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Engineering Physics

Unit-3 Quantum Mechanics

Wave-particle Duality of Radiation:


➢ Some phenomenon like interference and diffraction exhibited by radiation can be
explained by wave nature of radiation whereas the phenomenon like photoelectric
effect, compton effect can be explain by particle nature of radiation.
➢ Hence it is concluded that radiation behaves like wave in some situation and particle
in other situation.

De- Broglie’s Concept of Matter Waves: -


➢ The whole universe is composed of matter and electromagnetic radiation since both
are forms of energy so can be transformed into each other.
➢ The matter loves symmetry as the radiation has dual nature, matter should also
possess dual nature.
➢ The wave associated with moving particles are matter or De-Broglie’s wave

De Broglie Hypothesis:-
Statement : -It stares that a moving particle always has a wave associated with it and
the motion of the particle is guided by a wave in a similar manner that photon is
controlled by a wave .
Wavelength of matter wave (De- Broglie wavelength ) is given by
ℎ ℎ
𝜆= =
𝑝 𝑚𝑣
Where m = relativistic mass
𝑚0
𝑚= 2
𝑚0 = rest mass
√1−𝑣2
𝑐
Ignoring relativistic case

Let m ≅ 𝑚0

De –Broglie Wavelength by Analogy with Radiation :


The energy of massless particle like photon is given by,
E= pc=𝑚𝑐 2 . ............ (1)
By planck’s hypothesis energy of photon is given by,
ℎ𝑐
𝐸 = ℎ𝛾 = ......... (2)
𝜆
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 (1)& (2)
ℎ𝑐
𝑝𝑐 = 𝜆

pc=𝜆

𝜆 = 𝑝 for photon
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 partical,
p = mv

𝜆=
𝑚𝑣
De-Broglie wavelength of particle(Free) in term of K.E-
Consider a particle of mass ‘m’ moving with velocity ‘v’ has kinetic energy is given
by
1
K.E = E = 2 𝑚𝑣 2
1
E= 2𝑚 𝑚2 𝑣 2
𝑝2
E=2𝑚 (∴ 𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣)
𝑝2 =2mE
p = √2𝑚𝐸
But

𝜆=
𝑝
Therefore,

𝜆=
√2𝑚𝐸

De-Broglie Wavelength of an electron in terms of potential difference:


If an electron is accelerated through a potential diff ‘ v’ the work done on the
electron is 𝑒𝑉. Which is converted into K.E
Therefore,
Kinetic energy = work done
1
𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑒𝑉
2
1 𝑝2
But 2 𝑚𝑉 2 = 2𝑚
𝑝2
= eV
2𝑚
2
𝑝 = 2 𝑚𝑒𝑉
𝑝 = √2𝑚𝑒𝑉
De Broglie wavelength

𝜆=
𝑝

𝜆=
√2𝑚𝑒𝑉
As h= 6.63 X 10−34 J.s
m = 9.1 X 10−31 kg
e = 1.6 X 10−19 c
6.63 X 10−34
𝜆=
√2 𝑋 9.1 X 10−31 X 1.6 X 10−19
12.27∗10−34
= 𝑚
√𝑉
12.27
𝜆= Å
√𝑉
Phase velocity( wave velocity) vp :
It is a velocity with which a particular phase of the wave propagates in medium for a
particles of m moving with velocity v,

𝜆= …………….(1)
𝑚𝑣

E = h𝜐 = 𝑚𝑐 2
𝑚𝑐 2
𝜐= …………….(2)

The equation of wave traveling in x-direction & vibration in y-direction is


y= Asin (𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥) ……………. (.3)
Where,
A = amplitude
𝜔 = Angular frequency
= 2𝜋𝜐
k = propogation constant
2𝜋
= 𝜆

We know that
Phase velocity vp,
vp = 𝜐𝜆
𝜔 2𝜋
= 2𝜋 𝑥 𝑘
𝜔
vp = ……………(4)
𝑘

For wave velocity, phase remains constant,


(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥) = const.
𝑑
(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥)= 0
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥
𝜔 − 𝑘 𝑑𝑡 = 0

