Unit-4

Analog Electronics
Analog Electronics (no mathematical treatment and design) Half and full wave rectifiers,special purpose diodes
-zener regulator, BJT and its applications, amplifier, oscillator, overview of opto-electronics devices,
optocouplers, concepts of transducer, Operational amplifier (IC-741), Inverting and Non-Inverting,
Comparator, Timer (IC-555) and multivibrators.

WHAT IS ANALOG ELECTRONICS:

Analog electronics is a branch of electronics that deals with a continuously variable signal. It’s widely used in
radio and audio equipment along with other applications where signals arederived from analog sensors before
being converted into digital signals for subsequent storage and processing. Although digital circuits are
considered as a dominant part of today’s technological world, some of the most fundamental components in a
digital system are actuallyanalog in nature.
DIODE:
Diodes are used to protect circuits by limiting the voltage and to also transform AC into DC.
Semiconductors like silicon and germanium are used to make the most of the diodes. Eventhough they transmit
current in a single direction, the way with which they transmit differs. There are different kinds of diodes and
each type has its own applications.
Diode Symbol
A standard diode symbol is represented as above. In the above diagram, we can see that there are two terminals
that are known as anode and cathode. The arrowhead is the anode that represents the direction of the

conventional current flow in the forward biased condition. The other end is the cathode.

V-I Characteristics of Diode

V-I characteristics of P-N junction diodes is a curve between the voltage and current through the circuit. Voltage
is taken along the x-axis while the current is taken along the y-axis. The above graph is the V-I characteristics
curve of the P-N junction diode. With the help of the curve, we can understand that there are three regions in
which the diode works, and they are:
 Zero bias
 Forward bias
 Reverse bias
When the P-N junction diode is in zero bias condition, there is no external voltage applied andthis means that
the potential barrier at the junction does not allow the flow of current.
When the P-N junction diode is in forward bias condition, the p-type is connected to the positive terminal while
the n-type is connected to the negative terminal of the external voltage. When the diode is arranged in this
manner, there is a reduction in the potential barrier. For silicone diodes, when the voltage is 0.7 V and for
germanium diodes, when the voltage is 0.3 V, the potential barriers decrease, and there is a flow of current.
When the diode is in forward bias, the current increases slowly, and the curve obtained is non-linear as the
voltage applied to the diode overcomes the potential barrier. Once the diode overcomes the potential barrier,
the diode behaves normally, and the curve rises sharply as theexternal voltage increases, and the curve obtained
is linear.
When the P-N junction diode is in negative bias condition, the p-type is connected to the negative terminal
while the n-type is connected to the positive terminal of the external voltage.This results in an increase in the
potential barrier. Reverse saturation current flows in the beginning as minority carriers are present in the
junction.
©
Transistor
Amplifying capability of the transistor.
Optoelectronics is a branch of electronics, which deals with optics, and electronics.
Optics take into account the effect of light and electronics involved takes care of processing part.
Optoelectronics devices are divided into three parts-
1. Light emitters.
2. Light sensors or detectors.
3. Optical coupler or optoisolator.
 Optoelectronics are classified into different types such as
 Photodiode
 Solar Cells
 Light Emitting Diodes
 Optical Fiber
 Laser Diodes

Optocouplers
Definition: An optocoupler or optoelectronic coupler is an electronic component that basically acts as
an interface between the two separate circuits with different voltage levels. Here, a beam of light emitted by a
light source exists as an only contact between input and output. Due to this, we can have an insulation
resistance of megaohms between the two circuits. In high voltage applications where the voltage difference
between the two circuits differs by several thousand volts, such isolation is favourable. The use of all such
electronic isolators lies in all that conditions where the signal is to pass between two isolated circuits.
An optocoupler (also called optoisolator) is a semiconductor device that allows an electrical signal to be
transmitted between two isolated circuits. Two parts are used in an optocoupler: an LED that emits infrared
light and a photosensitive device that detects light from the LED. The input circuit takes the incoming signal,
whether the signal is AC or DC, and uses the signal to turn on the LED.
The photosensor is the output circuit that detects the light and depending on the type of output circuit, the output
will be AC or DC. Current is first applied to the optocoupler, making the LED emit an infrared light proportional
to the current going through the device. When the light hits the photosensor a current is conducted, and it is
switched on. When the current flowing through the LED is interrupted, the IR beam is cut-off, causing the
photosensor to stop conducting.

