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 Right to Health Care

Primary Health Care

Future of Primary Health Care

Settings for Health Care Delivery

Levels of Care

Challenges to the Health Care System

Nursing's Future in the Emerging Health Care System

Key Concepts

Critical Thinking Exercises

Review Questions

Recommended Websites

References

3 The Development of Nursing in Canada

Why Nursing History Matters

Care of Strangers: the Early History of Nursing

Globalization and the Emergence of Modern Nursing

Nursing Education in Canada

Health Care and Educational Reform

Influence of Periods of Social Upheaval on Nursing

Conclusion

Key Concepts

Critical Thinking Exercises

Review Questions

Recommended Websites

8
 References

4 Community Health Nursing Practice

Promoting the Health of Populations and Community Groups

Community Health Nursing Practice

The Changing Focus of Community Health Nursing Practice

Community Assessment

Promoting Clients' Health

Key Concepts

Critical Thinking Exercises

Review Questions

Recommended Websites

References

Unit II Foundations of Nursing Practice

5 Theoretical Foundations of Nursing Practice

Early Nursing Practice and the Emergence of Theory

Nursing Process

Conceptual Frameworks

Metaparadigm Concepts

Philosophy of Nursing Science

Ways of Knowing in Nursing Practice

Paradigm Debates Within Nursing

Nursing Diagnosis

9
 Reflections on Conceptualizing Nursing

Major Theoretical Models

Theorizing in the Future

Key Concepts

Critical Thinking Exercises

Review Questions

References

6 Evidence-Informed Practice
Why Evidence?

Development of Nursing Knowledge

Researching the Evidence

Integrate the Evidence

Evaluate the Practice Design or Change

Support for Evidence-Informed Practice

The Development of Research in Nursing

The History of Nursing Research in Canada

Nursing Research

Research Designs

Ethical Issues in Research

Applying Research Findings in Nursing Practice

Key Concepts

Critical Thinking Exercises

Review Questions

Recommended Websites

10
 References

7 Nursing Values and Ethics

Values

Ethics

Ethical Analysis and Nursing

Ethical Issues in Nursing Practice

Key Concepts

Critical Thinking Exercises

Review Questions

Recommended Websites

References

8 Legal Implications in Nursing Practice

Legal Limits of Nursing

Legal Liability Issues in Nursing Practice

Legal Issues in Nursing Practice

Risk Management

Key Concepts

Critical Thinking Exercises

Review Questions

Recommended Websites

References

9 Global Health
Global Health

11
 Intersectionality

Cultural Diversity

Understanding Cultural Concepts

Historical Development of the Concept of Culture

Cultural Assessment

Global Health Nursing

Key Concepts

Critical Thinking Exercises

Review Questions

Recommended Websites

References

10 Indigenous Health
Indigenous Diversity—the Canadian Perspective

Indigenous History in Canada

Cultural Orientations

Nursing Considerations and Indigenous Health

Illness Experiences—Chronic Diseases

Indigenous Health—the Global Perspective

Key Concepts

Critical Thinking Exercises

Review Questions

Recommended Websites

References

12
11 Nursing Leadership, Management, and Collaborative Practice
Leadership Theories

