21MAB302T-DISCRETE MATHEMATICS

UNIT-4:GROUP THEORY AND CODING

THEORY
Topics  Fields – definition, examples and
 Binary operation on a set- Groups and properties
axioms of groups  Coding Theory – Encoders and decoders-
 Properties of groups Hamming codes
 Permutation group, equivalence classes  Hamming distance-Error detected by
with addition modulo m and an encoding function
multiplication modulo m  Error correction using matrices
 Cyclic groups and properties  Group codes-error correction in group
 Subgroups and necessary and sufficiency codes-parity check matrix.
of a subset to be a subgroup  Problems on error correction in group
 Group homomorphism and properties codes
 Rings- definition and examples-Zero  Procedure for decoding group codes
devisors  Applications of sets, relations and
 Integral domain- definition , examples functions in Engineering
and properties.
 INTRODUCTION
• INTRODUCTION

• BASIC ALGEBRA

• ALGEBRAIC SYSTEM

• PROPERTIES OF ALGEBRAIC SYSTEM

 MODULE-1
SETS
• A set is a well defined collection of objects. These objects are otherwise called members or elements
of the set. The set is denoted by capital lettersA, B,C…
• Examples : A- The set of all colors in rainbow , S – the set of even numbers
• Notations : Sets are represented in two ways .
• Roster form : All the elements are listed. Ex.A= {1,3,5,7,9}
• Set builder form : Defining the elements of the set by specifying their common property .
• Example: V = { x / x is vowel}
• [ the elements of V are a,e,i,o,u]
• S = { x / x = n2, n is positive integer less than 30}
• S={1,4,9,16,25}
 BASIC ALGEBRA
Number system

There are common notations for the number system which are
R – the set of all Real numbers, R+ - the set of Positive real numbers.

Z, Z+ , Z- - set of all Integers, Positive integers, Negative integers.

C, C+, C- - set of all Complex, Positive complex, Negative complex numbers.

N – set of all Natural numbers i.e N = {1,2,3,…….}

Q, Q+, Q- - set of rational, positive rational, negative rational numbers

 BASIC ALGEBRA-Number system
• Congruence modulo n
Let n be a positive integer. If a and b are two integers and n divides
a – b then we say that “a is congruent to b modulo n” and we write
a≡ b(mod n). The integer n is called modulus.
Example : 23 ≡ 3 (mod 5) ; 16 ≡ 0 (mod 4)
• Congruence classes modulo n
Let a be an integer. Let [a] denote the set of all integers congruent to a (mod n)
i.e [a] = { x : x ∈ 𝑍, 𝑥 ≡ 𝑎 𝑚𝑜𝑑 (𝑛)} = {𝑥 ∶ 𝑥 ∈ 𝑍, 𝑥 = 𝑎 + 𝑘𝑛 } for some integer k, then [a] is said to be
equivalence class, modulo n, represented by [a]. The set of all congruence classes modulo n is denoted by
𝑍𝑛 . ∴ 𝑍𝑛 = { 0 , 1 , 2 , … 𝑛 − 1 }
 BASIC ALGEBRA-Number system
• Addition of residue classes
Let [a], [b] ∈ 𝑍𝑛 then their sum is denoted by +𝑛 and is defined as follows:

[a] +𝑛 [b] = { 𝑎 + 𝑏 𝑖𝑓 𝑎 + 𝑏 < 𝑛 where r is the least non negative remainder when a+b is
𝑟 𝑖𝑓 𝑎 + 𝑏 ≥𝑛
divided by n. hence 0 ≤ 𝑟 ≤ 𝑛
Ex. [1] +5 [2] = [1+2]= 3
[3] +5 [4] = [2] for 3+4=7 >5, 7=1x5+2
[3] +5 [2] = [0]
• Multiplication of residue classes
Let [a], [b] ∈ 𝑍𝑛 then their product is denoted by ×𝑛 and is defined as follows:
𝑖𝑓 𝑎𝑏 < 𝑛
[a] ×𝑛 [b] = { 𝑎𝑏 where r is the least non negative integer when ab is
𝑟 𝑖𝑓 𝑎 𝑏 ≥ 𝑛
divided by n. hence 0
≤𝑟≤𝑛 ; [2] ×5 [4] =[3] .
Ex. [2] ×5 [2] =[4] 𝑍𝑛 = { 0 , 1 , 2 , … 𝑛 − 1 }
 Algebraic systems
• Abinary operation * on a set 𝐴 is defined as a function from 𝐴 × 𝐴 into the set 𝐴
itself. .
• Anon empty set 𝐴 with one or more binary operations on it is called an algebraic

system.

Examples.
• Set : 𝑁 = {1,2,3 … } – the set of natural numbers, Operation : the usual addition ‘+’
which is a binary operation on N, then (𝑁, +) is an algebraic system.

• Similarly, (𝑄, +), (𝑍, . ), (𝑅, +), (𝐶, +) … are algebraic systems
 General properties of algebraic system
Let (S, ∗ ) be an algebraic system, ∗ is the binary operation on S .
• Closure property – For all a,b ∈ S, a∗b∈S
• Associativity - For all a, b, c ∈ S , (a ∗ b) ∗ c = a ∗ (b ∗ c) ,

• Commutativity - For all a,b ∈ S, a∗b=b∗a

• Identity element – There exists an element e ∈ S, such that

for any a ∈ S, a ∗ e = e ∗ a =a
• Inverse element – For every a ∈ S , there exists some b ∈ S such that
a ∗ b = b ∗ a= e, then b is called the inverse element of a.
 MODULE 2
• GROUP

• ABELIAN GROUP

• FINITE AND INFINITE GROUP

• EXAMPLES

• ORDER OF GROUP

• ORDER OF ELEMENT
 GROUPS
Definition : Group
If G is a non empty set and * is a binary operation on G, then the algebraic system {G, *}
is called a group if the following axioms are satisfied:
1) For all a,b ∈ S, a ∗ b ∈ S [Closure property]
2) For all a, b, c ∈ G, a ∗ b ∗ c = a ∗ (b ∗ c) (Associativity)
3) There exists an element e ∈ G such that, for any a ∈G, 𝑎∗e = e∗a= a
(Existence of identity)

4) For every a ∈G, there exists an element 𝑎−1 ∈ G such that

a ∗ 𝑎−1 = 𝑎−1 ∗ a = e (Existence of inverse)
 Abelian group
The group (G, ∗ ) which has commutative property ,
for all a,b ∈ S, a ∗ b = b ∗ a , is called an abelian group.
• Finite/Infinite group
The group (G, ∗ ) is said to be finite or infinite according as the underlying set is finite or infinite.
• Order of a group
If (G, ∗ ) is a finite group , then the number of elements of G is the order of the group written as O(G) or |G|
• Order of an element
Let (G, ∗) be a group and a ∈ G, the least positive integer m, such that 𝑎𝑚 = 𝑒, the identity element of G, is
called order of a and is written as O(a)=m
 Examples for Groups
1) The set (𝑍, +), of all integers under addition forms a group.

2) The set of all 2 x 2 non singular matrices over R is an abelian group under matrix
addition , but not abelian with respect to matrix multiplication as 𝐴𝐵 ≠ 𝐵𝐴

3) The set {1,-1,i, -i } is an abelian group under multiplication of complex numbers .

