Hydraulics 2023

CHAPTER-5

DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS, SIMILITUDE AND HYDRAULIC MODEL

5.1: DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

Introduction

Dear students in this section our aim is to understand dimensional analysis but first you are
expected to know the principles that dimensional analysis work. The working principle of
dimensional analysis is dimensional homogeneity. Therefore, we first define dimensional
homogeneity to reinforce your understanding. And then we see about dimensional analysis.

Definition:

What are dimensions?

Physical quantities can be

 Fundamental quantities
 Mass
 Length
 Time
 Temperature (Only for compressible fluids)

 Derived quantities this are quantities which are expressed in terms of fundamental
quantities.
The dimension of any physical quantities can be expressed as,

 Fundamental dimension
 Mass [M]
 Length [L] In M-L-T system
 Time [T]
 Temperature [𝜃] (Only for compressible fluids)

OR

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 Force [F]
 Length [L] In F-L-T system
 Time [T]
 Temperature [𝜃] (Only for compressible fluids)

The two systems are related by the Newton’s Second Law of Motion:

𝐹 = 𝑚. 𝑎

Dimensionally,

𝐿
[𝐹] = [𝑀] ∗ [ ]
𝑇2

𝐹𝑇 2
[𝑀] = [ ]
𝐿

 Derived dimensions these are dimensions which are expressed in terms of Fundamental
dimension. For example, velocity is defined as the distance moved per unit time and
therefore its dimensions can be derived as
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝐿
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = =[ ]
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑇

Likewise, the dimensions of other physical quantities may be obtained. Table 5.1 gives
the dimensions of various physical quantities used in mechanics in both systems.

Table 5.1: Dimensions of various physical quantities

S.No. Quantity Symbol Dimensions

M-L-T F-L-T
1 Length L L L
2 Time T T T
3 Mass m M M
4 Force F M L T -2 F
-1
5 Velocity V LT L T -1
-2
6 Acceleration a LT L T -2
7 Area A L2 L2
3 -1
8 Discharge Q L T L T -1
3
-1 -2
9 Pressure P ML T FL-2

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10 Power P ML2T-3 FLT-1

11 Density  M L-3 FT2L4
12 Unit gravity γ ML-2 T -2 FL3
force
13 Dynamic  M L-1T-1 FTL2
viscosity
14 Kinematic  L2 T-1 L2 T-1
viscosity
15 Surface  MT-2 FL-1
Tension
16 Bulk K ML-1 T-2 FL-2
modulus of
elasticity

Activity 5.1

State and define the two types of dimensions

5.2 Dimensional homogeneity

A physical equation is said to be dimensionally homogeneous if the quantities on both sides of

the equation have identical dimension.

A dimensionally homogeneous equation is applicable to all system of units. On the other hand, a
dimensionally non homogeneous equation is applicable only to the system of units for which it
had derived. Let us consider the following two equations:

A) 𝑝 = 𝛾ℎ
1 2⁄ 1⁄
B) 𝑣 = 𝑁 𝑅 3𝑆 2

Eq. (A) is dimensionally homogeneous. This can be proved by substituting the dimensions of
each term.

𝐹 𝐹 𝐹
[ 2 ] = [ 3 ] . [𝐿] = [ 2 ]
𝐿 𝐿 𝐿
On the other hand, Eq. (B) is dimensionally non-homogeneous substitute the dimensions Left
handside
𝐿
𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 = [ ]
𝑇

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2
𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 = [𝐿3 ] . [1]

Note. The quantities which are dimensionless are represented by [1].

As the dimensions of the two sides are not the same, the equation is non-homogeneous. Eq. (B)
is only applicable to SI-system. It cannot be used in FPS. In fact, the manning formula in FPS
system is given by

1.486 2⁄ 1⁄
𝑉= . 𝑅 3. 𝑆 2
𝑁

Activity 5.2

What is the criterion for a given physical equation to be dimensionally homogeneous?

Application of the principle of dimensional homogeneity to determine the dimensions of a

physical quantity

(1) To determine the dimensions of a physical quantity.