Management and Leadership Roles for Nurses

Quality Care and Patient Safety

Leadership Skills for Nursing Students

Key Concepts

Critical Thinking Exercises

Review Questions

Recommended Websites

References

Unit III Approaches to Nursing Care

12 Critical Thinking in Nursing Practice

Critical Thinking Defined

A Critical Thinking Model for Clinical Decision Making

Levels of Critical Thinking in Nursing

Components of Critical Thinking in Nursing

Critical Thinking Competencies

Developing Critical Thinking Skills

Critical Thinking Synthesis

Key Concepts

Critical Thinking Exercises

Review Questions

Recommended Websites

13
 References

13 Nursing Assessment, Diagnosis, and Planning

Critical Thinking Approach to Assessment

Assessment

Nursing Diagnosis

Critical Thinking and Nursing Diagnostic Process

Concept Mapping for Nursing Diagnoses

Sources of Diagnostic Errors

Nursing Diagnoses: Application to Care Planning

Planning

Establishing Priorities

Critical Thinking in Establishing Goals and Expected Outcomes

Written Plans of Care

Consulting Other Health Care Providers

Conclusion

Using the Nursing Process to Answer Multiple-Choice and Multiple-

Response Exam Questions

Key Concepts

Review Questions

Recommended Websites

References

14 Implementing and Evaluating Nursing Care

Introduction

Implementation

14
 Types of Nursing Interventions

Selection of Interventions

Critical Thinking in Implementation

Standard Nursing Interventions

Implementation Process

Direct Care

Indirect Care

Achieving Client-Centred Goals

Evaluation

Critical Thinking and Evaluation

Evaluation Process

Conclusion

Using the Nursing Process as a Guide for Exam Preparation for Test-
Taking Strategies

The Nursing Process and Studying Disease Management

Key Concepts

Critical Thinking Exercises

Review Questions

Recommended Websites

References

15 Documenting and Reporting

Purposes of Medical Records

The Shift to Electronic Documentation

Interprofessional Communication Within the Medical Record

15
 Confidentiality

Interprofessional Communication Within the Health Care Team

Guidelines for Quality Documentation and Reporting

Methods of Documentation

Common Record-Keeping Forms

Acuity Rating Systems

Documentation in the Home Health Care Setting

Documentation in the Long-Term Health Care Setting

Documenting Communication With Providers and Unique Events

Information Management in Health Care

Key Concepts

Critical Thinking Exercises

Review Questions

Recommended Websites

References

16 Nursing Informatics and Canadian Nursing Practice

Nursing Informatics and the Canadian Health Care System

Standards and Clinical Interoperability

Canadian Privacy Legislation

Informatics Competencies as a Strategic Direction

Clinician Engagement and Informatics Communities

Critical Thinking Exercises

Review Questions

Recommended Websites

16
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 References

Unit IV Working With Patients and Families

17 Communication and Relational Practice

Communication and Interpersonal Relationships

Developing Communication Skills

Levels of Communication

Basic Elements of the Communication Process

Forms of Communication

Professional Nursing Relationships

Elements of Professional Communication

Communication Within The Nursing Process

Key Concepts

Critical Thinking Exercises

Review Questions

Recommended Websites

References

18 Patient-Centred Care
Jane Black's Story

Knowing

Thinking

Nursing Process

Clinical Judgement Model

17
 Interacting

Key Concepts

Critical Thinking Exercises

Review Questions

Recommended Websites

References

19 Family Nursing
What Is a Family?

Current Trends in the Canadian Family

The Family and Health

Family Nursing Care

Assessing the Challenges, Strengths, and Needs of the Family: The

Calgary Family Assessment Model

Family Intervention: The Calgary Family Intervention Model

Interviewing the Family

Key Concepts

Critical Thinking Exercises

Review Questions

Recommended Websites

References

20 Patient Education
Goals of Patient Education

Teaching and Learning

Domains of Learning

18
 Basic Learning Principles

Integrating the Nursing and Teaching Processes

Key Concepts

Critical Thinking Exercises

Review Questons

Recommended Websites

References

Unit V Caring Throughout the Lifespan

21 Developmental Theories
Growth and Development

Traditions of Developmental Theories

Organicism

Psychoanalytic and Psychosocial Tradition

Mechanistic Tradition

Contextualism

Dialecticism

Developmental Theories and Nursing

Key Concepts

Critical Thinking Exercises

Review Questions

Recommended Websites

References

19
22 Conception Through Adolescence
Selecting a Developmental Framework for Nursing