 Permutation group
Let A be a non empty set, then a function 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐴 is a permutation of A if 𝑓 is both one to one and onto,
that is 𝑓 is bijective. Let 𝑆𝐴 denotes the set of all permutations on A. Let 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐴 and 𝑔: 𝐴 → 𝐴 be two
functions. Then their composition, denoted by 𝑓 ◦ g , is the function 𝑓 ◦ 𝑔 ∶ 𝐴 → 𝐴 defined by

(f◦g) 𝑎 = 𝑔 𝑓 𝑎 , the composition of function is the binary operation on 𝑆𝐴 .

IfA={1,2,3….}, then the permutation p onAcan be written as

1 2 … 𝑛
𝑝=
𝑝(1) 𝑝(2) … 𝑝(𝑛)

1 2 3 4
For example 𝑝 =
3 4 2 1
IfAhas n elements 𝑆𝐴 has 𝑛! Permutations.
 Permutation group

1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
Let 𝑝1 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝2 = , the composition of these two
1 4 2 3 3 2 4 1
permutations is defined as

1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
𝑝1 ◦ 𝑝2 = ◦
1 4 2 3 3 2 4 1

= 1 2 3 4
3 1 2 4
 MODULE 3
• PROPERTIES OF GROUPS

• PROBLEMS ON GROUPS

• PROBLEMS ON ABELIAN GROUPS

 Properties of Group
1. The identity element of the group (G, ∗) is unique.
Proof : If possible , let e1 and e2 be two identities of G.
e1 = e2 ∗ e1 [since e2 is the identity]
=e2 [since e1 is the identity]
i.e e1=e2, the identity element is unique

2. The inverse of each element of (G, ∗) is unique.

Proof : If possible , let a' and a" be two inverses for a in G.
a ∗ a′ = a ′ ∗ a =e
a ∗ a ′ ′ = a ′ ′ ∗ a =e
a ′ =a ′ ∗ e = a ′ ∗(a∗a ′ ′)= (a ′ ∗ a)∗ a′ ′ = e ∗ a ′ ′ = a ′ ′
a ′ = a ′ ′ implies the inverse is unique.
 Properties of Group
3.The cancellation laws are true in a group
Viz, a ∗ b = a ∗ c ⇒ b = c [left cancellation law]
and b ∗ a = c ∗ a ⇒ b = c [right cancellation law]
Proof :
Let a ∗ b = a ∗ c ----(1)
Since 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺, 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐺 exists such that 𝑎 ∗ 𝑎−1 = 𝑎−1 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝑒
Pre multiplying (1) by 𝑎−1, 𝑎−1 ∗ (a ∗ b) = 𝑎−1 ∗ (a ∗ c)
(𝑎−1∗ a) ∗ b = (𝑎−1 ∗ a) ∗ c
𝑒 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑒 ∗ 𝑐 => 𝑏 = 𝑐
Let b ∗ a = c ∗ a ⇒ b = c -----------(2)
Since 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺, 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐺 exists such that 𝑎 ∗ 𝑎−1 = 𝑎−1 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝑒
Post multiplying (2) by 𝑎−1, (b ∗ a) ∗ 𝑎−1 = (c ∗ a) ∗ 𝑎−1
𝑏 ∗ (𝑎 ∗ 𝑎−1) = 𝑐 ∗ (𝑎 ∗ 𝑎−1)
𝑏 ∗ 𝑒 = 𝑐 ∗ 𝑒 => 𝑏 = 𝑐
𝟒. 𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒗𝒆 (𝒂 ∗ 𝐛)−𝟏 = 𝒃−𝟏 ∗ 𝒂−𝟏, for any a, b ∈ G.
Proof:
Consider a ∗ b ∗ 𝑏−1 ∗ a−1
= 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 ∗ 𝑏−1 ∗ a−1 [Associativity]
= 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 ∗ 𝑏−1 ∗ 𝑎−1 = 𝑎 ∗ 𝑒 ∗ 𝑎−1 = 𝑒
∴ 𝑏−1 ∗ 𝑎−1 is the inverse of 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏.

5. If a , b ∈ G, the equation a ∗ x = b has the unique solution x = 𝒂−𝟏 ∗ b.

6. (G, ∗) cannot have an idempotent element except the identity element.

7. If a has inverse b and b has inverse c , then a = c.

 Problems on Groups
1. Show that the set of all non zero real numbers namely R-{0} forms an abelian group
with respect to ∗ defined by a ∗ b = ab/2 for all a,b ∈ R-{0}

Proof : [To prove all the four axioms]

• Closure : if a, b ∈ R-{0} then , ab/2 is also a non zero real number ∈ R-{0}
• Associativity : a ∗ (b ∗ c) = a ∗ (bc/2) = abc/4 ---------(1)
(a ∗ b) ∗ c = ab/2 ∗ c = abc/4 -----------(2)
From (1) and (2) , 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 ∗ 𝑐 = (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑐
• Identity element : 𝑎 ∗ 𝑒 = 𝑎
𝑎𝑒/2 = 𝑎 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑒 = 2 is the identity element .
• Inverse element : for 𝑎 ∈ 𝑅 − {0}, 𝑎 ∗ 𝑎−1 = 𝑒
𝑎𝑎 −1 4
= 2 => 𝑎−1 = is the inverse of a
2 𝑎
 Problems on Groups
2. Prove that the set R -{1} forms an abelian group with respect to ∗ defined by
a ∗ b = (a + b – ab) , for all a , b ∈ R-{1}.
Proof :
• Closure : If a, b ∈ R -{1} then , (𝑎 + 𝑏 − 𝑎𝑏) is also a real number ∈ R-{1}
• Associativity :
𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 ∗ 𝑐 = 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 + 𝑐 − 𝑏𝑐 = 𝑎 + (𝑏 + 𝑐 − 𝑏𝑐) − 𝑎 𝑏 + 𝑐 − 𝑏𝑐
= 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 − 𝑎𝑏 − 𝑏𝑐 − 𝑎𝑐 + 𝑎𝑏𝑐
𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 ∗ 𝑐 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 − 𝑎𝑏 ∗ 𝑐 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 − 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑐 − 𝑎 + 𝑏 − 𝑎𝑏 𝑐
= 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 − 𝑎𝑏 − 𝑏𝑐 − 𝑎𝑐 + 𝑎𝑏𝑐
Hence , 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 ∗ 𝑐 = (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑐 .
• Identity element : 𝑎∗ 𝑒= 𝑎
𝑎 + 𝑒 − 𝑎𝑒 = 𝑎 => 𝑒 = 0 is the identity element .
• Inverse element : For 𝑎 ∈ 𝑅 − {0}, 𝑎 ∗ 𝑎−1 = 𝑒
𝑎 + 𝑎−1 − 𝑎𝑎−1 = 0
𝑎−1 = 𝑎 is the inverse of ‘a’, ( a ≠ 1).
𝑎 −1
3.Let G = { 𝑓1, 𝑓2, 𝑓3, 𝑓4} where 𝑓1 𝑥 = 𝑥, 𝑓2 𝑥 = −𝑥, 𝑓3 𝑥 = 1 , 𝑓4 𝑥 = − 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ◦ be the composition
𝑥 𝑥
of functions. Prove that (G,◦) is a group.
Proof :

◦ 𝑓1 𝑓2 𝑓3 𝑓4
𝑓1 𝑓1 𝑓2 𝑓3 𝑓4
𝑓2 𝑓2 𝑓1 𝑓4 𝑓3
𝑓3 𝑓3 𝑓4 𝑓1 𝑓2
𝑓4 𝑓4 𝑓3 𝑓2 𝑓1

• Closed : From the table it is evident that ◦ is closed.

