63c4d07b791dc
63c4d07b791dc
63c4d07b791dc
De Broglie Hypothesis:-
Statement : -It stares that a moving particle always has a wave associated with it and
the motion of the particle is guided by a wave in a similar manner that photon is
controlled by a wave .
Wavelength of matter wave (De- Broglie wavelength ) is given by
ℎ ℎ
𝜆= =
𝑝 𝑚𝑣
Where m = relativistic mass
𝑚0
𝑚= 2
𝑚0 = rest mass
√1−𝑣2
𝑐
Ignoring relativistic case
Let m ≅ 𝑚0
E = h𝜐 = 𝑚𝑐 2
𝑚𝑐 2
𝜐= …………….(2)
ℎ
We know that
Phase velocity vp,
vp = 𝜐𝜆
𝜔 2𝜋
= 2𝜋 𝑥 𝑘
𝜔
vp = ……………(4)
𝑘
𝑑𝑥 𝜔
=
𝑑𝑡 𝑘
The wave velocity,
𝑑𝑥 𝜔
vp = 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑘
𝜆
vp = 2𝜋𝜐 x 2𝜋
vp = 𝜐 𝜆
Form (1) & (2)
𝑚𝑐 2 ℎ
vp = 𝑥 𝑚𝑣
ℎ
𝒄𝟐
vp = 𝒗
we know that ,
𝑑𝜔
𝑣𝑔 = 𝑑𝑘
𝑑𝜔 𝑑𝑘
∵ 𝑣𝑔 = / ………………….(1)
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣
As , 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝜐
𝐸
= 2𝜋 ℎ ( E = h𝜐)
2𝜋𝑚𝑐 2
𝜔= (E=mc2 )
ℎ
𝑚0
As m= 2
√1−𝑣2
𝑐
2𝜋𝑚0 𝑐 2
𝜔=
𝑣2
ℎ√1− 2
𝑐
𝑑𝜔 2𝜋𝑚0 𝑐 2 1 𝑣2 −2𝑣
= - 2 (1 − 𝑐 2 )−3/2 ( 𝑐 2 )
𝑑𝑘 ℎ
𝑑𝜔 2𝜋𝑚0 𝑣2
= .v (1 − 𝑐 2 )−3/2 ………….(.2)
𝑑𝑣 ℎ
2𝜋 2𝜋𝑝 ℎ
And k= = (𝜆 = 𝑝 )
𝜆 ℎ
2𝜋𝑚𝑣
k= ℎ
2𝜋𝑣𝑚0
∴ k=
𝑣2
ℎ√1− 2
𝑐
𝑑𝑘 2𝜋𝑚0 1 𝑣2
= - 2 (1 − 𝑐 2 )−3/2
𝑑𝑣 ℎ
𝑑𝑘 2𝜋𝑚0 𝑣2
= (1 − 𝑐 2 )−3/2 ………….(3)
𝑑𝑣 ℎ
𝒗𝒈 = v
Wave Function:
➢ Every wave is characterized by periodic variation in some physical quantity.
E.g. Sound waves-pressure varies periodically
Electromagnetic waves- Electric & Magnetic field varies periodically.
Similarly Matter waves - wave function (𝜓) varies periodically
➢ The value of 𝜓 at a particular point (x, y, z) in space at a time ‘t’ is related to
probability of finding particle there at that time. Hence it is called probability
amplitude.
➢ 𝜓 does not have direct physical significance & it is not experimentally measurable
quantity.
➢ The probability is positive value between o & l. But 𝜓 can be positive, negative or
complex.
Hence, 𝜓 2 is taken which is always positive. In general 𝜓 is complex. Therefore,
take
|𝜓|2 instead of 𝜓2.
Where, |𝜓|2 = 𝜓𝜓* --- Probability density where 𝜓* --- complex conjugate of 𝜓
proportional to |𝜓|2 .