Conception

Transition From Intrauterine to Extrauterine Life

Newborn

Infant

Toddler

Preschooler

School-Age Children and Adolescents

School-Age Child

Adolescence

Key Concepts

Critical Thinking Exercises

Review Questions

Recommended Websites

References

23 Young to Middle Adulthood

Young Adulthood

Middle Adulthood

Key Concepts

Critical Thinking Exercises

Review Questions

Recommended Websites

References

20
24 Older Persons
Variability Among Older Persons

Myths and SterEotypes

Nurses' Attitudes Toward Older Persons

Aging Well and Quality of Life

Community-Based and Institutional Health Care Services

Assessing the Needs of Older Persons

Addressing the Health Concerns of Older Persons

Older Persons and the Acute Care Setting

Older Persons and Restorative Care

Older Persons and Palliative Care

Key Concepts

Critical Thinking Exercises

Review Questions

Recommended Websites

References

25 The Experience of Loss, Death, and Grief

Scientific Knowledge Base

Nursing Knowledge Base

Critical Thinking

The Nursing Process And Grief

Key Concepts

Critical Thinking Exercises

Review Questions

21
Exploring the Variety of Random
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is a mile or more above sea level, and if we should fly too high in
order to avoid the heat gusts, we may have trouble with our engines
in the rarefied air. Below us are dense forests and rocky hillsides,
and natural landing places hardly exist. As we go down the eastern
shore of Lake Victoria we see new sights. These are the water-
spouts, great spiral columns whirled up from the lake into the air by
the eddying winds.

Swamps, huge anthills, scrub bush, outcroppings of rock; and stretches of tall,
rank elephant grass combine to make natural landing places exceedingly rare on
the second stage of the airplane journey, which is most difficult and dangerous.
 The flight from Cairo to the Cape takes the aviator over clusters of native huts,
dwarfed to the size of anthills, through which run the signs of civilization—ribbons
of well-constructed road.
 Fuad I, who became the first king when Egypt was declared a sovereign nation,
came of the same family as the khedives of the last hundred years. He gave Egypt
its flag, three white crescents and stars on a red field.