• Associativity :
𝑓1 ∗ 𝑓2 ∗ 𝑓3 = 𝑓1 ∗ 𝑓4 = 𝑓4
(𝑓1∗ 𝑓2 ) ∗ 𝑓3 = 𝑓2 ∗ 𝑓3 = 𝑓4
Hence , 𝑓1 ∗ 𝑓2 ∗ 𝑓3 = (𝑓1∗ 𝑓2 ) ∗ 𝑓3.
• Identity element : From the table, we can see that 𝑓1 is the identity element.
• Inverse element : Inverse of every element is the element itself
4. Let A={1,2,3}, 𝑆𝐴 be the set of all permutations of A, then prove that with respect to
right composition of permutations ◦ , { 𝑆𝐴,◦} is an abelian group.
Proof :
Let 𝑆𝐴 = {𝑝1, 𝑝2, 𝑝3, 𝑝4, 𝑝5, 𝑝6} where
1 2 3, 1 2 3 1 2 3 ,
𝑝1 = 𝑝2 = , 𝑝3 =
1 2 3 1 3 2 2 3 1
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
𝑝4 = , 𝑝5 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝6 =
2 1 3 3 2 1 3 1 2

° p1 p2 p3 p4 p5 p6
p1 p1 p2 p3 p4 p5 p6
p2 p2 p1 p4 p3 P6 p5
p3 p3 p4 p1 p2 P4 p1
p4 p4 p3 p2 p1 p3 p2
p5 p5 p6 p4 p3 p1 p4
p6 p6 p5 p1 p2 p4 p1
• From the above table, for any two or three elements we can prove closure and
associative property.

• The identity element is 𝑝1 and the inverse of any element is the element itself.
 Problems on Groups
4. Let a ≠ 0 be a fixed real number and G = {𝒂𝒏: 𝒏 ∈ 𝒁}, 𝐏𝐫𝐨𝐯𝐞 𝐭𝐡𝐚𝐭 𝐆 is an abelian group under
multiplication .
Proof :
• Closure : if 𝑎𝑛1 , 𝑎𝑛2 ∈ G then 𝑎𝑛1 ∗ 𝑎𝑛2 = 𝑎𝑛1 +𝑛2 ∈ G as 𝑛1 + 𝑛2 ∈ Z
• Associativity : For 𝑎 𝑛1 , 𝑎 𝑛2 , 𝑎 𝑛3 ∈ G
𝑎 𝑛1 ∗ 𝑎 𝑛2 ∗ 𝑎 𝑛3 = 𝑎 𝑛1 ∗ 𝑎 𝑛2 + 𝑛3 = 𝑎 𝑛1 + 𝑛2 + 𝑛3
(𝑎 𝑛1 ∗ 𝑎 𝑛2 ) ∗ 𝑎 𝑛3
= 𝑎 𝑛1 + 𝑛2 ∗ 𝑎 𝑛3 = 𝑎 𝑛1 + 𝑛2 + 𝑛3
• Identity element - 𝑎𝑛 ∗ 𝑎𝑒 = 𝑎𝑛
𝑎𝑛+𝑒 = 𝑎𝑛 implies 𝑒=0 and 𝑎𝑒 = 𝑎0 = 1 is the identity element
• Inverse element – for 𝑎 ∈ 𝑅, 𝑎𝑛 ∗ 𝑎𝑛1 = 𝑎0 => 𝑛 + 𝑛1 = 0 => 𝑛1 = −𝑛
𝑎𝑛1 = 𝑎−𝑛 is the inverse of 𝑎𝑛
5. For any group (G, *) if 𝒂𝟐 = 𝐞 with a ≠ e, then prove that G is abelian
[Or, if every element of a group (G, *) is its own inverse, then G is abelian]
Proof:
Let a2 = e .
Tℎ𝑒𝑛 a2 ∗ 𝑎−1 = 𝑎 ∗ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑎−1 = 𝑒 ∗ 𝑎−1 = 𝑎−1
a2∗ 𝑎−1 = 𝑎 ∗ (𝑎 ∗ 𝑎−1) = 𝑎 ∗ 𝑒 = 𝑎
implies 𝑎 = 𝑎−1
Then for any 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺, 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 −1 =𝑎∗𝑏
𝑏−1 ∗ 𝑎−1 = 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏
𝑏 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 , G is abelian.
6. Let (𝑮,∗) be a group. Prove that G is abelian if and only if 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃 𝟐 = 𝒂𝟐 ∗ 𝒃𝟐
Proof:
Let G be abelian,
Consider 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 2 = 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 ∗ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏
= 𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 ) [Associativity]
= 𝑎 ∗ ((𝑏 ∗ 𝑎) ∗ 𝑏)
= 𝑎 ∗ (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑏 [ commutativity]
= (𝑎 ∗ 𝑎) ∗ 𝑏 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑎2 ∗ 𝑏2
Now , suppose 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 2 = 𝑎2 ∗ 𝑏2
𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 ∗ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = (𝑎 ∗ 𝑎) ∗ 𝑏 ∗ 𝑏
𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 ) = 𝑎 ∗ (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 ∗ 𝑏 )
𝑏∗ 𝑎∗𝑏 = 𝑎∗ 𝑏∗𝑏
(𝑏 ∗ 𝑎) ∗ 𝑏 = (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑏 [Associativity]
𝑏 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 ----commutative.
Thus G is abelian.
• Exercises :

1 0 −1 0 1 0 −1 0 is an abelian group under matrix

1. The set , , ,
0 1 0 1 0 −1 0 −1
multiplication.

2. The set {0,1,2,3,4} is a finite abelian group of order 5 under addition modulo 5.

3. The set {1,3,7,9} is an abelian group under multiplication modulo 10.

 MODULE 4

• SUBGROUPS

• EXAMPLES FOR SUBGROUP

• CONDITIONS FOR SUBGROUP

• PROBLEMS ON SUBGROUPS
 SUBGROUPS
If {G, ∗} is a group and H ⊆ G is a non-empty subset of G, called subgroup of G , if H
itself forms a group .

Theorem:

The necessary and sufficient condition for a non empty subset H of a group {G, ∗} to be a

subgroup is, for every a, b ∈ H ⇒ a ∗ b−1 ∈ H.

 Problems on subgroups
1.The intersection of two subgroups of a group G is also a subgroup of G .