The dimensions of a physical quantity can be determined using the principle of dimensional
homogeneity. Let us now determine the dimensions of the kinetic energy (E) from the equation:
1
𝐸 = . 𝑚𝑣 2
2
Substitute the dimension of the right-hand side,
𝐹. 𝑇 2 𝐿2
[𝐸] = [ ] . [ 2]
𝐿 𝑇
[𝐸] = [𝐹𝐿]

Example 5.1 Find the dimension of the following quantities in both M-L-T and F-L-T system:

(a) Discharge
(b) Momentum
(c) Power
(d) Torque
Solution
Volume L3
(a) discharge = =
Time T
Since forces are not involved, the discharge is a kinematic quantity. Its dimensions in both the
systems are the same.

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(𝑏) 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 ∗ 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦

𝐿 𝑀𝐿
[𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚] = [𝑀] ∗ [ ] = [ ] - (M-L-T SYSTEM)
𝑇 𝑇
Substituting the dimensions of M in terms of F
𝐹𝑇 2 𝐿
[𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚] = [ ] ∗ [𝑇 ] = [𝐹𝑇] - (F-L-T SYSTEM)
𝐿

Similarly solve for (c) & (d)

(2) To convert units from one system to another system.

The principle of dimensional homogeneity can be used to convert units from one system to the
other system. For example, let us convert the pressure from 𝐾𝑁/𝑚2 to 𝐼𝑏/𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ2 .we know
1 𝐼𝑏 = 453.6𝑔𝑚
Or
1𝐾𝑔 = 2.204𝐼𝑏
And
1 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ = 2.45𝑐𝑚 = 0.0254𝑚
Also
1𝐾𝑔 = 9.81𝑁
Or
1𝑁 = 0.102𝑘𝑔 = 0.2247𝐼𝑏
𝐾𝑁⁄𝑚2 𝐾𝑁 (𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ)2
Conversion factor = = ∗
𝐼𝑏⁄𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ2 𝐼𝑏 (𝑚)2
= 0.2247 ∗ 103 ∗ (0.0254)2 = 0.145

Therefore, the pressure in 𝐾𝑁/𝑚2 can be converted into 𝐼𝑏/𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ2 by multiplying it with 0.145. In other
words,

𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐼𝑏/𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ2 = 0.145 ∗ 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐾𝑁/𝑚2

Exercise 5.1 show that 1𝑘𝑔/𝑐𝑚2 = 98.1𝑘𝑛/𝑚2

(3) To check whether a given equation is Homogeneous and convert it to the other
system if non-homogeneous

The principle of dimensional homogeneity can be used to check whether a given equation is
dimensionally homogeneous. If the equation is not dimensionally homogeneous, it can be made
applicable to the other system by first determining the dimension of the coefficient. For
example, the equation

1 2⁄3 1⁄2
𝑉=
.𝑅 .𝑆 = 𝐶𝑅 2⁄3 . 𝑆 1⁄2 (𝑠𝑎𝑦)
𝑁
As proved before, is dimensionally non-homogeneous.

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1⁄
The dimension of the coefficient "𝐶" = [𝐿 3⁄
𝑇]
Because,
𝑉 [𝐿⁄𝑇] 1
𝐶= = = [ 𝐿 ⁄3⁄ ]
𝑅 2⁄3 . 𝑆 1⁄2 [𝐿2⁄3 ][1] 𝑇

Since N is pure constant depending only upon the type of surface, its value is the same in both
MKS and FPS (foot-Pound-Second) system. In order to make the above equation applicable to
1
FPS the numerator 1 in the coefficient [𝑁] will be changed. We know 1𝑚 = 3.281𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑡.
Remembering that the unit of time same in both system.
1⁄
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐶 = [𝐿 3⁄
𝑇] = (3.821
1⁄3
) = 1.486
Therefore, the equation in F.P.S. system is
1.486 2⁄ 1⁄
𝑉= . 𝑅 3. 𝑆 2
𝑁

Exercise 5.2 The following equations are applicable in SI system. Find the dimensions of the constants
and their corresponding value in FPS system.

(a) 50√𝑅𝑆
(b) 1.42 tan 𝜃⁄2 𝐻 5⁄2
(c) 1.84𝑏𝐻 35⁄2

(4) Dimensional analysis

Dimensional analysis is the method of analysis based on the mathematics of the dimension of quantities.