Our route from Kisumu, on Lake Victoria, is to the southwest, and

we land at Mwanza, on the south shore. This is one of the outposts
of the white man’s civilization in “darkest Africa,” From Mwanza we
continue southwest across Tanganyika Territory to Abercorn at the
lower end of Lake Tanganyika, and then fly on to Broken Hill in
northern Rhodesia, where once more we see a railroad.
Preparing landing places in this part of Africa was a big job in
itself. Not only were thousands of trees cut down to make clear
spaces, but they were dug up by the roots to prevent them from
sprouting again. Many of the native chieftains take great interest in
keeping clear these airdromes, which would soon be gobbled up by
the jungles if left to themselves. They have also broken up and
carried away from these spaces the giant ant hills that cover the land
of Central Africa like freckles on a boy’s face. These hills, which are
often twenty-five or thirty feet high, and forty or fifty feet thick, are the
home of the white ant. To make one airdrome in northern Rhodesia a
force of seven hundred natives worked five months taking out
twenty-five thousand tons of the heavy, rock-like clay with which the
ants, grain by grain, had built their African apartment houses. Were
our airplane to strike an ant hill in landing, it would surely be
wrecked.
From northern Rhodesia down into Cape Colony our flight is not
quite so difficult. The country is lower, and there are more open
spaces. At Livingstone we begin the third stage of the journey, and
there cross the Zambesi, looking down upon its wonderful falls,
larger than Niagara. From Bulawayo, the next important stop, we
bear to the east as we go south, passing over the Transvaal, with its
diamonds and gold mines. We stop at Johannesburg and then fly to
the westward on down to Bloemfontein. Our last flight takes us to
Table Mountain, with Cape Town and the Atlantic Ocean at its foot.
We are at the end of the continent, and have completed our fifty-two
hundred miles through the air.
Those who know best the conditions in Africa believe that the
establishment of a regular air service along the Cape-to-Cairo route
will be difficult. During the rainy season dense fogs are common,
making flying uncertain and dangerous, while at times the smoke
from forest fires causes great trouble. On account of the rapid
evaporation, the storage of gasoline in the tropical belt is extremely
difficult. Sudden changes in atmospheric conditions form another
serious danger; but with the development of wireless stations along
the route, and the use of the radio telephone, aviators can be
warned while in flight of the weather conditions ahead and shape
their courses accordingly.
Meantime, that all-British line that Cecil Rhodes planned comes
nearer to completion each year.
In thinking of the famous Cape-to-Cairo route most people
consider it as a continuous railway trip, or as an iron track spanning
Africa from south to north. This it will perhaps never be. We shall go
by steam from Cairo to the Cape of Good Hope, but almost one third
of the way will be over navigable rivers and lakes. This was
Rhodes’s idea, and it is also that of every practical engineer who has
examined the country and its traffic possibilities.
The journey from Cairo to the Cape is now made by rail, boat, and
ground transport. These overland gaps are the ones which will one
day be filled with railways, but the water sections will remain as a
part of the completed route.
The railroad from Cairo has been extended two hundred and forty
miles south from Khartum to Sennar, on the Blue Nile, where a great
new dam, which is to furnish more water for irrigating Egypt and the
Sudan, is now under construction. The British have also built a
railway from Sennar west to El Obeid, in Khordofan. This line
crosses the Blue Nile at Kosti. From Sennar, the fourteen hundred
miles to Lake Albert is covered by Nile steamers and by ground
transport, which may be automobile, horseback, or bullock wagon.
From the southern shore of Lake Albert is another gap which must
be covered with ground transport to gain the shores of Lake Victoria,
and after Victoria is crossed by steamer, Lake Tanganyika must be
reached overland. From Lake Tanganyika to Broken Hill is a gap of
four hundred and fifty miles which will soon be bridged by railroad
construction. From Broken Hill we have the railway to Cape Town. A
railroad extends northward from Broken Hill to Bukama in the Congo
copper-mining district of Katanga, but it does not fit into the scheme
of an all-British steam route to Cairo.
 Another important railway development, also the work of the
British, resulted from the World War. The Turks had organized an
army to capture control of the Suez Canal, and to meet this attack
the British pushed a great expeditionary force into Palestine. They
did this by building a swinging railroad bridge across the canal at
Kantara and laying a railroad two hundred and fifty-six miles through
the Sinai and Palestine deserts to Haifa. During these operations,
Kantara, normally a small garrisoned railroad town, mostly sand and
cinders, became the greatest military base in all history. Besides the
soldiers, brought from all corners of the British Empire, the British
organized the Egyptian Labour Corps, for which more than twelve
hundred thousand Egyptian natives were recruited. This vast army of
workers built the railway, and kept the stream of men and supplies
moving on to meet the attack of the Turks. The Egyptians did not like
this service much better than the Children of Israel liked toiling
without wages for the Pharaohs nearly four thousand years ago.
These operations resulted in the defeat of the Turks and saved the
canal. Moreover, they linked Africa and Asia by rail and one may now
go on comfortable cars all the way from Cairo to Constantinople, and
on to Paris. In reality, three continents have been joined together by
the Kantara bridge and the Palestine Military Railway. This new link
in the chain of the world’s railway systems was part of the Kaiser’s
dream of empire. But he had no part in making it come true, and it
now adds to the glory and strength of the very nations he hoped to
conquer.
 The mails are carefully guarded on all trains, a soldier with rifle and sword
always being present when the sacks are loaded or unloaded. Armed guards also
travel with the mail on the Nile steamers.
 Far up in the Sudan American engines are found pulling British trains, while the
famous bridge at Atbara, which Kitchener said he must have in less time than the
English could manufacture it, was made in the United States.