Proof:
Let 𝐻1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐻2 be any two subgroups of G. 𝐻1 ∩ 𝐻2 is a non-empty set, since, at least the
identity element e is common to both 𝐻1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐻2
Let 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻1 ∩ 𝐻2, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻2
Let 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻1 ∩ 𝐻2, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻2
𝐻1 is a subgroup of G, 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏−1 ∈ 𝐻1 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻
𝐻2 is a subgroup of G, 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏−1 ∈ 𝐻2 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻
∴ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏−1 ∈ 𝐻1 ∩ 𝐻2 implies 𝐻1 ∩ 𝐻2 is a subgroup of G.
2.Show that the set 𝒂 + 𝒃𝒊 ∈ 𝑪|𝒂𝟐 + 𝒃𝟐 = 𝟏 is a subgroup f (C, •) where • is
the multiplication operator.
Proof:
Let H = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 ∈ 𝐶|𝑎2 + 𝑏2 = 1 , consider two elements 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦, 𝑝 + 𝑖𝑞 ∈ 𝐻 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 1, 𝑝2 + 𝑞2 = 1 and the identity element of C is 1+0i
Consider (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) 𝑝 + 𝑖𝑞 −1 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 𝑝 − 𝑖𝑞 = 𝑥𝑝 + 𝑦𝑞 + 𝑖(𝑦𝑝 − 𝑥𝑞)
Now 𝑥𝑝 + 𝑦𝑞 2 + 𝑦𝑝 − 𝑥𝑞 2 = 𝑥 2 𝑝2 + 𝑦2 𝑞2 + 2𝑥𝑝𝑦𝑞 + 𝑦2𝑝2 + 𝑥 2 𝑞2 − 2𝑦𝑝𝑥𝑞
= 𝑥2 𝑝2 + 𝑞2 + 𝑦2 𝑝2 + 𝑞2 = 1
∴ 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 𝑝 + 𝑖𝑞 −1 ∈ 𝐻, H is a subgroup.
3. Let G be an abelian group with identity e, prove that all elements x of G satisfying
the equation 𝒙𝟐= 𝒆 form a subgroup H of G
Proof:
𝐻 = {𝑥 |𝑥2 = 𝑒}
𝑒2 = 𝑒 ∴ the identity element e of G ∈ 𝐻
𝑥2 = 𝑒
𝑥−1. 𝑥2 = 𝑥−1. 𝑒 => 𝑥 = 𝑥−1
Hence, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ∈ 𝐻, 𝑥−1 ∈ 𝐻 [inverse exists]
Let 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐻, since G is abelian, 𝑥𝑦 = 𝑦𝑥 = 𝑦−1𝑥−1 = 𝑥𝑦 −1

∴ 𝑥𝑦 2 = 𝑒. i.e 𝑥𝑦 ∈ 𝐻
Thus, if 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐻, 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑥𝑦 ∈ 𝐻 [closed]
Thus H is a subgroup.

4. Union of two subgroups of (G,*) need not be a subgroup of (G,*).

 Module 5

• Cyclic groups

• Examples

• Properties

• Problems
 Cyclic group

A group (G, ∗) is said to be a cyclic group if there exists an element a∈ 𝐺 such that every element 𝑥 of G
can be expressed as 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑛 for some integer 𝑛, a is called generatorof G.
We write G=(a)
Examples :
1. Let G={1,-1, i, -i} and G is a group under multiplication. It is cyclic with the generator i
(i.e.) G=(i) or G=(-i)
2. Let G={1, 𝜔, 𝜔2} is a cyclic group under multiplication generated by 𝜔 . 𝜔2 is also a generator.

3. ( Z , + ) is a cyclic group with generator 1. Note -1 is also a generator.

 Properties of cyclic groups
1.Every cyclic group is abelian.
Proof:
Let 𝐺,∗ be a cyclic group with generator a. Let 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐺 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑚 , 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑛
𝑥 ∗ 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑚 ∗ 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎 𝑚+𝑛 = 𝑎 𝑛+𝑚 = 𝑎𝑛 ∗ 𝑎𝑚 = 𝑦 ∗ 𝑥
Therefore 𝐺,∗ abelian.

2.Let (G, ∗) be a cyclic group generated by a , then 𝒂−𝟏 is also a generator of G.

Proof:
Let (G, ∗) be a cyclic group generated by a , then 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑛 ∈ 𝑍
𝑥 = 𝑎−1 −𝑛 , −𝑛 ∈ 𝑍
∴ 𝑎−1 is also a generator of G.
3.Any subgroup of a cyclic group is itself a cyclic group.
Proof :
Let (G, ∗) be a cyclic group generated by a and H be a subgroup of G.
if 𝑎𝑘 ∈ 𝐻 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎−𝑘 ∈ 𝐻. Let m be the least positive integer such that 𝑎𝑚 ∈ 𝐻
we have to prove that 𝐻 = (𝑎𝑚 ). Let 𝑐 ∈ 𝐻. ∴ 𝑐 ∈ 𝐺
𝑐 = 𝑎𝑛 for some 𝑛 ∈ 𝑍
Now 𝑛, 𝑚 ∈ 𝑍, there exists integers q and r such that 𝑛 = 𝑚𝑞 + 𝑟, 0 ≤ 𝑟 < 𝑚 by division algorithm.
Now 𝑐 = 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚𝑞+𝑟 = 𝑎𝑚𝑞 ∗ 𝑎𝑟
𝑎𝑟 = 𝑎−𝑚𝑞 ∗ 𝑐 = 𝑎𝑚 −𝑞 ∗𝑐 ∈𝐻
Since 𝑐 ∈ 𝐻, 𝑎𝑚 −𝑞 ∈ 𝐻 and H is a subgroup. But 0 ≤ 𝑟 < 𝑚 and m is the least positive integer such that
𝑎𝑚 ∈ 𝐻. Therefore r = 0
∴ 𝑐 = 𝑎𝑚𝑞 = 𝑎𝑚 𝑞

Hence every element of H can be written as an integer power of 𝑎𝑚 . ∴ 𝐻 = 𝑎𝑚 is a cyclic group.

4. The order of a cyclic group is the same as the order of its generator.

5.Afinite group of order n containing an element a of order n is cyclic.

 Problems
1. Find the number of generators of a cyclic group of order 5.
Let G = (a) be a cyclic group of order 5. Then G = {𝑎, 𝑎2, 𝑎3, 𝑎4, 𝑎5 = 𝑒}.
Since (1,5) =1, (2,5) =1, (3,5) =1, (4,5) =1.
The generators are 𝑎, 𝑎 2 , 𝑎 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎4 .
The number of generators is 4.

2. Find the number of generators of a cyclic group of order 8 .

Let G = (a) be a cyclic group of order 5. Then G=(𝑎, 𝑎 2 , 𝑎 3 , 𝑎 4 , 𝑎 5 , 𝑎 6 , 𝑎 7 , 𝑎 8 = 𝑒}.
Since (1,8)=1, (3,8)=1, (5,8)=1, (7,8)=1.
The generators are 𝑎, 𝑎3, 𝑎5 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎7.
The number of generators is 4.
 MODULE-6
GROUP HOMOMORPHISM

• DEFINITION OF HOMOMORPHISM

• EXAMPLES OF HOMOMORPHISM

• PROPERTIES OF HOMOMORPHISM
 DEFINITION OF HOMOMORPHISM

• Given two groups, (G, ∗) and (H, ·), a group homomorphism (morphism) from (G, ∗) to
(H, ·) is a function h : G → H such that for all u and v in G it holds that
ℎ(𝑢 ∗ 𝑣) = ℎ(𝑢) ⋅ ℎ(𝑣) for all u, v ϵ G
• Isomorphism: A group homomorphism that is bijective; i.e., injective and surjective.
Its inverse is also a group homomorphism.
• In this case, the groups G and H are called isomorphic; they differ only in the notation of
their elements and are identical for all practical purposes.
• (G, ∗) and (H, ·) are isomorphic – there is an isomorphism between (G, ∗) and (H, ·)and
it is denoted by (G, ∗) ≅ (H, ·)
 EXAMPLES OF HOMOMORPHISM
1. Every isomorphism is a homomorphism with Kernal = {e}.