In dimensional analysis, from a general understanding of fluid phenomenon, one first predicts the
physical parameters that will influence the flow, and then by grouping these parameters in dimension
combinations, a better understanding of the flow phenomena is made possible.

Uses Of dimensional analysis

 It can be used to obtain a functional relationship among the variables in terms of non-
dimensional parameters.
 Dimensional analysis reduces the number of experiments required in a particular
investigation.
 Dimensional analysis helps in obtaining a systematic form of the variables involved in a
particular fluid phenomenon.
 It gives a sound and orderly arrangement of the variables involved in the problem.

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 Deriving equations expressed in terms of non- dimensional parameters to show the

significance of each parameter.

However, dimensional analysis does not give the complete relationship. It gives only a general
qualitative expression. Investigations have to be done to obtain the complete expression. The
numerical values of the coefficients are usually obtained from experimental investigations.
The following two methods of dimensional analysis are commonly used:

(a) Rayleigh’s method

(b) Buckingham’s 𝜋-theorem.

(a) Rayleigh’s method

In this method, the functional relationship is expressed in an exponential form. If 𝑌 is some

function of independent variables, X1 , X 2 , X 3 etc.the function relationship can be written as

𝑌 = Φ[X1 , X 2 , X 3 , … ]

Where Φ stands for ‘a function of’, It does not imply anything about the form of the function.

Any function can be expressed as a series of terns each being made up of the product of
variables brought to suitable powers. Thus

𝑌 = 𝐾[𝑋1𝑎 , 𝑋2𝑏 , 𝑋3𝑐 … ]

In which k is dimension less coefficient which can be determined either from the physical
characteristics of the problem or from experiments, The exponents a, b, c etc. are determine
from the principle of dimensional homogeneity, the exponents of the dimensions on both sides
must be same.

By equating the exponents on both sides, a set of simultaneous equations is obtained. The
exponents can be determined by solving these simultaneous equations. Since there are only
three fundamental dimensions, only 3 simultaneous equations are found. If the number of
exponents involved in the relationship is more than 3, some of the exponents can be expressed
in terms of others. The non-dimensional parameters are then formed by grouping the variables
with like exponents.

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Example 5.2

Obtain an expression for drag force 𝐹𝐷 on stationary sphere of diameter D in a fluid of density 𝜌
viscosity 𝜇 as a function of non-dimensional group. Let the velocity of the fluid be V

Solution

Step-1
Write the functional relation as
𝐹𝐷 = Φ[D, V, ρ, μ]
Step-2
Then write the equation in exponential form.
𝐹𝐷 = 𝐾[𝐷 𝑎 , 𝑉 𝑏 , 𝜌𝑐 , 𝜇𝑑 ]

Step-3
Using the M-L-T system, substitute the dimension of the various quantities in the above
equation.
𝑀𝐿 𝑎]
𝐿 𝑏 𝑀 𝑐 𝑀 𝑑
[ ] = [𝐿 [( )] [( ) ] [( ) ]
𝑇2 𝑇 𝐿3 𝐿𝑇

For dimensional homogeneity, the exponents of each dimension must be the same on both
sides. Equating the exponents,
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑀: 1=𝑐 + 𝑑
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝐿: 1 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 − 3𝑐 − 𝑑
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑇: − 2 = −𝑏 − 𝑑
Note.
Since there are only 3 equations with 4 unknowns, we should express any 3 unknowns in terms
of the fourth. Although any 3 unknowns can be expressed in terms of the fourth, the aim should
be to get the required form of the expression. An attempt should be made to get the non-
dimensional forms in terms of well-known parameters such as Reynolds’s and Froude’s number.
Expressing a, b and c in terms of d,
𝑐 = 1 − 𝑑; 𝑏 = 2 − 𝑑; 𝑎 = 2 − 𝑑

Therefore, 𝐹𝐷 = 𝑘[(𝐷)2−𝑑 (𝑉)2−𝑑 (𝜌)1−𝑑 (𝜇)𝑑 ]

𝑉𝐷𝜌 −𝑑
= 𝑘𝐷 2 𝑉 2 𝜌 ( )
𝜇

It may be noted that 𝑉𝐷𝜌/𝜇 is the Raynolds number (𝑁𝑅 )

Thus 𝐹𝐷 = 𝑘𝐷 2 𝑉 2 𝜌𝑓(𝑁𝑅 )

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Or
𝐹𝐷
= (𝑁𝑅 ) … 𝐴𝑛𝑠.
𝐷 𝑉 2 𝜌𝑓
2

Activity 5.3
Show each steps of solving equations using Rayleigh’s method?