While the British have established first-class railroad service from Cairo and
lower Egypt up into the Sudan, there also remain in this region some of the light
military railways built during the wars with the Mahdi.
 CHAPTER XX
KHARTUM

After the intensely hot and dust-filled six-hundred-mile journey

across the desert from Wady Halfa it is good to be here amid the
palm gardens and the lime trees of Khartum. I am in the flourishing
capital of the Sudan, once, and not so long ago at that, the centre of
an exceedingly prosperous slave trade and later the scene of the
massacre of General Gordon and of Kitchener’s fierce fights with the
Mohammedan fanatics.
Khartum lies at the junction of two of the chief rivers of North
Africa, giving it navigable highways to Abyssinia and to the rich lands
along the watershed of the Belgian Congo. It has railroads
connecting it with the Mediterranean, and with the exception of one
stretch of less than six hundred miles, where the cataracts are, it has
the main stream of the Nile to give it cheap freight rates to Europe. It
has opened a railroad to Suakim, on the Red Sea, and in time it will
undoubtedly be one of the great stations on the principal route by
steamer and rail from Cairo to the Cape.
I called upon the Governor of Khartum this afternoon and asked
him to tell me the story of the city. Said he: “The buildings which you
see here are all new, but the town is older than some of the
mushroom cities of the United States. It was born before Chicago,
being founded by Mehemet Ali a century ago. It grew remarkably
fast, so that at ten years of age it was made the seat of the
government of the Sudan and became an important commercial
centre. It was here that Gordon made his effort to break up the slave
trade and here that he was killed. He was butchered on the steps of
a building on the site of the present Governor-General’s palace.
Then the Mahdist leader declared that Khartum should be wiped out.
He destroyed all the houses and made the inhabitants come to his
new capital, Omdurman, which he had laid out on the other side of
the White Nile about five miles to the south. When the people left
they tore off the roofs and pulled out the doors of their houses and
carried them along to use in their new houses at Omdurman.
“After that, for years, and until Kitchener came, Khartum was
nothing but a brick pile and a dust heap. Omdurman had swallowed
up not only its whole population, but that of a great part of the
Sudan; for the Khalifa forced the tribes to come there to live, in order
that he might have their men ready for his army in times of war. The
result was that Omdurman had more than a half million inhabitants
while Khartum had none.
“Then we had the war with the Khalifa, whom we finally
conquered,” the Governor continued. “After we had reduced the
greater part of Omdurman to ruins, we began planning the building
of a great city. The idea at first was to force the people to move from
Omdurman to Khartum, but it was finally decided that it would be far
better to have a native city there, and to make this place the
government and foreign centre, with a manufacturing and
commercial town at Halfaya, or Khartum, North, on the northern
bank of the Blue Nile.
“The Khartum of to-day was laid out after somewhat the same plan
as your capital at Washington; at least the reasons that determined
the plans were the same. As I recall it, Washington was plotted at
about the time of the French Revolution by a French engineer. Major
L’Enfant laid out the city so that it could be easily defended in case of
a rebellion and at the same time be beautiful. For that reason the
streets were made to cut one another at right angles with avenues
running diagonally through them, forming squares and circles, where
one cannon could command many streets. Lord Kitchener had the
same idea as to Khartum. He directed his architects to make the
streets wide, with several large squares, and to have the whole so
arranged that guns placed at the chief crossings could command the
whole city. The result is Khartum as you now see it.
“The town is laid out in three great sections, and all building plans
must be submitted to the government architects before permits of