𝑑𝑥 𝜔
=
𝑑𝑡 𝑘
The wave velocity,
𝑑𝑥 𝜔
vp = 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑘

𝜆
vp = 2𝜋𝜐 x 2𝜋

vp = 𝜐 𝜆
Form (1) & (2)
𝑚𝑐 2 ℎ
vp = 𝑥 𝑚𝑣

𝒄𝟐
vp = 𝒗

For any particle v is always less than c


So it is observed that, phase velocity is greater than c, it is unexpected.
This difficulty can be overcome by understanding the wave group of group velocity 𝑣𝑔 .

Group velocity (vg):-


The velocity of a wave group or wave packet is called group velocity.
Wave group (wave packet) :-
It can be obtained by interference of many waves of diff. frequency & amplitude so
resultant has high value of amplitude near the vicinity of particle & get attenuated outside this
region.
The particle is somewhere in the wave packet and wave packet moves with velocity of
particle.
Group velocity is given by formula,
𝒅𝝎
𝒗𝒈 = 𝒅𝒌

To show that, (𝒗𝒈 = 𝒗 )


Group velocity = particle velocity
i.e. 𝒗𝒈 = 𝒗

we know that ,
𝑑𝜔
𝑣𝑔 = 𝑑𝑘
𝑑𝜔 𝑑𝑘
∵ 𝑣𝑔 = / ………………….(1)
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣

As , 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝜐
𝐸
= 2𝜋 ℎ ( E = h𝜐)

2𝜋𝑚𝑐 2
𝜔= (E=mc2 )

𝑚0
As m= 2
√1−𝑣2
𝑐

2𝜋𝑚0 𝑐 2
𝜔=
𝑣2
ℎ√1− 2
𝑐

𝑑𝜔 2𝜋𝑚0 𝑐 2 1 𝑣2 −2𝑣
= - 2 (1 − 𝑐 2 )−3/2 ( 𝑐 2 )
𝑑𝑘 ℎ

𝑑𝜔 2𝜋𝑚0 𝑣2
= .v (1 − 𝑐 2 )−3/2 ………….(.2)
𝑑𝑣 ℎ
2𝜋 2𝜋𝑝 ℎ
And k= = (𝜆 = 𝑝 )
𝜆 ℎ

2𝜋𝑚𝑣
k= ℎ
2𝜋𝑣𝑚0
∴ k=
𝑣2
ℎ√1− 2
𝑐

𝑑𝑘 2𝜋𝑚0 1 𝑣2
= - 2 (1 − 𝑐 2 )−3/2
𝑑𝑣 ℎ

𝑑𝑘 2𝜋𝑚0 𝑣2
= (1 − 𝑐 2 )−3/2 ………….(3)
𝑑𝑣 ℎ

Using Equation (2) & (3) in equa.(1),


𝟐𝝅𝒎𝟎 𝒗 𝒗𝟐
(𝟏− 𝟐 )−𝟑/𝟐
𝒉 𝒄
𝒗𝒈 = 𝟐𝝅𝒎𝟎 𝒗𝟐
− (𝟏− 𝟐 )−𝟑/𝟐
𝒉 𝒄

𝒗𝒈 = v

Properties of matter Wave:-


If a particle of mass ‘m’ moves with velocity ‘v’, then the wavelength of matter
ℎ 𝑐2
waves associated with it is given by 𝜆 = 𝑚𝑣& phase velocity given by, 𝑣𝑝 = from
𝑣
these equations properties of matter waves can be stated as
1) Lighter the particle greater would be the wavelength of the matter waves associated
1
with it. i.e 𝜆 ∝ 𝑚 for v constant
2) Smaller the velocity of the particle greater would be particle greater would be the
1
wavelength of the matter waves i .e 𝜆 ∝ 𝑣 for m constant
3) For v=∞, 𝜆 becomes zero and
For v=0, 𝜆 becomes infinity i.e the wave becomes indeterminate when v=0 , it
means that matter waves are produced by particles moving finite velocities .
4) Matter waves are different from electromagnetic wave, because matter waves can be
produced by a moving particle which may be charged or uncharged particle whereas
electromagnetic waves are produced only by a moving charged particle as the de