Exercise 5.5
The velocity V through an orifice depends upon the diameter‘d’ of the orifice, the head H over
the crest, the acceleration due to gravity g, the density 𝜌, the viscousity 𝜇 and the surface
tension 𝜎. Show that
𝜇 𝜎
𝑉 = 𝐶 √2𝑔𝐻𝑓 [(𝑑⁄𝐻 ), 1⁄2 3⁄2 , ]
𝜌𝑔 𝐻 𝜌𝐻 2 𝑔

(b) Buckingham’s 𝝅 –Theorem

The Rayleigh method of dimensional analysis becomes cumbersome when a large number of
variables are involved. The Buckingham 𝜋 –Theorem may be used in such problems.

The Buckingham 𝜋 –Theorem states that if there are 𝑛 variables in a dimensionally homogenous
equation and if these variables contain 𝑚 fundamental dimensions (such as, M, L, T), they may
be grouped into (𝑛 − 𝑚) non-dimensional parameters. Buckingham called these non-
dimensional parameters as 𝜋 –terms.

Mathematically, if a variable 𝑥1 depends upon the variable 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 … , 𝑥𝑛 , the functional equation

may be written as
𝑥1 = [𝑥2 , 𝑥3 , … , 𝑥𝑛 ]
This equation may be written as
𝑓[𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 … , 𝑥𝑛 ] = 𝐶
Where 𝐶 is a constant and ′𝑓′ represents some function. In this equation, there are 𝑛 variables.
If there 𝑚 fundamental dimensions, then according to Buckingham theorem,
𝐹 = [𝜋1 , 𝜋2 … 𝜋𝑛−𝑚 ]
Obviously, the number of 𝜋 –terms is n-m.
Each 𝜋 –term contains 𝑚 primary variable, which are also called the repeating variables. The
repeating variables appear in all 𝜋 –terms. In addition to these 𝑚 repeating variables, each 𝜋 –
terms contains one more variable of the remaining (𝑛 − 𝑚) variables. Thus, if 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥3 are
taken as repeating variables,
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
𝜋1 = 𝑥1 1 𝑥2 1 𝑥31 𝑥4

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𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
𝜋2 = 𝑥1 2 𝑥2 2 𝑥32 𝑥5
.
.
.
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
𝜋𝑛−𝑚 = 𝑥1 𝑛−𝑚 𝑥2 𝑛−𝑚 𝑥3𝑛−𝑚 𝑥𝑛

Where 𝑎1 , 𝑏1 , 𝑐1 ; 𝑎2 , 𝑏2 , 𝑐2 𝑒𝑡𝑐. are constants to be determine as explained later.

While selecting 𝑚 repeating variables, the following points should be kept in:

(a) 𝑚 repeating variables must contain jointly all the fundamental dimensions involved in
the phenomenon. Usually the fundamental dimensions are M, L and T. Therefore, 3
repeating variables must contain together M, L and T. However, if only two dimensions
are involved, there will be 2 repeating variable and they must contain together the two
dimensions involved.
(b) The repeating variables must not form the non-dimensional parameters amongst
themselves.
(c) A geometrical property (such as length), a fluid property (such as mass density) and flow
characteristics (such as velocity) are generally most suitable as repeating variables.