construction can be issued. The section along the Nile is devoted to
the government buildings and the residences of the officials and
others who can afford good houses. Back of that there are streets
where less pretentious houses may be built, while farther back still
and more to the south is a third section of houses for natives. The
town is so planned that it can grow along these lines, and we believe
it will some day be one of the largest and most beautiful of the cities
of interior Africa.”
I have now been in Khartum over a week and find it most
interesting. In coming to it, I rode for hours and hours through the
sands and rocks of Nubia, and it was not until I was within a few
miles of Halfaya that I saw signs of vegetation. The train then
entered a region of thorn bushes ten or fifteen feet high; farther on
patches of grass bleached by the sun were to be seen, and closer
still other evidences of cultivation. The Arabs were digging out the
thorn bushes on the edge of the desert and stacking them up in piles
for fuel. There were a few animals grazing on the scanty grass.
Out of such dull and cheerless desert surroundings rises a city of
green. All along the river, for a distance of more than two miles, runs
a wide avenue shaded by trees and backed by buildings and private
houses in beautiful gardens. From one end of it to the other this
avenue is a succession of parks. It begins with the botanical and
zoölogical gardens, where all the trees of the tropical and sub-
tropical regions grow luxuriantly and where one may see the soap
tree, the monkey-bread tree, and other curious examples of
Sudanese flora. There are several lions and tigers in the garden, and
there is also a mighty giraffe which I photographed this afternoon as
he was taking a bite out of a branch at the height of a two-story
house.
Next to the zoölogical garden is the Grand Hotel, a long,
bungalow-shaped structure shaded by date palms, while beyond are
the two-story homes of many officials, all well shaded. The first
public building on this avenue is the post and telegraph office.
Beyond it are the offices of the Military Bureaus with public gardens
behind them. Directly on the river and in front of a wonderful garden
is the great white palace in which the Governor-General of the
Sudan lives and has his offices. Farther along the avenue are the
Sudan Club and the hospital. Away at the south rise the large
buildings of the Gordon Memorial College, with the British barracks
at the end of the street. On the edge of the river are the inevitable
sakiehs raising the water to the tune of their monotonous creakings.
They start at seven o’clock every morning. Their wheels are never
greased and as they move they screech and groan and sigh. There
is one in front of the Grand Hotel which serves as my alarm clock, for
sleep is murdered at the moment it begins.
In Khedive Avenue, which runs parallel with the embankment, is a
statue by E. Onslow Ford, of General Gordon on an Indian camel.
So far as I know this is the world’s only camelestrian statue. It is a
work of fine art and full of the spirit of the famous hero it represents.
The business parts of Khartum are on the streets back from the
river. There is one great square devoted to the markets. This must
cover ten or more acres, and the Abbas Square, a little farther west,
in which the mosque stands, is fully twice as large. The business
section has two banks and a large number of stores managed chiefly
by Greeks. There are more Greeks here than any other foreigners,
and next to them come the Italians, some of whom have important
establishments. One of the biggest of all is the house of Angelo
Capato, a man who might be called the Marshall Field of the Sudan,
for he has a large business here, with branches all over the country
and desert stores far up the Nile. The stores have covered porches
in front of them or they face arcades which keep off the sun.
The mosque of Khartum is one of the most beautiful buildings in
Africa. It is a great two-story structure of white stone with minarets
rising high above it. The galleries of the minarets have a lacework of
stone around them and the towers are covered with Arabic carvings.