2. Let G = Z under addition and 𝐺̅ = {1, -1} under multiplication.

Define : 𝑓: 𝐺 → 𝐺̅ by f(n) ={ 1, n is even

−1, n is odd

is a homomorphism.
 PROPERTIES OF HOMOMORPHISM
If 𝒇: 𝑮 → 𝑮 ′ is a group homomorphism from (G,∗) 𝒕𝒐 (𝑮′,∙)

(i) f(e) =e' where e and e' are the identity elements of G and G'respectively

(ii) For any aϵG, f(a-1) = [f(a)]-1.

(iii) If H is a subgroup of G, then 𝒇 𝑯 = {𝒇(𝒉) ∕ 𝒉 ∈ 𝑯} is a group of G'.

 MODULE-7
RINGS
•A ring (R,+, ∙ ) is a set R on which there are defined two binary operations ‘+’ and ‘∙’
satisfying the following axioms.
 (R1) (R,+) is an abelian group.
 (R2) (R, ∙) is semigroup :The operation ∙ has the closure, associativity and
identity properties.
 (R3) The additive identity is unique and the additive inverse of any element
in R is unique.
 (R4) The cancellation law for addition holds. That is if a,b, c ∈ R with a+b =
a+c, then b = c
 (R5) Distributive laws are
true. For all a,b,c ϵ R,
a⋅(b+c)=(a⋅b)+(a ⋅ c)
(a+b) ⋅ c=(a ⋅ c)+(b ⋅ c)
 A commutative ring is a ring (𝑅, +,∙) for which 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑏𝑎, for all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑅. If a
ring is not commutative it is called noncommutative.
 A ring with identity 𝒆 (also called a ring with unity) is a ring 𝑅 which contains an
element 𝑒 ∈ 𝑅 (with 𝑒 ≠ 0) satisfying 𝑒𝑎 = 𝑎𝑒 = 𝑎 , for all 𝑎 ∈ 𝑅. Generally,
the unity or identity element of a ring 𝑅 is denoted by 1 or 1R.
 A ring which has finite many elements is called finite ring.
Examples:
1. ℤ, ℚ, 𝑅 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℂ are commutative rings with identity, with the usual operations of
addition and multiplication, where ℤ (respect: ℚ, 𝑅 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℂ) is the set of all integer
(respect: rational, real, complex) numbers
2. Let n ≥ 1 be an integer. Then the set ℤn = {0,1,2, ⋯ , 𝑛 − 1} under addition +n and
multiplication ∙ 𝑛 modulo n is a commutative ring with unity 1, known as the ring of
integers modulo n. The multiplication modulo n is defined on ℤn as following:
𝑎𝑏 𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑛 (𝑜𝑟 𝑎 ∙ 𝑛 𝑏) is the integer r ∈ ℤn such that 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑞𝑛 + 𝑟 in 𝑍 for some
𝑞 ∈ ℤ.
3. Let R = {0, 2, 4} ⊆ ℤ6 . Then (R,+6,∙6) is a commutative ring with identity 4
4. The set 2ℤ = {2x | x ∈ ℤ} of even integers under ordinary addition and multiplication
is a commutative ring without unity. More generally, if n ≥ 2, then
the set nℤ= {xn | x ∈ ℤ} under ordinary addition and multiplication is a commutative
ring without unity.
5. The set M2(ℤ) of 2 x 2 matrices with integer entries is a non-commutative ring with
unity.

 Let 𝑅 be a ring with identity 1. A non zero-element 𝒂 in a ring R is called unit. if it

has a multiplicative inverse, i.e., if there exists b ∈ R such that 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑏𝑎 = 1. We
denote the multiplicative inverse of 𝑎 by 𝑎 − 1 .
Theorem:1 (2) 𝑎(−𝑏) = −(𝑎𝑏) = (−𝑎)𝑏.
Let R be a ring with identity 1. (3) a(b−c) = ab−ac and (a−b)c = ac−bc.
(a) The multiplicative identity is unique. (4) (−a)(−b) = ab.
(b) Let 𝑎 ∈ R. If 𝑎 has a multiplicative Theorem:4
inverse in R, then it is unique. For all positive integers m and n and for all
Theorem:2 a,b in a ring R, the following hold:
Let R be a ring with 1 and let R ∗ be the set (1) a ma n = a m+n .
of all multiplicative inverse elements in R. (2) (a m) n = a mn . Then
(R ∗ , ∙) is a group. It is called the group (3) ma+na = (m+n)a.
of invertible elements.
(4) m(na) = (mn)a.
Theorem:3
(5) (ma)(nb) = (mn)(ab)
Let R be a ring. Then for all 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ R,
(1) 𝑎 ⋅ 0 = 0 = 0 ⋅ 𝑎.
 Zero Divisors:
 A non-zero element 𝑥 in a ring 𝑅 is called a left zero divisor if there exists a nonzero
element 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅 such that 𝑥𝑦 = 0.
 A non-zero element 𝑥 in a ring 𝑅 is called a right zero divisor if there exists a nonzero
element 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅 such that 𝑦𝑥 = 0.
 A non-zero element 𝑥 in a ring 𝑅 is called a zero divisor if it is a left and right zero
divisor.xy=0 but x≠0 and y ≠0.
Example: 0 0 1 0
Let R be a ring with identity 1. Then and 0 0 are zero divisors in the ring M2×2(R)
0 1
of all 2×2 matrices over a ring R, (because 0 0 ∙ 1 0 = 0 0 = 1 0 ∙ 0 0 )
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
Lemma:
Let ̅ ∈ ℤ n. Then the following statements are equivalent:
(1) ̅ is a zero divisor. (2) ̅ ≠ 0 and gcd(𝑥, 𝑛) ≠ 1.
Problems:
1. Find all zero divisors in a ring (ℤ 4,+4,∙4).
Solution: Is 0 is a non zero divisor.
Since gcd(1,4) = 1 and gcd(3,4) = 1,
we have from Lemma , that 1 and 3 are non zero divisors. Since gcd(2,4) = 2 ≠ 1, ,
we have from Lemma , that 2 s a zero divisor and 2 ⋅4 2 = 0. Thus the zero divisor in a
ring (ℤ 4,+4,∙4 ) is only 2.
2. Find all zero divisors in a ring (ℤ 8,+8,∙8)
Ans: zero divisors in a ring (ℤ 8,+8,∙8) are 2,4,6 .
Theorems: 1. Let R be a non zero ring with identity 1. Then every unit element (element has
a multiplicative inverse) a in R is a non zero divisor.
2. Let R be a non zero ring with identity 1, let R ∗ be the set of all unit elements in R and let
R+ be the set of zero divisor elements in R. Then 𝑅 ∗ ∩ 𝑅 + = 𝜙.
 Let R be a ring. We say that R satisfies the cancellation laws for
multiplication if for any 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑅 such that a ≠ 0 and 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑎𝑐 𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑎 =
𝑐𝑎, then 𝑏 = 𝑐.