Broglie wavelength 𝜆 = 𝑚𝑣 is independent of charge, it is evident that matter
waves are not electromagnetic waves
5) The velocity of matter waves depends on the velocity of the particle generating them
𝑐2
i.e , 𝑣𝑝 = & it is not constant .
𝑣
6) Matter waves travel faster than light because the particle velocity ‘v’ cannot exceed
𝑐2
the velocity of light ‘c’. so the velocity of matter waves , 𝑣𝑝 = is greater than c.
𝑣
7) A wave is spread out in space and it cannot be lacalised. at any point .so the wave
nature of matter introduced a certain uncertainty in the position of the particle.
Heisenberg’s uncertainly principle:-
Statement: It states that, it is impossible to determine both the exact position and exact
momentum of a particle at the same time. The product of uncertainties in these quantities is
always greater that or equal to the plank’s constant ‘h’.
i.e. Δx .Δ p ≥ h
Where Δx = uncertainty in position of particle
Δp = uncertainty in momentum of particle

Wave Function:
➢ Every wave is characterized by periodic variation in some physical quantity.
E.g. Sound waves-pressure varies periodically
Electromagnetic waves- Electric & Magnetic field varies periodically.
Similarly Matter waves - wave function (𝜓) varies periodically
➢ The value of 𝜓 at a particular point (x, y, z) in space at a time ‘t’ is related to
probability of finding particle there at that time. Hence it is called probability
amplitude.
➢ 𝜓 does not have direct physical significance & it is not experimentally measurable
quantity.
➢ The probability is positive value between o & l. But 𝜓 can be positive, negative or
complex.
Hence, 𝜓 2 is taken which is always positive. In general 𝜓 is complex. Therefore,
take
|𝜓|2 instead of 𝜓2.
Where, |𝜓|2 = 𝜓𝜓* --- Probability density where 𝜓* --- complex conjugate of 𝜓
proportional to |𝜓|2 .

Physical significance of 𝝍 & |𝝍|𝟐


1. According to Max Born’s interpretation |𝜓|2 at a point related to the probability of
finding the particle described by wave function 𝜓.
For large |𝜓|2 - large probability of finding the particle.
If |𝜓|2 = 0 – probability of finding the particle is 0.
For small |𝜓|2 – small probability of finding the particle

2. |𝜓|2 or 𝜓𝜓* is taken as probability density i.e. probability of finding the particle in
unit volume. So the probability of the particle being present in a volume element 𝑑𝑣 is
|𝜓|2 𝑑𝑣
Where 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
Then 𝜓-probability density amplitude.

3. Since the particle is certainly to be found somewhere in space, we must have


∭𝑥 𝑦 𝑧|𝜓|2 𝑑𝑣 = 1 ………. (Normalisation condition)
Function 𝜓 satisfying this relation is called normalised wave function. Thus, 𝜓 has be
a normalisable function.

𝝍 must satisfy the following conditions to be normalizable:


1. 𝜓 must be single valued function. Because 𝜓 is related to the probability of finding
the particle at a given place & time probability can have only one value at given point
& time.
2. 𝜓 must be finite at each & every point in space. Because particle exist somewhere in
space & integral over all space must be finite.
3. 𝜓 𝑚𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑏𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠.
𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓
4. 1st order derivatives of 𝜓 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝜕𝑥 , 𝜕𝑦 , 𝜕𝑧 𝑚𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑏𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠.
In the region where 𝜓 is defined.

Schrodinger’s wave equation:


It is mathematically representation of matter waves associated with a moving particle.
Schrodinger started with de-Broglie idea into a mathematical theory, known as “wave
mechanics”.

Types of Schrodinger’s wave eqn:


1. Schrodinger’s time independent wave equation.
2. Schrodinger’s time dependent wave equation.

1)Schrodinger’s time Independent wave equation.