The building is named after Khedive Abbas Hilmi who, I am told,
furnished much of the money for its erection.
Khartum has also a big Coptic church as well as one built by the
Church of England and the schools and chapels of the United
Presbyterian Mission of our country. So, you see, notwithstanding its
position on this far-away part of the globe, it has abundant religious
facilities.
 I have been interested in watching the women doing construction
work here in Khartum. Wherever new houses and business blocks
are going up, the masons and mechanics have their women helpers.
The labourers come from all parts of the Sudan, so that the women
of a half-dozen tribes may be working on the same building. The
wages are far beyond those of the past, and, although they are still
but a few cents a day, here in Central Africa they mean riches.
These women labourers are strapping black girls, straight and
plump, and so lightly dressed that one can see all the outlines of
their forms. Some have but a thin sheet of blue cotton wrapped
loosely around the shoulders with another wound about the waist so
that it falls to the feet. The upper garment is off half the time, leaving
the girl bare to the waist. Her plump bust shows out in the bright sun
as she raises her arms high to steady the load on her head. These
African natives, both men and women, pull out all the hair on their
bodies, going over them once a month for this purpose. This custom
is common in many parts of the world. It is done among some of the
Indians of the Amazon, among the Jewesses of Tunis, who are
shaved from head to foot just before marriage, and among the Moros
of our Philippine Islands, who carry along little tweezers to jerk out
the hairs.
The wages these women receive are pitifully low. Ten or fifteen
cents a day is big money for a woman, while even a man can be
hired for twenty cents or less. For such sums the women unload the
stone boats on the Nile, wading out into the river and coming back
up the banks with two or three great rocks piled high on their heads.
They carry sand in baskets, and spread it over the stones on the
highways, and sit down on the roadsides and break stones for
macadamizing. They carry the mortar up the scaffolding to the
masons, and quite an army of them is employed in bringing water in
five-gallon kerosene oil cans from the Nile. Some of the streets are
sprinkled with this water, and many of the gardens of Khartum are
kept moist in this way. At the Grand Hotel we have a half-dozen
women who carry water all day long to irrigate the garden. Some of
the girls are tall. To-day I had a photograph taken of myself standing
beside one who overtopped me some inches. She objected to my
having her picture, and as she was a husky young negress it was for
a time undecided whether I should succeed.
I have asked some questions here as to labour. The builders tell
me it is almost impossible to get what they want, and that the more
wages they pay the greater the danger of a labour famine. The
trouble is that the natives will not work if they have money, and when
wages are high they work so much the less. All they need is their
food, and a family can live on five cents and less per day. The food
consists chiefly of boiled dura or sorghum meal and the drink is a
native beer which costs almost nothing. A man can get a suit of
clothes for a dollar, while a woman can be outfitted for less. When
food is cheap, the prices of labour rise, and when it is dear, they fall.
The native reasons that he ought to be paid more for his work when
the food prices are low, for in such a case he can easily get food
ahead, and why should he work at the ordinary wage when he has
all he wants? When the food goes up the labourers need the work to
pay for it and their competition brings wages down.
 The British believe Khartum will some day be one of the largest and most
beautiful cities of Africa. They have made along the river front a boulevard and
park, in which are the government offices and the residences of officials and
others.
 From Khartum, where the Blue and the White Nile come together, navigable
waterways extend into Abyssinia and the rich lands of the watershed of the
Belgian Congo, while to the north flows the main stream of the Nile.

