start vertex and current pathDFS(G, w, z)
vertex S.pop(e)
else
T  new empty stack
As soon as a back edge (v, w) is
repeat
encountered, return the cycle as o  S.pop()
portion of stack from top to vertex w T.push(o)
until o = w
return T.elements()
S.pop(v)
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 DFS Complexity
Visits each node exactly once
Process each edge exactly twice (for an undirected graph)
Process each edge once (for an directed graph)
So complexity O(V+E)
Adjacency matrix O(V2)

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 Important Points
Post order traversal of DFS tree read in a reverse
direction is topological sort in directed graphs.

DFS can do more things then BFS relatively

because when it backs up it has lot of information
then BFS.

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 Breadth First Search

Given a graph G=(V,E) and a source vertex s, BFS explores

edges of G to discover every vertex that is reachable from s.

It computes distance from s to each reachable vertex. It

produces a breadth first tree with root s that contains all
reachable vertices. It discovers all vertices at distance k from
s before discovering any vertices at distance k+1.

For each vertex v at level i, the path of the BFS tree T between
s and v has i edges, and any other path of G between s and v
has at least i edges.

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 BFS
BFS on a graph with n vertices and m edges takes O(n +
m ) time

BFS can be further extended to solve other graph

problems. Find and report a path with the minimum
number of edges between two given vertices. To find the
vertex with maximum number of edges from a vertex.
Find a simple cycle, if there is one

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 BFS on trees
BFSTree(T)
Enqueue(Que, Root(T))
While !Empty(Que)
v← Dequeue(Que)
visit(v)
for all Children(v)
Push(Que, Children)

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 BFS tree example
ABDECFG is the order of BFS on tree

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 BFS search Algorithm

1. Enqueue the root node.

2. Dequeue a node and examine it.
a) If the element sought is found in this node, quit the search and
return a result.
b) Otherwise Enqueue any successors (the direct child nodes) that
have not yet been discovered.
3. If the queue is empty, every node on the graph has been
examined – quit the search and return "not found".
4. If the queue is not empty, repeat from Step 2

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 BFS algorithm
GraphBFS(G,s)
For each Vertex in Graph
dist[v] ← ∞
dist[s] ← 0
Enqueue(Que, s)
While !Empty(Que)
u← Dequeue(Que)
visit(u)
for each (u, v) in Edge list
if dist[v] ← ∞
Enqueue(Que, v)
dist[v] ← dist[u] + 1

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 BFS with labeling
Algorithm BFS(G) Algorithm BFS(G, s)
L0  new empty sequence
Input graph G L0.insertLast(s)
Output labeling of the edges setLabel(s, Visited)
and partition of the i0
while Li.isEmpty()
vertices of G Li +1  new empty sequence
for all u  G.vertices() for all v  Li.elements()
for all e  G.incidentEdges(v)
setLabel(u, Unexplored) if getLabel(e) = Unexplored
for all e  G.edges() w  opposite(v,e)
setLabel(e, Unexplored) if getLabel(w) = Unexplored
setLabel(e, Discovery)
for all v  G.vertices() setLabel(w, Visited)
if getLabel(v) = Unexplored Li +1.insertLast(w)
BFS(G, v) else
setLabel(e, Cross)
i  i +1
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 Connected Components
Find all nodes reachable from s.
BFS will find all the connected components

Label all nodes as 0, Do BFS and change visited components to 1,

Again start BFS from new node with 0 label and so on
C1 {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8} C2{9,10} C3{11,12,13}

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 Testing Bipartiteness
Given a graph G, is it bipartite?
Many graph problems become easier if underlying graph is bipartite
Before attempting to design an algorithm, we need to understand
structure of bipartite graphs.

v2
v2 v3
v1
v4
v6 v5 v4 v3
v5
v6
v7 v1
v7

a bipartite graph G another drawing of G

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 An Obstruction to Bipartiteness
If a graph G is bipartite, it cannot contain an odd length
cycle.
Not possible to 2-color the odd cycle, let alone G.

bipartite not bipartite

(2-colorable) (not 2-colorable)

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 Bipartite Graphs
• Let G be a connected graph, and let L0, …, Lk be the layers produced
by BFS starting at node s. Exactly one of the following holds.
(i) No edge of G joins two nodes of the same layer, and G is
bipartite.
(ii) An edge of G joins two nodes of the same layer, and G contains
an odd-length cycle (and hence is not bipartite).

L1 L2 L3 L1 L2 L3

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 Bipartite Graphs
Suppose no edge joins two nodes in the same layer, this implies all
edges join nodes on different level.
Bipartition: red = nodes on odd levels, blue = nodes on even levels.