Construction of an Optocoupler
An optocoupler mainly consists of an infrared LED and a photosensitive device that detects the emitted infrared
beam. The semiconductor photosensitive device can be a photodiode, phototransistor, a Darlington pair, SCR or
TRIAC. Let’s have a look at the basic diagram of an Optocoupler:

The infrared LED and the device that are light sensitive is packed in a single package. The LED is kept on the
input side and the light-sensitive material is placed on the output side. A resistance is connected at the beginning
of the circuit which is used to limit the current and the other resistance is connected between the supply voltage
and the collector terminal.
Working Of an Optocoupler
An Optocoupler is a combination of LED and a Photo-diode packed in a single package. In the below circuit
diagram, when a high voltage appears across the input side of the Optocoupler, a current start to flow through the
LED.
Due to this current LED will emit light. This emitted light when falls on a phototransistor cause a current to flow
through the same. The current flowing through the phototransistor is directly proportional to the supplied input
voltage. An input resistance placed at the beginning of the circuit will decrease the amount of current flowing
through the LED if its value is increased. As the LED glows due to this current, hence, when current will be low
so as the light intensity of LED.
The intensity of emitted light by the LED will be equal to the corresponding current flowing through the
phototransistor. This means that the low-intensity light emitted by the LED will cause a low-level current to flow
through the phototransistor. Thus a changing voltage is generated across the collector-emitter terminal of the
transistor.
In this way, an incoming signal from the input circuit is coupled to the output circuit.
Advantages

1. Optocouplers allow easy interfacing with logic circuits.

2. Electrical isolation provides circuit protection.
3. It allows wideband signal transmission.
4. It is small in size and lightweight device.
Disadvantages

1. The operational speed of Optocouplers is low.

2. In case of a very high power signal, the possibility of signal decoupling may arise.
Applications
1. It is used in high power inverters.
2. It is used in high power choppers.
3. In AC to DC converters optocouplers are widely used.
Photo Diode
A photo diode is a semiconductor light sensor that generates a voltage or current when light falls on the junction.
It consists of an active P-N junction, which is operated in reverse bias. When a photon with plenty of energy
strikes the semiconductor, an electron or hole pair is created. The electrons diffuse to the junction to form an
electric field.
This electric field across the depletion zone is equal to a negative voltage across the unbiased diode. This method
is also known as the inner photoelectric effect. This device can be used inthree modes: photovoltaic as a solar
cell, forward biased as an LED and reverse biased asa photo detector. Photodiodes are used in many types of
circuits and different applications such as cameras, medical instruments, safety equipment’s, industries,
communication devices and industrial equipment’s.
Solar Cells
A solar cell or photo-voltaic cell is an electronic device that directly converts sun’s energy intoelectricity. When
sunlight falls on a solar cell, it produces both a current and a voltage to produce electric power. Sunlight, which
is composed of photons, radiates from the sun.

Whenphotons hit the silicon atoms of the solar cell, they transfer their energy to lose electrons; and then, these
high-energy electron flow to an external circuit.
The solar cell is composed of two layers which are struck together. The first layer is loaded with electrons, so
these electrons are ready to jump from the first layer to the second layer. Thesecond layer has some electrons
taken away, and therefore, it is ready to take more electrons. The advantages of solar cells are that, there is no
fuel supply and cost problem. These are verydependable and require little maintenance.
The solar cells are applicable in rural electrification, telecommunication systems, oceannavigation aids, electric
power generation system in space and remote monitoring and controlsystems.
The solar cells are applicable in rural electrification, telecommunication systems, oceannavigation aids, and
electric power generation in space and remote monitoring and control systems and also used in different solar
energy based projects such as
 Solar Energy Measurement System.
 Arduino based Solar Street Light.
 Solar Powered Auto Irrigation System.
 Solar Power Charge Controller.
 Sun Tracking Solar Panel.
Transducer
The word transducer is derived from a combination of two words: trans means lead and ducer means across. There
are two different kinds of transducers: a sensor and an actuator. A sensor is used to detect a parameter in one form
and report it in another form of energy (usually an electrical or digital signal), for example a tachometer might
detect speed or a pressure sensor might detect pressure (a mechanical form of energy) and convert that into an
electrical signal. These devices, which perform an input, function are commonly called sensors because they
“sense” a physical change in some characteristic, for example heat, force, or pressure or any such quantity and
convert that into another form such as an electrical signal.
An actuator is used for the transformation of energy or in other words, an actuator is the one which gets actuated
or stands responsible for the output action, in that it converts electrical signal into generally non-electrical
energy. An example of an actuator is a loudspeaker which converts an electrical signal into a variable magnetic
field and, subsequently, into acoustic waves.