Consider a system of matter waves associated with a particles.
Let (x, y, z) be the co-ordinates of the particle.
Let 𝜓 denoted the wave displacement of matter waves at time t.
By analogy with the wave eqn
𝑑2𝑦 2
𝑑2𝑦
= 𝑣 [𝑖𝑛 𝑥𝑦 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒]
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑥 2

Wave eqn for a three-dimensional matter wave with wave velocity ‘vp’ can be written as,

𝜕 2𝜓 2
𝜕 2𝜓 𝜕 2𝜓 𝜕 2𝜓
= 𝑣𝑝 ( 2 + 2 + 2 )
𝜕𝑡 2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Where,
2
𝜕2 𝜕2 𝜕2
∇ = 2+ 2+ 2
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
= Laplacian operator.

𝜕2𝜓
= 𝑣𝑝2 ∇2 𝜓 ……. (1)
𝜕𝑡 2
The general soln of eqn (1) is,
𝜓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝜓0 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 (2)
Where 𝜓0 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) → 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑑.
Eqn (2) can be written as
𝜓(𝑟̂ , 𝑡) = 𝜓0 (𝑟̂ )𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 … … … …. (3)
Where 𝑟̂ = 𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑦𝑗̂ + 𝑧𝑘̂
Differentiating eqn (3) twice w.r.to ‘t’
𝜕𝜓
= (−𝑖𝑤)𝜓0 (𝑟̂ )𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡
𝜕𝑡

𝜕 2𝜓
= (−𝑖𝑤)2 𝜓0 (𝑟̂ )𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡
𝜕𝑡 2

𝜕 2𝜓
2
= −𝜔2 𝜓0 (𝑟̂ )𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡
𝜕𝑡

But from equation (3)


𝜕 2𝜓
= −𝜔2 𝜓(𝑟̂ , 𝑡) (4)
𝜕𝑡 2
From eqn (1) & (4)

−𝜔2 𝜓(𝑟̂ , 𝑡) = 𝑣𝑝2 ∇2 𝜓


2
𝜔2
∇ 𝜓+ 2𝜓=0 … … …. (5)
𝑣𝑝
But 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝜈 & 𝑣𝑝 = 𝜈𝜆
Eqn (5) become,

2
4𝜋 2 𝜈 2
∇ 𝜓+ 2 2 𝜓=0
𝜈 𝜆

4𝜋 2
∇2 𝜓 + 𝜓=0 (6)
𝜆2

The De-Broglie wavelength of the wave associated with the particle is,

𝜆=
𝑝
Substitute in eqn (6)
4𝜋 2 𝑝2
∇2 𝜓 + 𝜓=0 (7)
ℎ2
The total energy E of the particle
E = K. E. + P. E.
1
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 2 + 𝑉
2
𝑝2
𝐸= +𝑉
2𝑚
𝑝2
𝐸−𝑉 =
2𝑚
𝑝2 = 2𝑚(𝐸 − 𝑉)
Put this value in eqn (7)
4𝜋 2 2𝑚
∇2 𝜓 + (𝐸 − 𝑉)𝜓 = 0
ℎ2
𝟖𝝅𝟐 𝒎
𝛁𝟐𝝍 + (𝑬 − 𝑽)𝝍 = 𝟎….. (8)
𝒉𝟐

Taking ћ =2𝜋
𝟐𝒎
𝛁𝟐𝝍 + (𝑬 − 𝑽) 𝝍 = 𝟎….. (9)
ћ𝟐

eqn (8) or (9) called Schrodinger’s time independent eqn

2) Schrodinger’s time dependent wave equation:


Schrodinger’s time independent wave equation is
𝟖𝝅𝟐 𝒎
𝛁𝟐𝝍 + (𝑬 − 𝑽)𝝍 = 𝟎 ….. (1)
𝒉𝟐

The time independent eqn is obtained by eliminating E from the time independent eqn
For three –dimension wave motion can be written,

𝜕2 2
𝜕 2𝜓 𝜕 2𝜓 𝜕 2𝜓
= 𝑣𝑝 [ + + ]
𝜕𝑡 2 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2