Example 5.3 Show that the frictional factor in an incompressible fluid flowing through pipe is expressed
as

𝜌𝑉𝐷 𝑘
𝑓 = φ[ , ]
𝜇 𝐷
Where
𝑘 = is height of roughness projection.
φ = represent a ′′function of′′

Solution

The functional relationship can be written as

𝑓 = 𝜑[𝐷, 𝜌, 𝜇, 𝑉, 𝑘]

Or

𝐹[𝑓, 𝑉, 𝜇, 𝜌, 𝑘] = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑠 = 5

𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 (M − L − T) = 3

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𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝜋 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑛 − 𝑚 = 5 − 3 = 2

𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑠 = 𝑚 = 3

Thus,

𝐹[𝜋1 , 𝜋2 ] = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

𝑁𝑜𝑤 𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎,

𝑆𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝜌, 𝑉, 𝐷 𝑎𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑠

𝜋1 = 𝜌𝑎1 𝑉𝑏1 𝐷𝑐1 𝜇

𝜋2 = 𝜌𝑎2 𝑉𝑏2 𝐷𝑐2 𝑘

𝜋3 = 𝜌𝑎3 𝑉𝑏3 𝐷𝑐3 𝑓

𝑈𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑦 we can determine the values of the exponents.

(𝐼. 𝑒. 𝑏𝑦 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙)

𝑀 𝑎1 𝐿 𝑏1 𝑀
[𝑀0 𝐿0 𝑇 0 ] = [ 3 ] [ ] [𝐿]𝑐1 [ ]
𝐿 𝑇 𝐿𝑇

𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑀, 𝐿 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇,

𝐹𝑂𝑅 𝑀: 0 = 𝑎1 + 1 𝑜𝑟 𝑎1 = −1

𝐹𝑂𝑅 𝑇: 0 = −𝑏1 + 1 𝑜𝑟 𝑏1 = −1

𝐹𝑂𝑅 𝐿: 0 = −3𝑎1 + 𝑏1 + 𝑐1 + 1 𝑜𝑟 𝑐1 = −1
μ
Therefore, π1 =
ρVD

As the reciprocal of a non-dimensional parameter is also non-dimensional, the expression of 𝜋1 can be

written as

ρVD
π1 =
μ

Similarly, writing the dimensions in the expression for 𝜋2 .

𝜋2 = 𝜌𝑎2 𝑉𝑏2 𝐷𝑐2 𝑘

0 0 0
𝑀 𝑎2 𝐿 𝑏2 𝑐
𝑀 𝐿 𝑇 = [ 3 ] [ ] [𝐿] 2 [𝐿]
𝐿 𝑇

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Equating exponents of 𝑀, 𝐿 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇 ,

𝐹𝑂𝑅 𝑀: 0 = 𝑎2 𝑜𝑟 𝑎2 = 0

𝐹𝑂𝑅 𝑇: 0 = −𝑏2 𝑜𝑟 𝑏2 = 0

𝐹𝑂𝑅 𝐿: 0 = −3𝑎2 + 𝑏2 + 𝑐2 + 1 𝑜𝑟 𝑐2 = −1

Therefore,
𝑘
𝜋2 =
𝐷

Likewise,
𝜋3 = 𝜌𝑎3 𝑉𝑏3 𝐷𝑐3 𝑓

𝑀 𝑎3 𝐿 𝑏3 𝑐
𝑀 𝐿 𝑇 = [ 3 ] [ ] [𝐿] 3 [𝑀0 𝐿0 𝑇 0 ]
0 0 0
𝐿 𝑇

Equating the exponents,

𝐹𝑂𝑅 𝑀: 0 = 𝑎3 𝑜𝑟 𝑎3 = 0

𝐹𝑂𝑅 𝑇: 0 = −𝑏3 𝑜𝑟 𝑏3 = 0

𝐹𝑂𝑅 𝐿: 0 = −3𝑎3 + 𝑏3 + 𝑐3 + 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑐3 = 0

Therefore, 𝜋3 = 𝑓

It may be noted that the non-dimensional variable, such as 𝑓, itself becomes the 𝜋 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚

Thus the functional relationship becomes

ρVD 𝑘
𝐹[ , , 𝑓] = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
μ 𝐷

Or 𝑓 = φ[ρVD/μ, 𝑘/𝐷] ….Ans.