Figure 9.3 shows different possible sources of energy for the complete transduction (sensing and actuating) process
in terms of energy conversion. The source of energy may be from different domains such as mechanical, electrical,
chemical, magnetic, etc. The modifying unit consists of data acquisition systems such as Analog-to-Digital
Convertor (ADC), Digital-to-Analog Convertor (DAC), etc.

CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS
Transducer may be classified into a variety of classes based on different parameters such as form of input-output
energy used, kind of function they perform, whether self-generating or not, primary or secondary type, etc.
Based on the input/output energy sources used, transducers may be classified into the following types:
1. Electromagnetic transducers.
2. Electromechanical transducers.
3. Electro-acoustic transducers.
4. Photoelectric transducers.
5. Electrostatic transducers.
6. Thermoelectric transducers.

Based on the location they are placed and the function they are performing in a system, transducers may be
classified into the following types;
1. Input transducers, e.g. microphones.
2. Output transducers, e.g. speakers.

Based on the location they are placed and the function they are performing in a system, transducers may also be
classified into the following types:
1. Sensing transducers (sensor), e.g. microphones.
2. Actuating transducers (actuator), e.g. speakers.

Based on the power generated for their operation, transducers may be classified into the following types:
1. Active Transducers e.g. solar cells, thermocouples, piezoelectric elements. Active transducers are also called
self-generating transducers.
2. Passive Transducers e.g. speakers, strain gauges, thermal resistors, liquid-crystal displays. Passive transducers
are also called modulating transducers.

Based on the type of output signal they generate, transducers may be classified into the following types:
1. Analog transducers, e.g. thermocouple.
2. Digital transducers, e.g. light sensors.
 Operational Amplifiers (Op-Amp)
Op-amp is basically a multistage amplifier which is uses a number of amplifier stages interconnected to each
other in a complicated manner. The amplifier which could be configured to perform a variety of operations such
as amplification, addition, subtraction, differentiation and integration. Hence the name is operational amplifier
(OP-AMP).
The integrated Op-amp offers all the advantages of monolithic integrated circuits such as small size, high
reliability, reduced cost, less power consumption. IC 741 is the commercially available op-amp in the form of
an IC (integrated circuit) and is extremely popular and used in a variety of applications.
What is an Op-amp?
A multistage high-gain amplifier integrated in analysis as a separate block.
 The input of an op amp is a differential amplifier therefore has 2 inputs.
 The output is singled ended.
 Typically configured for a dual power supply (+/_V)
Symbol and terminal pin numbering

Basic operation of an op-amp

There are two types of op-amps, depending on how the input is given to the op-amp.
(i) Inverting operation amplifier

Input and output signals 1800 phase shift when the input signal is applied to the inverting (-) terminal. The voltage
gain of the inverting operational amplifier or inverting op amp is, A V=-Rf/Ri. The output is amplified and
inverted.
(ii) Non-inverting operational amplifier

Input and output signals 00 phase shift when the input signal is applied to the Non-inverting (+)
terminal. The output is amplified but not inverted.
Ideal differential amplifier
An ideal differential amplifier is expected to amplify the differential signal present between its two input signal. It
is also the basic stage of an integrated Op-amp with differential input.

The difference between the input signals V1 and V2 is called as the differential signal Vd
Differential signal Vd = V1 – V2
Vo = Ad (V1 – V2), Where Ad is called as the differential gain.
The differential gain can be defined as the gain with which the differential amplifier amplifies the differential
signal.
Vo = AdVd
Common mode input signal
A common signal to both the input terminals (i.e. V1=V2=V) is called as common mode signal. The output voltage
produced by an ideal differential amplifier is zero for the common mode signal.
Common mode gain
The output voltage of an ideal differential amplifier will be zero if V 1=V2=V.
However, equation does not describe a practical differential amplifier. In practice output voltage V o of a differential
amplifier depends not only on the differential signal ‘Vd’ but it also depends on an average voltage level called
“common mode signal Vc”.
Common mode input signal Vc = (V1+V2)/2
The gain with which a practical differential amplifier amplifies the common mode signal (V c) is called as the
“common mode gain Vc”
Vo = AcVc
The total voltage of a differential amplifier is given by :
Vo = AdVd + AcVc