𝜕 2𝜓
= 𝑣𝑝2 ∇2 𝜓 … …. (2)
𝜕𝑡 2

𝜕2 𝜕2 𝜕2
∇2 = + +
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2

The soln of eqn(2) is

𝜓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝜓0 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝑒 −𝑖𝑤𝑡 .... (3)

Where 𝑟̂ = 𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑦𝑗̂ + 𝑧𝑘̂

Diff eqn (3) w.r.to ‘t’


𝜕𝜓
=(−𝑖𝑤) 𝜓0 𝑒 −𝑖𝑤𝑡
𝜕𝑡

𝜕𝜓
= −𝑖𝑤 𝜓 …. (4)
𝜕𝑡
Now w= 2π𝜈 and E= h𝜈
𝐸 2πE
𝜈=ℎ, 𝑤= ℎ
Putting this value in eqn (4)
𝜕𝜓 2πE
= −𝑖 𝜓 … .. (5)
𝜕𝑡 ℎ
Multiplying both side by ‘i’
𝜕𝜓 2πE
i = −𝑖 2 𝜓
𝜕𝑡 ℎ

𝜕𝜓 2πE
i 𝜕𝑡 = 𝜓

ℎ 𝜕𝜓
E 𝜓= 𝑖 2𝜋 …….. (6)
𝜕𝑡

from eqn (1) & (6) , put (6) in (1)

8𝜋 2 𝑚 ℎ 𝜕𝜓
∇2 𝜓 + [𝑖 2𝜋 − 𝑉𝜓]=0
ℎ2 𝜕𝑡

8𝜋 2 𝑚
Dividing by on both sides
ℎ2

ℎ2 2
𝑖ℎ 𝜕𝜓
∇ 𝜓 + − 𝑉𝜓 = 0
8𝜋 2 𝑚 2𝜋 𝜕𝑡
𝑖ℎ 𝜕𝜓 ℎ2
= - 8𝜋2𝑚 ∇2 𝜓 + 𝑉𝜓
2𝜋 𝜕𝑡

ℎ2 𝑖ℎ 𝜕𝜓
- 8𝜋2𝑚 ∇2 𝜓 + 𝑉𝜓 = 2𝜋 𝜕𝑡

ℎ2 𝑖ℎ 𝜕𝜓
(− ∇2 + 𝑉) 𝜓 = …… (7)
8𝜋2 𝑚 2𝜋 𝜕𝑡


Put ћ =
2𝜋

ћ2 𝜕𝜓
(− 2𝑚 ∇2 + 𝑉) 𝜓 = 𝑖 ћ 𝜕𝑡 ………. (8)

𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (7)𝑜𝑟 (8) is time dependent wave eqn

ℎ2 ћ2
(− 8𝜋2𝑚 ∇2 + 𝑉) = (− 2𝑚 ∇2 + 𝑉) called Hamiltonian operator

𝑖ℎ 𝜕 𝜕
E= 2𝜋 𝜕𝑡 = i ћ 𝜕𝑡 called Eigen operator

Applications of Schrodinger’s time independent wave eqn:-


1. In quantum mechanics the wave function of a system gives the description of that
system
2. We shall study how time independent eqn can be applied to a system then solved to
find the energy & wave function .
3. In many situation particle are bound to a certain region in space by potential
distribution which does not depends on time.
e.g. an electron is bound by the potential distribution of nucleus by C.F .
e.g. the nucleons are bound to the nucleus by the potential difference arising by the nuclear
force.
In such situation the potential function :- ‘V’ is substituted in time independent eqn & stedy
state soln can be obtained for wave function 𝜓
The eqn are solved using boundary condition which satisfy the physical restriction on wave
function 𝜓

Some application of time independent wave eqn:-


1) Particle in rigid box (infinite potential well)
2) Particle in non rigid box (finite potential well)
3) Tunnelling effect

1) Particle in a rigid box (infinite potential well):


Consider a one dimensional problem in which a particle is confined to a rigid box of
length ‘ L’ and restricted to travelling along x –axis between x=0 and x=L