2. |𝜓|2 or 𝜓𝜓* is taken as probability density i.e. probability of finding the particle in
unit volume. So the probability of the particle being present in a volume element 𝑑𝑣 is
|𝜓|2 𝑑𝑣
Where 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
Then 𝜓-probability density amplitude.
Wave eqn for a three-dimensional matter wave with wave velocity ‘vp’ can be written as,
𝜕 2𝜓 2
𝜕 2𝜓 𝜕 2𝜓 𝜕 2𝜓
= 𝑣𝑝 ( 2 + 2 + 2 )
𝜕𝑡 2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Where,
2
𝜕2 𝜕2 𝜕2
∇ = 2+ 2+ 2
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
= Laplacian operator.
𝜕2𝜓
= 𝑣𝑝2 ∇2 𝜓 ……. (1)
𝜕𝑡 2
The general soln of eqn (1) is,
𝜓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝜓0 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 (2)
Where 𝜓0 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) → 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑑.
Eqn (2) can be written as
𝜓(𝑟̂ , 𝑡) = 𝜓0 (𝑟̂ )𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 … … … …. (3)
Where 𝑟̂ = 𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑦𝑗̂ + 𝑧𝑘̂
Differentiating eqn (3) twice w.r.to ‘t’
𝜕𝜓
= (−𝑖𝑤)𝜓0 (𝑟̂ )𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡
𝜕𝑡
𝜕 2𝜓
= (−𝑖𝑤)2 𝜓0 (𝑟̂ )𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡
𝜕𝑡 2
𝜕 2𝜓
2
= −𝜔2 𝜓0 (𝑟̂ )𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡
𝜕𝑡
2
4𝜋 2 𝜈 2
∇ 𝜓+ 2 2 𝜓=0
𝜈 𝜆
4𝜋 2
∇2 𝜓 + 𝜓=0 (6)
𝜆2
The De-Broglie wavelength of the wave associated with the particle is,
ℎ
𝜆=
𝑝
Substitute in eqn (6)
4𝜋 2 𝑝2
∇2 𝜓 + 𝜓=0 (7)
ℎ2
The total energy E of the particle
E = K. E. + P. E.
1
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 2 + 𝑉
2
𝑝2
𝐸= +𝑉
2𝑚
𝑝2
𝐸−𝑉 =
2𝑚
𝑝2 = 2𝑚(𝐸 − 𝑉)
Put this value in eqn (7)
4𝜋 2 2𝑚
∇2 𝜓 + (𝐸 − 𝑉)𝜓 = 0
ℎ2
𝟖𝝅𝟐 𝒎
𝛁𝟐𝝍 + (𝑬 − 𝑽)𝝍 = 𝟎….. (8)
𝒉𝟐
ℎ
Taking ћ =2𝜋
𝟐𝒎
𝛁𝟐𝝍 + (𝑬 − 𝑽) 𝝍 = 𝟎….. (9)
ћ𝟐
The time independent eqn is obtained by eliminating E from the time independent eqn
For three –dimension wave motion can be written,
𝜕2 2
𝜕 2𝜓 𝜕 2𝜓 𝜕 2𝜓
= 𝑣𝑝 [ + + ]
𝜕𝑡 2 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2
𝜕 2𝜓
= 𝑣𝑝2 ∇2 𝜓 … …. (2)
𝜕𝑡 2
𝜕2 𝜕2 𝜕2
∇2 = + +
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2
𝜕𝜓
= −𝑖𝑤 𝜓 …. (4)
𝜕𝑡
Now w= 2π𝜈 and E= h𝜈
𝐸 2πE
𝜈=ℎ, 𝑤= ℎ
Putting this value in eqn (4)
𝜕𝜓 2πE
= −𝑖 𝜓 … .. (5)