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Example 5.3 Show that a discharge over a spillway can be expressed as

√gD H
𝑄 = 𝑉𝐷 2 φ [ , ]
V D
Where,
𝑉 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤,
𝐷 = 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑝ℎ,
𝐻 = ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤, 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑔 = 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦

Solution the functional relationship can be written as

φ(Q, V, D, g, H) = Constant

𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑠 = 5

𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 (M − L − T) = 2

𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝜋 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑛 − 𝑚 = 5 − 2 = 3

𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑠 = 𝑚 = 2

𝑆𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑉, 𝐷 𝑎𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑠

Thus 𝐹[𝜋1 , 𝜋2 , 𝜋3 ] = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

𝜋1 = 𝑉 𝑎1 𝐷𝑏1 𝑄

𝐿 𝑎1 𝐿3
[𝑀0 𝐿0 𝑇 0 ] = [ ] [𝐿]𝑏1 [ ]
𝑇 𝑇

Equating the exponent of L and T,

𝐹𝑂𝑅 𝑇: 0 = −𝑎1 − 1 𝑜𝑟 𝑎1 = −1

𝐹𝑂𝑅 𝐿: 0 = 𝑎1 +𝑏1 + 3 𝑜𝑟 𝑏1 = −2

Thus,
Q
π1 =
VD2

Similarly,
𝜋2 = 𝑉 𝑎2 𝐷𝑏2 𝑔

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𝐿 𝑎2 𝑏 𝐿
[𝑀0 0 0 ]
𝐿 𝑇 = [ ] [𝐿] 2 [ 2 ]
𝑇 𝑇

Equating the exponent of L and T,

𝐹𝑂𝑅 𝑇: 0 = −𝑎2 − 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑎2 = −2

𝐹𝑂𝑅 𝐿: 0 = 𝑎2 +𝑏2 + 1 𝑜𝑟 𝑏2 = 1

Thus,
gD √gD
π2 = =
V2 V

Likewise,

𝜋3 = 𝑉 𝑎3 𝐷𝑏3 𝐻

𝐿 𝑎3 𝑏
[𝑀0 0 0 ]
𝐿 𝑇 = [ ] [𝐿] 3 [𝐿]
𝑇

Equating the exponent of L and T,

𝐹𝑂𝑅 𝑇: 0 = −𝑎3 𝑜𝑟 𝑎3 = 0

𝐹𝑂𝑅 𝐿: 0 = 𝑎3 +𝑏3 + 1 𝑜𝑟 𝑏3 = −1

H
π3 =
D

The functional relationship becomes

𝑄 √𝑔𝐷 𝐻
[ 2, , ]=0
𝑉𝐷 𝑉 𝐷

Or
𝑄 √𝑔𝐷 𝐻
2
= φ[ , ]
𝑉𝐷 𝑉 𝐷

√𝑔𝐷 𝐻
𝑄 = 𝑉𝐷2 φ [ , ] (Proved)
𝑉 𝐷

Activity 5.4

What are the points should be considered while selecting repeating Variables?

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SELF-TEST EXERCISE
MULTIPLE CHOICES

1. Dimensional analysis is used for

(a) Determining the number of variables
(b) Determining the dimensionless groups
(c) Obtain the complete equation governing the phenomenon
2. The repeating variables should
(a) Include all the fundamental dimensions
(b) Be always 3 in number
(c) Not form dimensionless groups among themselves
(d) Have a characteristic length as a variable.
3. Rayleigh’s method
(a) Is more convenient than Buckingham’s method when the number of variables is large
(b) Is more convenient than Buckingham’s method when the number of variables is small
(c) Express equation in exponential form

[Ans. 1. (b); 2. (a); 3. (b, c);

GIVE SHORT ANSWER

1. State the principal application of dimensional homogeneity.

2. State Buckingham’s 𝜋 theorm.What is the advantage of Buckingham’s 𝜋 method over
Rayleigh’s method of dimensional analysis
3. State the uses of dimensional analysis
4. What are the different uses of dimensional homogeneity in fluid mechanics

WORK OUT

1. Determine if the following equations are dimensionally homogenous

(a) (2𝜎 cos 𝜃)/𝛾𝑟
(b) 𝑄 = 𝑐√𝑅𝑠
2. Show that the discharge formula for a rectangular weir can be written as
𝑄 = 𝑘𝑏𝐻 3⁄2 𝑔1⁄2
Where b is width of weir, H is head causing flow, g is the acceleration due to gravity and
K is constant.