Example: The ring (ℤ 4,+4,∙4) does not satisfy the cancellation laws for
multiplication, since 2 ⋅4 2 = 2 ⋅4 0 but 2 ≠ 0.
 A ring R is without zero divisors if and only if R satisfies the cancellation
laws for multiplication.
 Let R be a ring with identity which has no zero divisors. Then the only
solutions of the equation x 2 = x are x = 0 and x = 1.
 Integral Domain
An integral domain is a commutative ring with identity which does not have zero
divisors.

Theorems:
If R is an integral domain, then:
(1) R satisfies the cancellation laws for multiplication.
(2) 0 and 1 are the only idempotent elements in R.
(3) if R is a ring without zero divisors, then every subring of R is without zero
divisors.
Examples:

1. The ring (ℤ p,+p,∙𝑝) is an integral domain, for any prime number p.

2. The rings (ℤ 6,+6,∙6) and 2 ℤ are not integral domains.

3. The rings ℤ, ℚ, 𝑅 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℂ are integral domains.

 Field
A field is a commutative ring with identity (1 ≠ 0) in which every non-zero element
has a multiplicative inverse.
Division Ring : A ring R with identity (1 ≠ 0) is called a division ring or a (skew field)
if every non-zero element has a multiplicative inverse.
Remark:
(1) If u = a+bi and v = c+di are complex numbers, then u+v = (a+bi) + (c+di) = (a+c) +
(b+d)i and u.v = (a+bi)⋅(c+di) = (ac−bd) + (ad +bc)i.
(2) If u = a+bi, then 𝑢ത = 𝑎 − 𝑏𝑖 and u ⋅ 𝑢ത = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 .
Example: (Hamilton’s quaternions ring)

𝑢 −𝑣̅
Let H = 𝑢, 𝑣 ∈ ℂ} with usual addition (+) and multiplication (∙) on
𝑣 𝑢ത
matrices. Then (H,+, ∙) is a non-commutative division ring.

1 0
Proof. It is clear that (H,+, ∙) is a subring of the ring (M2(ℂ),+, ∙) and is the
0 1
identity element of the ring (H,+, ∙) . The ring (H,+, ∙) is non-commutative, since if
0 1 𝑖 0 0 1 𝑖 0 0 −𝑖 0 𝑖
A= and 𝐵= , then 𝐴 ⋅ 𝐵 = = ≠𝐵⋅𝐴=
−1 0 0 −𝑖 −1 0 0 −𝑖 −𝑖 0 𝑖 0
The non-zero elements of H are invertible.
 𝑢̅ 𝑣̅
𝑢 −𝑣 0 0 . Let B = 𝑢+𝑣𝑣̅ 𝑢𝑢+̅ ̅
Let A= ∈ H with A≠ −𝑣 𝑢
𝑣𝑣
. Since B ∈ H
𝑣 ̅ 0 0
𝑢𝑢̅+𝑣𝑣̅ 𝑢𝑢̅+𝑣𝑣

𝑢̅ 𝑣
−1
1 0 we have A is invertible and 𝐴 = 𝑢𝑢̅+𝑣𝑣̅ 𝑢𝑢+̅ 𝑣𝑣̅
.
and A⋅B = B⋅A= = −𝑣 𝑢
0 1 𝑢𝑢̅+𝑣𝑣̅ 𝑢𝑢̅+𝑣𝑣

Therefore, (H,+, ∙) is a non-commutative division ring.

Every field is a division ring but the converse is not true in general

Example:

−𝑣
1. Let H = { 𝑢 | 𝑢, 𝑣 ∈ ℂ} with usual addition (+) and multiplication (∙)
𝑣 𝑢
on matrices. Then (H,+,∙) is a non-commutative division ring
(Hamilton’s quaternions ring) and hence it is not a field.

2. If F = {𝑎 + 𝑏√3 | a,b ∈ Q}, then (F,+,.) is a field.

Theorem: Every field is an integral domain
Proof. Let (𝐹, +,∙) be a field, thus (𝐹, +,∙) is a commutative ring with identity.
Let a,b ∈ F with a ≠ 0 and a.b = 0. We will prove that b = 0. Since F is a field, it
follows that a has a multiplicative inverse a −1 in F. Then a −1 .(a.b) = a −1 .0 = 0
and hence b = 0. Thus (𝐹, +,∙) has no zero divisors and hence (𝐹, +,∙) is an
integral domain.
Remark: The converse of Theorem Every field is an integral domain is not true
in general, for example the ring (ℤ ,+, ∙) is an integral domain but it is not a
field since 2 ∈ ℤ has no a multiplicative inverse in ℤ.
Theorem: Every finite integral domain is a field.
Proof. Let R be a finite integral domain. Thus R is a commutative ring with identity. Let n be
the number of distinct elements in R, say R = {a1,a2,...,an}, where the ai are the distinct
elements of R. Let a be any nonzero element of R. Consider the set of products R ‘=
{a.a1,a.a2,...,a.an}. We will prove that all elements in R ‘ are distinct. Assume that there are i, j
such that i ≠ j and a.ai = a.aj . Since R is an integral domain and a ≠ 0, we have from
cancellation theorem that R satisfies the cancellation laws for multiplication and hence ai = aj
and this is a contradiction. Thus all elements in R ‘ are distinct. Since R’ ⊆ R, we have R = R ‘ .
Since 1 ∈ R, we have 1 ∈ R’ and so 1 = a.as for some as ∈ R. Since R is commutative, we have 1
= a.as = as .a and hence a has a multiplicative inverse as in R. Therefore, R is a field.
Theroem:The ring (ℤ 𝐧,+n,∙𝒏) is a field if and only if n is a prime number.
Proof. (⇒) Suppose that (ℤ n,+n,∙𝑛) is a field. By Theorem Every field is an
integral domain, (ℤ n,+n,∙𝑛) is an integral domain. By Theorem (The ring (ℤ
p,+p,∙𝑝) has no zero divisor if and only if p is a prime integer number), n is a
prime number.

(⇐) Suppose that n is a prime number. By Theorem (The ring (ℤ p,+p,∙𝑝) has no zero
divisor if and only if p is a prime integer number), the ring (ℤ n,+n,∙𝑛) has no zero
divisor. Since (ℤ n,+n,∙𝑛) is a commutative ring with identity, we have (ℤ n,+n,∙𝑛) is
an integral domain. Since the ring (ℤ n,+n,∙𝑛) is finite, we have from Theorem
(Every finite integral domain is a field ) that (ℤ n,+n,∙𝑛) is a field.
CODING THEORY– ENCODERSAND
DECODERS-HAMMINGCODES
Encoder: It is a device or process which converts(transforms) data(messages) in such a
way that the presence of noise in the transformed messages is detectable.
Decoder: It is a device or process which converts(transforms) the encoded
data(messages) into their original form that can be understood by the receiver.