L1 L2 L3

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 Bipartite Graphs
Suppose (x, y) is an edge with x, y in same level Lj.
Let z = lca(x, y) = lowest common ancestor.
Let Li be level containing z.
Consider cycle that takes edge from x to y,
then path from y to z, then path from z to x.
Its length is 1 + (j-i) + (j-i), which is odd. ▪ z = lca(x, y)

(x, y) path from path from

y to z z to x

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 Directed Acyclic Graphs
A topological order of a directed graph G = (V, E) is an ordering of its
nodes as v1, v2, …, vn so that for every edge (vi, vj) we have i < j.
An ordering of the nodes that obeys the dependencies i.e. an activity
can’t happen until it’s dependent activities have happened

v2 v3

v6 v5 v4 v1 v2 v3 v4 v5 v6 v7

v7 v1

a DAG a topological ordering

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 Applications of DAG
Precedence constraints. Edge (vi, vj) means task vi must
occur before vj.
Course prerequisite graph: course vi must be taken before
vj.
Compilation: module vi must be compiled before vj.
Pipeline of computing jobs: output of job vi needed to
determine input of job vj.

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 Directed Acyclic Graphs
If G has a topological order, then G is a DAG.
Pf. Let vi be the lowest-indexed node in C, and let vj be the node just
before vi; thus (vj, vi) is an edge.
By our choice of i, we have i < j.
On the other hand, since (vj, vi) is an edge and v1, …, vn is a topological
order, we must have j < i, a contradiction.

the directed cycle C

v1 vi vj vn

Supposed topological order: v1, …, vn

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 Directed Acyclic Graphs
If G is a DAG, then G has a node with no incoming edges.

w x u v

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 Directed Acyclic Graphs
If G is a DAG, then G has a topological ordering.
Base case: true if n = 1.
Given DAG on n > 1 nodes, find a node v with no incoming edges.
G - { v } is a DAG, since deleting v cannot create cycles.
By inductive hypothesis, G - { v } has a topological ordering.
Place v first in topological ordering; then append nodes of G - { v }
in topological order. This is valid since v has no incoming edges. ▪

DAG

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 Topological ordering Algorithm
To compute a topological ordering of G:
Find a node v with no incoming edges and order it first
Delete v from G
Recursively compute a topological ordering of G-{v}
and append this order after v

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 Topological Sort
Topological-sort(G)
for all edges (u, v) in E
incoming[v]← incoming[v] +1
for all v in V
if incoming[v]=0
Enqueue(S, v)
While S not empty
u ← Dequeue(S)
add u to linked list
for each edge(u, v) in E
incoming[v] ← incoming[v]-1
if active[v]=0
Enqueue(S, v)
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 Topological Sorting Algorithm: Running
Time
Algorithm finds a topological order in O(V + E) time.
• count[w] = remaining number of incoming edges

• S = set of remaining nodes with no incoming edges

– Initialization: O(m + n) via single scan through graph.
– Update: to delete v
• remove v from S
• decrement count[w] for all edges from v to w, and
add w to S if c count[w] hits 0
• this is O(1) per edge ▪
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 Topological Ordering Algorithm: Example
v2 v3

v6 v5 v4

v7 v1

Topological order:

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 Topological Ordering Algorithm: Example
v2 v3

v6 v5 v4

v7

Topological order: v1

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 Topological Ordering Algorithm: Example
v3

v6 v5 v4

v7

Topological order: v1, v2

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 Topological Ordering Algorithm: Example

v6 v5 v4

v7

Topological order: v1, v2, v3

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 Topological Ordering Algorithm: Example

v6 v5

v7

Topological order: v1, v2, v3, v4

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 Topological Ordering Algorithm: Example

v6

v7

Topological order: v1, v2, v3, v4, v5

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 Topological Ordering Algorithm: Example

v7

Topological order: v1, v2, v3, v4, v5, v6

95
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 Topological Ordering Algorithm: Example
v2 v3

v6 v5 v4 v1 v2 v3 v4 v5 v6 v7

v7 v1

Topological order: v1, v2, v3, v4, v5, v6, v7.

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 Transpose of a graph
Transpose of a graph is achieved by reversing all its edges.
Running time is O(V+E)

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 Strongly Connected
• StronglyConnectedcomponents(G)
• Run DFS from some node u and calculate the finishing
time for each model
• Create Graph GR by reversing all edge directions
• Run DFS on GR in reverse order of finishing times

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 Cycle
Undirected graphs it is easy
If we see a node we had already seen during BFS or DFS, it
is a cycle
In Directed Graph
Call Topological Sort
If the length of the list returned ≠ |V| then a cycle exists

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 Questions, Suggestions and Comments

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 Question 1
Which out of the following properly defines chromatic number of
a graph.
A) If a graph has been colored with K colors then K is the
chromatic number of the graph.
B) The smallest Number of colors to be used to color a graph
such that no two adjacent vertices have the same color.
C) Maximum number of colors to be used to color a graph such
that no two adjacent vertices have the same color.
D) Maximum number of colors to be used to color a graph such
that all cliques in the graph use different colors.

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 Question 2
Consider a simple connected graph G with n vertices and n
edges (n>2). Then which of the following statements are
true?
A) G has no cycles
B) The graph obtained by removing any edges from G is not
considered connected
C) G has at least one cycle
D) The graph is a tree

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 Question 3
if v is the number of vertices, e is the number of edges
and f is the number of faces (regions bounded by edges,
including the outer region) of a planar graph then as per
the Euler’s Formula
A) v+f = 2+e
B) v+e= 2+f
C) e+f = 2+ v
D) e+v = f-2

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