Such box has infinitely hard walls & particles does not lose energy when it collides with
walls . So that its total energy remains constant
𝑉 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 < 𝑥 < 𝐿
𝑉 = ∞ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ≤ 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ≥ 𝐿
The Potential Energy of the particles is constant but for convenience taken to be zero.
Particle can not have an infinite amount of energy so it can not exist outside the box Hence
𝜓 = 0 For 𝑥 ≤ 0 and 𝑥 ≥ 𝐿
Now we have to find wave function 𝜓 inside the box in region 0 < 𝑥 < 𝐿
Schrödinger’s time independent equation is
8𝜋 2 𝑚
∇2 𝜓 + (𝐸 − 𝑣)𝜓 = 0 . ... (1)
ℎ2

Now the motion is along x-axis


𝑑2 𝜓
So ∇2 𝜓 = 𝑑𝑥 2

& V(x)=0 inside the box ,eq (1) becomes,


𝑑 2 𝜓 8𝜋 2 𝑚𝐸
+ 𝜓=0
𝑑𝑥 2 ℎ2
𝑑2 𝜓
+ 𝐾2 𝜓 = 0 .... (2)
𝑑𝑥 2

8𝜋 2 𝑚𝐸
Where 𝐾 2 = ... (3)
ℎ2

Eq (2) is total diff. Eq of 2nd order. Hence sol. of eq. (2) is given by
𝜓(𝑥) = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝐾𝑥) + 𝐵(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐾𝑥) … (4)
Where A & B constants.
Determination of energy of particle:
Apply boundary condition
i) 𝜓 = 0 at x=0
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑞(4)
0 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛(0) + 𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠(0)
B cos(0)=0
B=0
Eq (4) becomes
𝜓 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑥 … (5)
ii) 2nd boundary condition
𝜓 = 0 at x=L
𝐴 ≠ 0 for A=0, 𝜓 = 0 for all values of x inside box
SinKL=0
KL=n𝜋 where n=1,2,3... 𝑛 ≠0&𝜓=0

𝐾= … (6)
𝐿
𝑛2 𝜋 2
𝐾2 = … (7)
𝐿2
From eq (3) & (7)
8𝜋 2 𝑚𝐸 𝑛2 𝜋 2
= 2
ℎ2 𝐿
Energy depends on n.
𝑛2 ℎ2
𝐸𝑛 = 𝑛 = 1,2,3 … … (8)
8𝑚𝐿2
From above eq.
ℎ2
𝐸1 =
8𝑚𝐿2
When n=1 smallest energy of particle Which is non zero
This contradict classical mechanics, according to which E1=0 of other possible energies
4ℎ2 9ℎ2
𝐸2 = 8𝑚𝐿2 , 𝐸3 = , etc.
8𝑚𝐿2

En = (n)2 E1
So energy values are discrete. These discrete energy values given by eq (8) are called energy
eigen values.
Energy level diag.

Wave function of a particle :


Using eq (6) in eq(5)
𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝜓 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( ) … . (9)
𝐿
𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝜓 ∗ = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( )
𝐿
Corresponding to each En value, we have the wave 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝜓n of called Eigen function of
particle.
𝜓𝑛 satisfies the requirement of 𝜓
For 𝜓n to be a normalized wave function it must satisfy the condition
𝐿

∫ 𝜓𝜓 ∗ 𝑑𝑥 = 1
𝑥=0
𝐿
𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝐴2 ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ( ) 𝑑𝑥 = 1
𝐿
𝑥=0
1−𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥
Using 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 = 2

𝐿 2𝑛𝜋𝑥
1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( )
𝐿
𝐴2 ∫ [ ] 𝑑𝑥 = 1
2
0

2𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝐿
𝐴2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( )
𝐿
[𝑥 − 2𝑛𝜋 ] =1
2
𝐿 0

𝐴2 sin (2𝑛𝜋)
[𝐿 − − 0 + 0] = 1
2 2𝑛𝜋/𝐿
𝐴2
(𝐿) = 1
2
𝐴2 = 2/𝐿

2
𝐴=√
𝐿

Hence using eq(9)

2 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝜓𝑛 = √ 𝑠𝑖𝑛
𝐿 𝐿

Probability wave function is given by


2 𝑛𝜋𝑥
|𝜓|2 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ( )
𝐿 𝐿
2) Particle in a Non – Rigid box (Finite potential well) :
Consider one dimentional problem of a particle of mass ‘m’ confined to a non-rigid box of
length ‘L’.
As the walls are non-rigid the potential energy of the particle would be finifite say 𝑉0
Outside of the box. Inside the box the potential energy is constant taken to be zero for
convenience.