Founded only one hundred years ago, Khartum rapidly became a slave-trade
centre but was utterly wiped out by the Mahdists who killed Gordon. Not until
Kitchener came was the city built anew on modern plans.
 CHAPTER XXI
EMPIRE BUILDING IN THE SUDAN

I am just back from the palace at Khartum where I have had a long
talk with Sir Francis Reginald Wingate, the Sirdar of the Egyptian
army and the Governor-General of the Sudan. He is the ruler of a
land one fourth as large as all Europe and four times the size of any
country in it excepting Russia. He has great power and can do
almost anything he likes with this country and people. One of the
chief officers in the wars with the Mahdi and the Khalifa, he won
decoration after decoration for his bravery and military services, and
was in command of the operations which finally resulted in the death
of the Khalifa. It was in that year that he became Sirdar, and since
then he has been bringing order out of the chaos of this part of
Africa. He has pacified the warring tribes, has turned their lances
and guns into ploughshares and shepherds’ crooks, and is now
creating civilized conditions where before have been barbarism,
injustice, slavery, and war. An explorer of note before he became
Governor-General, he has his prospectors travelling through every
part of this vast region, and is laying out and starting the railroad,
canal, irrigation, and other projects which will open it up to trade and
progressive development.
The Sirdar is now in his prime. He has seen perhaps fifty years of
hard-working life, but he does not look over forty-five, and were it not
that his hair and moustache are mixed with silver, one would think
him much younger. His face is free from wrinkles and his complexion
rosy, his eyes are full of light, and his whole appearance indicates
health and strength. A great part of his career has been spent in the
saddle. He has not only travelled over most of Egypt and the Sudan,
but has gone on diplomatic missions to Abyssinia. He spends a
portion of every year travelling by boat or on camels through his far-
away provinces, and has just recently returned from a long trip to
Kordofan. He talks freely about his country, which he knows so well
that what he says is of special interest.
During my conversations with His Excellency I asked him about
the possibilities of the Sudan, reminding him that most people looked
upon it as nothing more than a vast desert. He replied:[1]
“That idea comes largely from the desolate sands through which
the railroad takes travellers on their way to Khartum. They have also
read of the immense swamps of the Upper Nile, and, putting the two
together, they look upon the country as only swamp and desert. The
truth is the Sudan is an undeveloped empire so far as its natural
resources are concerned. It is a land of many climates and of all
sorts of soils. The desert stops not far from Khartum, beyond which
is a region where the rainfall is sufficient for regular crops. Still
farther south the country has more rain than is needed. In the west
are great areas fitted for stock raising.
“Take, for instance, the country along the Abyssinian border and
that which lies between the White and Blue Niles. Those regions
have been built up in the same manner as Egypt, and they contain
all the rich fertilizing materials which have made the Lower Nile
valley one of the great grain lands of the world. The only difference is
that the Egyptian soil, by the cultivation and the watering of
thousands of years, has been leached of its best fertilizing elements;
while the soil of the Gezirah, as the region I have referred to is
called, has hardly been touched. Indeed, the plain between the
White and Blue Niles is so rich that, if water is put upon it, it will
produce four or five crops every year, and that for many years in
succession. We have millions of acres of such soil awaiting only the
hand of man to bring them into the world’s markets as live
commercial factors.”
“What kind of crops can be raised in that country, your
Excellency?” I asked.
“Almost anything that is now produced in Egypt,” was the reply.
“The Gezirah is already growing a great deal of dura, or millet. It
produces an excellent wheat and also maize. In fact, that plain is
now the chief granary of this part of the world. It raises so much that,
when the season is good, the crops are more than the people
consume, so the grain is stored away in great pits. I have seen dura
pits forty feet deep and about fifty feet in diameter. They are to be
found about almost every village. At ordinary times they are kept full
of grain for fear of a famine, but while the Mahdi reigned, his soldiers
used to rob them. The result was that whole communities were
wiped out by starvation.”
“But if the bad years eat up the good ones, where is the Sudan to
get its grain for export?” I inquired.
“That will come by irrigation and better transportation. Until the
Upper Nile irrigation projects can be put through the people must
rely, as they do now, upon the rainfall, which is uncertain. When
those plans have been carried out the country can be irrigated by the
two Niles without diminishing the supply of water required for Egypt.
Then the land will have water all the year round. Improved methods
of cultivation will enormously increase the crops. At present the
native merely walks over the ground after a rain and stirs it up with a
stick while his wife or children follow behind dropping the seeds and
covering them with their feet. Nothing more is done until two months
later, when the crop is ready for reaping.”
“How about cotton?”
“I see no reason why the Sudan should not eventually be one of
the big cotton countries of the globe. We are experimenting with it in
all the provinces and are meeting with success. The land between
the White and Blue Niles might be made one great cotton plantation,
and the quality of the crop would be excellent. We are now raising
fine cotton on the Red Sea near Suakim, and the crop is a profitable
one. Plantations are also being set out by foreigners near Khartum.
The cotton raised is fully equal to the best Egyptian.”
“But how about your labour, your Excellency; have you the
workmen necessary to cultivate such crops?”
“That is a problem which only the future can solve,” replied the
Sirdar. “We have all kinds of natives here, representing the different
stages of savagery and semi-civilization. While there are a great
many tribes whose people can be taught to work, others will need
many years of training before they can be made into such farmers as
we have in Egypt and India. We have some who will work only long
enough to get food and supplies for their immediate needs and who,
when a little ahead, will spend their time in dancing and drinking the
native beer until they become poor again. We have also a large
admixture of Arabs and other races who are of a far higher character
and of whom we expect much.”