Alphabet: Letters or symbols or characters . We choose binary code B= {0,1} as

alphabet.
Message(word): Basic unit of information which is a finite sequence of characters from
a specified set or alphabet B = {0,1}
Group Code: If B ={0,1},then Bn = { (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , ⋯ , 𝑥𝑛 ) / xi ϵB , i = 1,2,3,…n} is a group
under the binary operation of addition modulo 2, denoted by +2 or ⊕. This group
(Bn, ⊕) is called a group code.
+2 1 0
Cayley table for +2 :
1 0 1
0 1 0
Order of Bn is 2n
Theorem: (Bn, ⊕) is a group
Proof: If 𝒙 = (x1,x2,…. xn ) and 𝒚 = (y1,y2,…. yn ) ∈ Bn, then
𝒙 + 𝒚= 𝑥1 +2 𝑦1 , 𝑥2 +2 𝑦2 , ⋯ , 𝑥𝑛 +2 𝑦𝑛 ∈ 𝐵𝑛 .
Identity element of Bn is 0,0, ⋯ , 0 . Inverse of (x1,x2,…. xn ) is itself.
Hence (Bn, ⊕) is a group and it is also abelian
Encoding Function:
 Let n, m be integers such that n>m. An one – to – one function 𝑒: 𝐵𝑚 → 𝐵𝑛 (each
word in 𝐵𝑚 is assigned different code words in𝐵𝑛) is called an (m,n)
encoding function or code.
 If 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵𝑚 is the original word , then e(b) is the code word or encoded
word representing b.
 The additional 0’s and 1’s in e(b) (as n>m) will provide the means to detect
or correct errors in the transmission channel
 Each code word x = e(b) is received as the word xt in Bn.
Block codes − The message is divided into fixed-sized blocks of bits, to
which redundant bits are added for error detection or correction.
Single Parity Check: Parity Digit(bit):
 One extra bit (digit) called as parity digit is sent along with the original
data bits.
 Parity digit helps to check if any error occurred in the data during the
transmission.
Hamming Code(developed by R.W. Hamming for error correction)
 The codes obtained by introducing additional digits called parity digits to the
digits in the original message are called Hamming Codes
 Hamming Codes = Original data + parity bit

 block code that is capable of detecting up to two simultaneous bit errors and
correcting single-bit errors.
Error detection using single parity check involves the following steps:-

At sender side,

• Total number of 1’s in the data unit to be transmitted is counted.

• The total number of 1’s in the data unit is made even in case of even parity.
• The total number of 1’s in the data unit is made odd in case of odd parity.
• This is done by adding an extra bit called as parity bit.

The newly formed code word (Original data + parity bit) is transmitted to the
receiver
Error detection using single parity check involves the following steps:-
At receiver side,
 Receiver receives the transmitted code word.
 The total number of 1’s in the received code word is counted.

Then, following cases are possible:-

 If total number of 1’s is even and even parity is used, then receiver assumes that
no error occurred.
 If total number of 1’s is even and odd parity is used, then receiver assumes that
error occurred.
 If total number of 1’s is odd and odd parity is used, then receiver assumes that
no error occurred.
 If total number of 1’s is odd and even parity is used, then receiver assumes that
error occurred
Parity Check Example:-
ASCII(AMERICAN STANDARD CODE INFORMATION
INTERCHANGE
Hamming Codes:
 If the original message is a binary string of length m, the Hamming encoded
message is string of length n (n>m).
 m digits represent the information part of the message and the remaining (n-
m) digits are for the detection and correction of errors in the message
received.
 In Hamming’s single error detecting code of length n, the first (n-1) digits
contain the information part of the message and the last digit is made either 0
or 1.
Even Parity Check:-
 The extra digit introduced in the last position of the encoded word of length
n, gives an even number of 1’s
Odd Parity Check
The extra digit introduced in the last position of the encoded word of length n,
gives an odd number of 1’s
Weight of the Binary string:-
 The number of 1’s in the binary string 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵2. It is denoted by |x|.
Hamming Distance:-
 If 𝑥 and 𝑦 represent the binary strings 𝑥1 𝑥2 ⋯ 𝑥𝑛 and 𝑦1 𝑦2 ⋯ 𝑦𝑛 , the
number of positions in the strings for which 𝑥𝑖 ≠ 𝑦𝑖 is called the
Hamming Distance between 𝑥 and 𝑦 and denoted by H(x,y)
 H(x,y) = weight of 𝑥 ⊕ 𝑦 = σ𝑛𝑖=1(𝑥𝑖 +2 𝑦𝑖 )
 For example, if 𝑖 = 11010 and 𝑦 = 10101, then 𝐻 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑥 ⊕ 𝑦 =
01111 = 4.
Example of Hamming Distance:-

The minimum distance of a code (a set of encoded words) is the minimum of

the Hamming distances between all pairs of encoded words in the code.
 For example: If x = 10110, y = 11110 and z = 10011, then H(x,y) = 1,
H(y,z)= 3, H(z,x) = 2 and so the minimum distance between these code
words is 1.
Theorem:1. A code(an(m,n)encoding function)can detect at the most k
errors if and only if the minimum distance between any two code words is at
least (k+1)
Example:
 Let x= 000 and y = 111 be the encoded words (two values of the encoding function)
 H(x,y) =|σ3𝑖=1
𝑖 = (𝑥 ⨁𝑦)| = 3
 In x = 000, one error occurs, the received word could be 100 or 001 or 010.
 In y = 111, one error occurs, the received word could be 011 or 101 or 110
 The two sets of received words {100 , 001 , 010}and {011 , 101 , 110}
are distinct
 Hence, if any of the above six words is received due to one error, it is easily
found out which encoded word has get altered and in which digit position the
error has occurred and hence, the error is corrected.
 If two error occur during transmission,
the word 000 would have been received as 110 or 011 or 101
the word 111 would have been received as 100 or 001 or 100
 If an error in single digit is corrected in any of received word 110 or 011 or
101, the corrected word would be 111, which is not the transmitted word.
 Similarly, If an error in single digit is corrected in any of received word 100 or
001 or 100, the corrected word would be 000, which is not the transmitted
word.
Theorem:2. A code can correct a set of at most k errors iff the
minimum distance between any two code words is at least
(2k+1) Example:
 Let x= 000 and y = 111 be the encoded words (two values of encoding
function)
 H(x,y) =|σ3𝑖 =1(𝑥𝑖 + 2 y𝑖 )| = 3
 In x = 000, during transmission zero or one error occurs, the received word
could be 000 or 100 or 001 or 010.
 In y = 111, during transmission zero one error occurs, the received
word could be 111 or 011 or 101 or 110
 The two sets of received words {000,100 , 001 , 010}and {111,011 , 101
, 110} are distinct
 So whatever words received, the single or no error can be easily detected and
corrected.
Basic Notions of Error Correction using
Matrices:- Generator Matrix:
 Let 𝑒: 𝐵𝑚 → 𝐵𝑛be the encoding function with m<n, m,n ∈ 𝑧+ and B =
{0,1}. Consider the m x n matrix G over B. This matrix G is called the
generator matrix for the code
 It is of the form [Im|A], Im is the m x m unit matrix and A is an m x (n-m)
matrix to be chosen suitably.
 If w is a message in Bm, then e(w) = wG and the code (the set of code words)
C = e( Bm )⊆ Bn, where w is a (1 x m) vector
 If w is a message in B2,
0 11 0
 Assume G = 1
0 1 01 1
• 𝐵2 = 0 0, 1 0, 0 1, 1 1 . Code words corresponding to above message are
1 0 1 1 0
𝑒 00 = 0 0 = 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 1
1 0 1 1 0
𝑒 10 = 1 0 = 1 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 1 1
1 0 1 1 0
𝑒 01 = 0 1 = 0 1 0 1 1
0 1 0 1 1
1 0 1 1 0
𝑒 11 = 1 1 = 1 1 1 0 1
0 1 0 1 1