From diag.
V(x) = 0 for 0 < x < L
V(x) = 𝑽𝟎 for 0 ≥ x ≥ L
Now, it is possible for the particle to have energy ‘E’ that exceed 𝑉0. So that particle can exist
outside the box. But E < 𝑽𝟎 ,
Schrodinger’s time independent wave equation
8𝜋 2 m
∇2 𝜓 + (E-V) ψ = 0 …………..(1)
ℎ2

𝑑2 Ψ𝐼
In region I :- V= 𝑽𝟎 ψ = ψI ∇2 𝜓 = (motion is along x direction only)
𝑑𝑥 2

𝑑2 Ψ𝐼 8𝜋 2 m
+ (E-𝑽𝟎 ) ψI =0
𝑑𝑥 2 ℎ2

As E < 𝑽𝟎 ⸫ E- 𝑽𝟎 < 0
𝑑2 Ψ𝐼 8𝜋 2 m
− (𝑽𝟎 − 𝑬) ψI =0
𝑑𝑥 2 ℎ2

2 8𝜋 2 m
Let, 𝑘, = (𝑽𝟎 − 𝑬)
ℎ2

𝑑2 Ψ𝐼 2
− 𝑘 , ψI =0
𝑑𝑥 2
The general solution of the above equation is

ψI(x) = A 𝑒 𝑘′𝑥 + 𝐵𝑒 −𝑘′𝑥 …………(2)


In region II:- V = 0 & ψ = ψII
𝑑2 Ψ𝐼𝐼 8𝜋 2 m
+ ψII = 0
𝑑𝑥 2 ℎ2

8𝜋 2 mE
Let, 𝑘 2 = ℎ2

𝑑2 Ψ𝐼𝐼
+𝑘 2 ψII = 0
𝑑𝑥 2

The general solution of above equation is


ψII = 𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝑥 + 𝐷𝑒 −𝑖𝑘𝑥 …………………(3)
In region III:- V= 𝑽𝟎 & ψ = ψIII
𝑑2 Ψ𝐼𝐼𝐼 8𝜋 2 m
+ (E−𝑽𝟎 )ψIII = 0
𝑑𝑥 2 ℎ2

𝑑2 Ψ𝐼𝐼𝐼
− 𝑘 2 ψIII = 0
𝑑𝑥 2

The general solution of this equation is


′𝑥
ψIII=𝐹𝑒 𝑘′𝑥 + 𝐺𝑒 −𝑘 …………(4)
The condition in general region I :-
ψI→0 As x→ -∞
from equation (2)
0 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑘′(−∞) + 𝐵𝑒 −𝑘′(−∞)
0=0+B.∞
0=B.∞
B=0
ψI = 𝐴𝑒 𝑘′𝑥 …………(5)
Silmillarly In region III,
ψIII→0 As x→ ∞
from eqn. (4),
0 = 𝐹𝑒 𝑘′(∞) + 𝐺𝑒 −𝑘′(∞)
0=F.∞+0
0=F.∞
F=0
ψIII = 𝐺𝑒 −𝑘′x ……………(6)
To determine remaining constant,wave function . The boundry condition to be impose on the
wave function are:-
i) Continuity of wave function at x = 0
[ψI]𝑥=0 = [ψII]𝑥=0
ii) Continuity of wave function at x = L
[ψII]𝑥=𝐿 = [ψIII]𝑥=𝐿

iii) Continuity of first order function at x=0


𝑑𝜓𝐼 𝑑𝜓𝐼𝐼
[ 𝑑𝑥 ] = [ ]
𝑥=0 𝑑𝑥 𝑥=0

iv) Continuity of first order derivative of wave functional at x =L


𝑑𝜓𝐼𝐼 𝑑𝜓𝐼𝐼𝐼
[ ] = [ ]
𝑑𝑥 𝑥=𝐿 𝑑𝑥 𝑥=𝐿
3) Tunneling Effect :-
The phenomenon of the particles penetrating the potential barriers is called is the
tunnelling effect.
e.g. tunnel diode, alfa decay , tunnelling microscope, etc.