𝜕𝑡 ℎ
Multiplying both side by ‘i’
𝜕𝜓 2πE
i = −𝑖 2 𝜓
𝜕𝑡 ℎ
𝜕𝜓 2πE
i 𝜕𝑡 = 𝜓
ℎ
ℎ 𝜕𝜓
E 𝜓= 𝑖 2𝜋 …….. (6)
𝜕𝑡
8𝜋 2 𝑚 ℎ 𝜕𝜓
∇2 𝜓 + [𝑖 2𝜋 − 𝑉𝜓]=0
ℎ2 𝜕𝑡
8𝜋 2 𝑚
Dividing by on both sides
ℎ2
ℎ2 2
𝑖ℎ 𝜕𝜓
∇ 𝜓 + − 𝑉𝜓 = 0
8𝜋 2 𝑚 2𝜋 𝜕𝑡
𝑖ℎ 𝜕𝜓 ℎ2
= - 8𝜋2𝑚 ∇2 𝜓 + 𝑉𝜓
2𝜋 𝜕𝑡
ℎ2 𝑖ℎ 𝜕𝜓
- 8𝜋2𝑚 ∇2 𝜓 + 𝑉𝜓 = 2𝜋 𝜕𝑡
ℎ2 𝑖ℎ 𝜕𝜓
(− ∇2 + 𝑉) 𝜓 = …… (7)
8𝜋2 𝑚 2𝜋 𝜕𝑡
ℎ
Put ћ =
2𝜋
ћ2 𝜕𝜓
(− 2𝑚 ∇2 + 𝑉) 𝜓 = 𝑖 ћ 𝜕𝑡 ………. (8)
ℎ2 ћ2
(− 8𝜋2𝑚 ∇2 + 𝑉) = (− 2𝑚 ∇2 + 𝑉) called Hamiltonian operator
𝑖ℎ 𝜕 𝜕
E= 2𝜋 𝜕𝑡 = i ћ 𝜕𝑡 called Eigen operator
Such box has infinitely hard walls & particles does not lose energy when it collides with
walls . So that its total energy remains constant
𝑉 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 < 𝑥 < 𝐿
𝑉 = ∞ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ≤ 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ≥ 𝐿
The Potential Energy of the particles is constant but for convenience taken to be zero.
Particle can not have an infinite amount of energy so it can not exist outside the box Hence
𝜓 = 0 For 𝑥 ≤ 0 and 𝑥 ≥ 𝐿
Now we have to find wave function 𝜓 inside the box in region 0 < 𝑥 < 𝐿
Schrödinger’s time independent equation is
8𝜋 2 𝑚
∇2 𝜓 + (𝐸 − 𝑣)𝜓 = 0 . ... (1)
ℎ2
8𝜋 2 𝑚𝐸
Where 𝐾 2 = ... (3)
ℎ2
Eq (2) is total diff. Eq of 2nd order. Hence sol. of eq. (2) is given by
𝜓(𝑥) = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝐾𝑥) + 𝐵(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐾𝑥) … (4)
Where A & B constants.
Determination of energy of particle:
Apply boundary condition
i) 𝜓 = 0 at x=0
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑞(4)
0 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛(0) + 𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠(0)
B cos(0)=0
B=0
Eq (4) becomes
𝜓 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑥 … (5)
ii) 2nd boundary condition
𝜓 = 0 at x=L
𝐴 ≠ 0 for A=0, 𝜓 = 0 for all values of x inside box
SinKL=0
KL=n𝜋 where n=1,2,3... 𝑛 ≠0&𝜓=0
nπ
𝐾= … (6)
𝐿
𝑛2 𝜋 2
𝐾2 = … (7)
𝐿2
From eq (3) & (7)
8𝜋 2 𝑚𝐸 𝑛2 𝜋 2
= 2
ℎ2 𝐿
Energy depends on n.
𝑛2 ℎ2
𝐸𝑛 = 𝑛 = 1,2,3 … … (8)
8𝑚𝐿2
From above eq.
ℎ2
𝐸1 =
8𝑚𝐿2
When n=1 smallest energy of particle Which is non zero
This contradict classical mechanics, according to which E1=0 of other possible energies
4ℎ2 9ℎ2
𝐸2 = 8𝑚𝐿2 , 𝐸3 = , etc.