Clearly 𝐶 = 𝑒 𝐵2 ⊆ 𝐵5 .
Problems:
1 0 0 1 1 0
1. Given the generator matrix 𝐺 = 0 1 0 0 1 1 corresponding to the
0 0 1 1 0 1
encoding function 𝑒: 𝐵3 → 𝐵6,find the corresponding parity check matrix
and use it to decode the following received words and hence, to find the
original message. Are all the words decoded uniquely?
(i) 110101 (ii) 001111 (iii) 110001 (iv) 111111
Solution: If we assume the G = [I3|A], I3 is the 3 x 3 unit matrix, then
1 0 0 1 0 0
H= [AT| I3] = 1 1 0 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 0 1
Compute the syndrome of each of the received word by using H∙ [𝑟] 𝑇
1
1
1 0 0 1 0 0 0
0
(i) H∙ [𝑟] 𝑇= H∙ [𝑒(𝑤)] 𝑇= 1 1 0 0 1 0 = 0 , Received word is the
1
0 1 1 0 0 1 0
0
transmitted word itself and the original message1is 110
0
0
1 0 0 1 0 0 0
1
(ii) H∙ [𝑟] 𝑇 = H∙ [𝑒(𝑤)] 𝑇= 1 1 0 0 1 0 = 1 , Received word is the fifth
1
0 1 1 0 0 1 0
1
1
column of H, the element in the fifth position of r is changed, Therefore, the
decoded word is 001101 and the original message is 001.
 1
1
1 0 0 1 0 0 1
0
(iii) H∙ [𝑟] 𝑇= H∙ [𝑒(𝑤)] 𝑇= 1 1 0 0 1 0 = 0 , Received word is the
0
0 1 1 0 0 1 0
0
fourth column of H, the element in the fourt1h position of r is changed,
Therefore, the decoded word is 110101 and the original message is 110
1
1
1 0 0 1 0 0 1
1
(iv) H∙ [𝑟] 𝑇 = H∙ [𝑒(𝑤)] 𝑇= 1 1 0 0 1 0 = 1 , Received word is not
1
0 1 1 0 0 1 1
1
identical with any column of H, the received1word cannot be decoded
uniquely.
2. Find the code words generated by the encoding function 𝑒: 𝐵 2 → 𝐵 5 with respect
to the parity check matrix
0 1 1
0 1 1
𝐻= 1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
Solution: Rewriting the given matrix as per our notation, we have
00 100
𝐻 = 11 ቮ0 1 0 =[𝐴 𝑇 |𝐼𝑛−𝑚 ], Here 𝑛 = 5 and 𝑚 = 2.
11 001
Hence the generator matrix 𝐺 is given by
 1 00 1 1
𝐺 = 𝐼𝑚 𝐴 =
0 10 1 1
Now 𝐵 2 = 0 0, 0 1, 1 0, 1 1 and 𝑒 𝑤 = 𝑤𝐺
1 0 0 1 1
𝑒 00 = 0 0 =0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 1
𝑒(0 1) = 0 1 =0 1 0 1 1
0 1 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 1
𝑒 10 = 1 0 =1 0 0 1 1
0 1 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 1
𝑒(1 1) = 1 1 =1 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 1
Hence, the code words generated by 𝐻 are 0 0 0 0 0,
0 1 0 1 1 , 1 0 0 1 1 , and 1 1 0 0 0.
3. Find the code words generated by the parity check matrix
1 1 1
1 0 1
𝐻 = 0 1 1 when the encoding function is 𝑒: 𝐵 3 → 𝐵 6 .
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
Solution: Taking
1 1 01 0 0
𝐻 = 1 0 1 0 1 0 = [𝐴 𝑇 |𝐼𝑛−𝑚 ], Here 𝑛 = 6 and 𝑚 = 3.
1 1 10 0 1
Hence the generator matrix 𝐺 is given by
 1 0 01 1 1
𝐺 = 𝐼𝑚 𝐴 = 0 1 0 1 0 1
0 0 10 1 1
Now 𝐵 3 = 0 0 0, 0 0 1, 0 1 0, 1 0 0, 0 1 1, 1 0 1, 1 1 0, 1 1 1 and
𝑒 𝑤 = 𝑤𝐺
𝑒 000 = 0 0 0 ⋅𝐺 = 0 0 0 0 0 0
𝑒 001 = 0 0 1 ⋅𝐺 = 0 0 1 0 1 1
𝑒 010 = 0 1 0 ⋅𝐺 = 0 1 0 1 0 1
𝑒 100 = 1 0 0 ⋅𝐺 = 1 0 0 1 1 1
𝑒 011 = 0 1 1 ⋅𝐺 = 0 1 1 1 1 0
𝑒 101 = 1 0 1 ⋅𝐺 = 1 0 1 1 0 0
 𝑒 110 = 1 1 0 ⋅𝐺 = 1 1 0 0 1 0
𝑒 111 = 1 1 1 ⋅𝐺 = 1 1 1 0 0 1
Thus, the code words generated by 𝐻 are
0 0 0 0 0 0, 0 0 1 0 1 1,0 1 0 1 0 1,
1 0 0 1 1 1, 0 1 1 1 1 0,1 0 1 1 0 0,
1 1 0 0 1 0 , and 1 1 1 0 0 1.
4. Decode each of the following received words corresponding to the encoding
function 𝑒: 𝐵3 → 𝐵6 , given by 𝑒(000) = 000 000, 𝑒(001) = 001 011,
𝑒(010) = 010 101, 𝑒(100) = 100 111, 𝑒(011) = 011 110, 𝑒(101) =
101 100, 𝑒(110) = 110 010 and 𝑒(111) = 111001, assuming that no error
or signal error has occurred:
0 1 1 1 1 0,1 1 0 1 1 0, 1 1 0 0 0 0,
1 1 1 0 0 0, 0 1 1 1 1 1.
We note that the minimum distance between the code words is 3
and hence, atmost 1 error can be corrected that might have
occurred in the received words.
i. The word 0 1 1 1 1 0 is identical with 𝑒(0 1 1). Hence, no error has occurred in this
word and the original message is 0 1 1.
ii. The word 1 1 0 1 1 1 differs from 𝑒(1 0 0) = 1 0 0 1 1 1 in the second position
only. Correcting this single error, the transmitted word is 1 0 0 1 1 1 and the original
message is 1 0 0.
iii. The word 1 1 0 0 0 0 differs from 𝑒(1 1 0) = 1 1 0 0 1 0 in the fifth position only.
Correcting this error, the transmitted word is 1 1 0 0 1 0 and the original message is
110.
iv. The word 1 1 1 0 0 0 differs from 𝑒(1 1 1) = 1 1 1 0 0 1 in the sixth position only.
Correcting this error, the transmitted word is 1 1 1 0 0 1 and the original message is
111.
v. The word 0 1 1 1 1 1 differs from 𝑒(0 1 1) = 0 1 1 1 1 0 in the sixth position only.
Correcting this error, the transmitted word is 0 1 1 1 1 0 and the original message is
011.