i) Tunnel Diode :-
➢ A tunnel diode is a semiconductor device that uses the phenomenon of tunnelling.
The current flowing in the tunnel diode is produces by electrons tunnelling through
the potential barriers developed by depletion layer.
➢ A tunnel diode is constructed in the same way as ordinary diode but the
concentration of impurity is very high.The conduction band of n- type overlap with
valence band of p-type.
➢ Under equilibrium,when no voltage is applied across diode, the electrons from
conduction band of n-type tunnel across the potential barrier in the depletion layer
into valance band of p-type and the electrons from valance band of N-type tunnel
into conduction band of N-type in equal nos. Hence there is no. current through the
diode.
Refer following fig.

Unbiased (At equilibrium)


➢ As forward peak voltage Vp is applied the potential barrier height is lowered to
( 𝑽𝟎 − 𝑽𝒑 ).
This increases transfer of electron from n type into p – type as there are free energy levels in
the V.B. of p- type region. At the same time electron transfer in the opposite direction is
impossible, because occupied energy levels of p-region valence band correspondence to
forbidden band of n- region. Thus forward current is maximum called peak current .As
shown in fig.
Forward Biased
➢ If forward voltage is further increases upto (𝑽𝒗 ) the potential barrier height decreases
to ( 𝑽𝟎 − 𝑽𝒗 ). Under this condition, tunnel electron transfer becomes impossible .
Since, occupied energy level of one region correspond to forbidden gap of other as
shown in following Fig. So tunnel current becomes zero. But small current present
due to diffusion & leakage. This current called valley current and voltage valley
voltage (𝑽𝒗 ). tunnel diode convert into ordinary diode.

Forward biased at valley voltage Vv


Reverse Biased
I-V characteristics of Tunnel diode:

ii) Alpha Decay:


➢ Alpha decay is a radioactive decay in which an atomic nucleus emits an alpha
particle. It is consist of two protons and two neutrons bound together (2He4).
➢ An alpha particle has energy of only around 4.8 Mev and it is bounded in the nucleus
with energy around 25 MeV (potential barrier).Hence classically it is impossible for
α-particle to escape from nucleus.
➢ Quantum mechanically de-Broglie wave associated with alpha particle can penetrate
the potential barrier(nucleus) ,hence there is a non-zero probability that it will escape
from the nucleus.
➢ The probability of escape of alpha particle is so small i.e. 1 in 1038 i.e. alpha particle
has to strike potential well of nucleus 1038 or more times before it emerges,but it
would definitely escape from the nucleus.

iii) Scanning tunnelling microscope (STM):-


• The scanning tunnelling microscope (STM) consist of a probe with a fine tip that is
made to move on a surface which is to be studied.
• The probe is kept at positive potential with respect to that surface and kept at about 1
nm above the surface.


• The STM can be used in two modes.
1) Constant height
2) Constant current
1) Constant height mode:
➢ The probe is maintained at a constant height above the surface.
➢ Due to the positive potential of the probe tip,electrons on the surface tunnel through
the probe tip giving rise to a small current.
➢ As the tip moves on the surface at a constant height, the distance of the tip from the
surface changes due to the irregularities on the surface.As a result the probe current
changes.
➢ It increases when the the distance of the probe tip from the surface decreases.
➢ Thus the probe current gives an indication of the surface topography when the probe
tip is scanned on the surface.
2) Constant current mode:
➢ The distance of the probe tip from the surface is varied so as to get a constant current.
➢ The movement of the probe tip perpendicular to the surface is recorded which is
directly the surface topography.

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