8𝑚𝐿2
En = (n)2 E1
So energy values are discrete. These discrete energy values given by eq (8) are called energy
eigen values.
Energy level diag.
∫ 𝜓𝜓 ∗ 𝑑𝑥 = 1
𝑥=0
𝐿
𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝐴2 ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ( ) 𝑑𝑥 = 1
𝐿
𝑥=0
1−𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥
Using 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 = 2
𝐿 2𝑛𝜋𝑥
1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( )
𝐿
𝐴2 ∫ [ ] 𝑑𝑥 = 1
2
0
2𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝐿
𝐴2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( )
𝐿
[𝑥 − 2𝑛𝜋 ] =1
2
𝐿 0
𝐴2 sin (2𝑛𝜋)
[𝐿 − − 0 + 0] = 1
2 2𝑛𝜋/𝐿
𝐴2
(𝐿) = 1
2
𝐴2 = 2/𝐿
2
𝐴=√
𝐿
2 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝜓𝑛 = √ 𝑠𝑖𝑛
𝐿 𝐿
From diag.
V(x) = 0 for 0 < x < L
V(x) = 𝑽𝟎 for 0 ≥ x ≥ L
Now, it is possible for the particle to have energy ‘E’ that exceed 𝑉0. So that particle can exist
outside the box. But E < 𝑽𝟎 ,
Schrodinger’s time independent wave equation
8𝜋 2 m
∇2 𝜓 + (E-V) ψ = 0 …………..(1)
ℎ2
𝑑2 Ψ𝐼
In region I :- V= 𝑽𝟎 ψ = ψI ∇2 𝜓 = (motion is along x direction only)
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑2 Ψ𝐼 8𝜋 2 m
+ (E-𝑽𝟎 ) ψI =0
𝑑𝑥 2 ℎ2
As E < 𝑽𝟎 ⸫ E- 𝑽𝟎 < 0
𝑑2 Ψ𝐼 8𝜋 2 m
− (𝑽𝟎 − 𝑬) ψI =0
𝑑𝑥 2 ℎ2
2 8𝜋 2 m
Let, 𝑘, = (𝑽𝟎 − 𝑬)
ℎ2
𝑑2 Ψ𝐼 2
− 𝑘 , ψI =0
𝑑𝑥 2
The general solution of the above equation is
8𝜋 2 mE
Let, 𝑘 2 = ℎ2
𝑑2 Ψ𝐼𝐼
+𝑘 2 ψII = 0
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑2 Ψ𝐼𝐼𝐼
− 𝑘 2 ψIII = 0
𝑑𝑥 2
i) Tunnel Diode :-
➢ A tunnel diode is a semiconductor device that uses the phenomenon of tunnelling.
The current flowing in the tunnel diode is produces by electrons tunnelling through
the potential barriers developed by depletion layer.
➢ A tunnel diode is constructed in the same way as ordinary diode but the
concentration of impurity is very high.The conduction band of n- type overlap with
valence band of p-type.
➢ Under equilibrium,when no voltage is applied across diode, the electrons from
conduction band of n-type tunnel across the potential barrier in the depletion layer
into valance band of p-type and the electrons from valance band of N-type tunnel
into conduction band of N-type in equal nos. Hence there is no. current through the
diode.
Refer following fig.
•
• The STM can be used in two modes.
1) Constant height
2) Constant current
1) Constant height mode:
➢ The probe is maintained at a constant height above the surface.
➢ Due to the positive potential of the probe tip,electrons on the surface tunnel through
the probe tip giving rise to a small current.
➢ As the tip moves on the surface at a constant height, the distance of the tip from the
surface changes due to the irregularities on the surface.As a result the probe current
changes.
➢ It increases when the the distance of the probe tip from the surface decreases.
➢ Thus the probe current gives an indication of the surface topography when the probe
tip is scanned on the surface.
2) Constant current mode:
➢ The distance of the probe tip from the surface is varied so as to get a constant current.
➢ The movement of the probe tip perpendicular to the surface is recorded which is
directly the surface topography.