Common mode rejection ratio (CMRR)

Common mode rejection ration (CMRR) is the ability of a differential amplifier to reject the common mode signal
successfully. CMRR is defined as the ratio of differential gain Ad and common mode gain Ac. It is denoted by
letter “ρ”
CMRR = ρ = Ad / Ac
Ideally CMRR should be infinite and practically it should be as high as possible.

Important characteristics of Ideal Op-Amp

1. Infinite voltage gain- open loop gain of an ideal OP-AMP is denoted by A v. It is the
differential voltage gain and its value for an ideal OP-AMP is infinite.
2. Infinite input resistance or impedance- the input resistance or impedance of an ideal OP-amp is infinite.
Due to infinite input resistance or impedance, almost any source can drive it.
3. Zero output resistance or impedance- the output resistance or impedance of an ideal OP-amp is zero. Due
to this, the ideal Op-amp can handle infinite number of other devices.
4. Zero offset voltage- in practical Op-amps a small output voltage is present even though both the inputs V 1
and V2 are having a zero value. This voltage is called as the offset voltage. For ideal Op-amp the offset
voltage is zero. That means output voltage is zero when input voltage is zero.
5. Infinite Bandwidth- Bandwidth of an amplifier is the range of frequencies over which all the signal
frequencies are amplified almost equally. The bandwidth of an ideal Op-amp is infinite. So it can amplify
any frequency from zero to infinite hertz.
6. Infinite CMRR- for an Op-amp, the common mode rejection ratio (CMRR) is defined
as the ratio of differential gain to common mode gain. CMRR is infinite for the ideal Op-amp. Thus the output
voltage corresponding to the common mode noise is zero.
7. Infinite slew rate- the slew rate of an ideal Op-amp is infinite so that the output voltage changes occur
simultaneously with the input voltage changes.

Open loop configuration of OP-AMP

The meaning of open loop operation is that there is absolutely no feedback present from the output to input.

Close loop configuration of OP-AMP

In the closed loop configuration some kind of “feedback” is introduced in the circuit. A part of output is returned
back or fed back to the input.
Types of feedback:
 Positive feedback or regenerative feedback- if the feedback signal and the original input signal are in phase
with each other then it is called as the positive feedback.
 Negative feedback or degenerative feedback- If the signal is fed back to the input and the original input
signal are 1800 out of phase, then it is called as the negative feedback.
Negative feedback or Degenerative feedback
In the amplifier circuits using Op-amp, a feedback resistor R F is connected between the output and inverting
terminal as shown in figure to introduced a negative feedback.

Op-amp used as a summing amplifier or adder

It is possible to apply more than one input signal to an inverting amplifier. This circuit will then add all these input
signals to produce their addition at the output. Such a circuit will then be called as an adder or a summing amplifier.
Depending on the polarity or a sign of the output voltage the adder circuits can be classified into two categories:
1. Inverting adder and
2. Non-inverting adder.
The summing amplifier is an application of the inverting op-amp configuration. The summing amplifier has two
or more inputs and its output voltage is proportional to the negative of the algebraic sum of its input voltage
Inverting adder or inverting summing amplifier
Examples of summing amplifiers
 Numericals on summing amplifiers (adders)

Solution:
Since R1=R2=R3=Rf
Vout= -(V1+V2+V3)=-(3+1+8)= -12 volts

Solution:
Since R1, R2 and Rf are not equal to each other,
Vout=- (V1/R1 +V2/R2 +V3/R3 ) RF
=-(0.2/1 + 0.5/1) x 10= -7 volts

Solution:
Since R1, R2, R3, R4 and Rf are not equal to each other,
Vout=- (V1/R1 +V2/R2 +V3/R3 +V4/R4) RF
=-(1/100 + 2/100 + 3/100 + 4/100) x 25 = -2.5 Volts
Solution:
Since R1, R2, R3 and Rf are not equal to each other,
Vout=- (V1/R1 +V2/R2 +V3/R3) RF
=-(3/47 + 2/100 + 8/10) x 10 = -8.84 volts