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SECTION-2: SIMILITUDE AND HYDRAULIC MODELS

Introduction

It is known that even with modern computing facilities, many complex problems still challenge complete
theoretical analysis. A combination of past experience, theory and dimensional analysis will provide
partial or complete solution to a number of problems. However, there still remain many problems,
which are tractable only through experimentation. This will be done through model studies of proposed
hydraulic structures and machines. So in this section we deal with the laws of similarity as applied to
hydraulic structures.

In model analysis, investigations are made on a model which is similar to the full size structure known as
proto type. Model testing is done to obtain useful quantitative or quantitative information that can be
safely utilized in the design of the prototype.

A thorough knowledge of the principles of hydraulic similitude is essential in proper design, construction
and operation of model.

2.2 SIMILITUDE

A model will yield useful quantitative information about the characteristics of the prototype if it is
similar to its prototype. Complete similarity can be obtained between the model and its prototype if the
two systems are geometrically, kinematically and dynamically similar.

Models which are completely similar with their prototype are known as TRUE MODELS. But if it is not
possible to maintain geometric similarity between the model and the prototype the model is called
DISTORTED MODEL.

TYPES OF SIMILARITY

(a) GEOMETRIC SIMILARITY

It is the similarity of the shape (scale factor). It is obtained when the solid boundaries that
control the follow of fluid are geometrically similar. The model is a geometric reduction of the
prototype and is accomplished by maintaining a fixed ratio of all homologous lengths between
the model and prototype. These physical quantities are length, area, diameter, volume, etc.

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𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑙 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜:

𝐿𝑃 𝐵𝑃 𝐻𝑃
𝐿𝑟 = = =
𝐿𝑚 𝐵𝑚 𝐻𝑚

𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐:
𝐴𝑃 𝐿𝑃 𝐵𝑃
𝐴𝑟 = = ∗ = 𝐿2𝑟
𝐴𝑀 𝐿𝑚 𝐵𝑚

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜:

𝐿𝑃 𝐵𝑃 𝐻𝑃
𝑉𝑟 = ∗ ∗ = 𝐿3𝑟
𝐿𝑚 𝐵𝑚 𝐻𝑚

Activity 5.5

What is meant by geometric similarity?

(b) KINEMATIC SIMILARITY

It is the similarity of motion. For kinematic similarity to exist, the streamline pattern in the
model must be the same as in its prototype. The ratios of kinematic quantities representing the
flow characteristics such as, time, velocity, acceleration, and discharge must be the same at all
corresponding points.

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𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑖𝑠:

𝑉𝑃
𝑉𝑟 =
𝑉𝑚

𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜:

𝑇𝑃 𝐿𝑟
𝑇𝑟 = = (becouse, T = L/V)
𝑇𝑚 𝑉𝑟

𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜:

𝑎𝑝 𝐿𝑟 𝑉𝑟2 L
𝑎𝑟 = = 2= (becouse, a = [ ])
𝑎𝑚 𝑇𝑟 𝐿𝑟 T2

𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜:

𝐿3𝑃⁄
𝑄𝑟 𝑇 𝐿3𝑟
𝑄𝑟 = = 3 𝑃 =
𝑄𝑚 𝐿𝑚⁄ 𝑇𝑟
𝑇𝑚
Activity 5.6

What is meant by kinematic similarity?

(c) DYNAMIC SIMILARITY

It is the Similarity of forces involved in motion. Dynamic Similarity is attained if the ratio of homologous
forces in the model and prototype are kept constant.

𝐹𝑃
𝑖. 𝑒. = 𝐹𝑟
𝐹𝑚

The conditions required for complete similarity are developed form the Newton 2nd law of motion

𝑖. 𝑒. ∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥

The forces acting may be any one or a combination of several of the following: viscous, pressure, gravity,
elasticity, surface tension, inertia forces etc.

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 Forces (viscous  pressure  gravity  elasticity  surface tension)p m p a p


 Forces (viscous  pressure gravity  elasticity  surface tension)m mm am

      


F  Fv  Fg  Fs  F p  Fe  RESULTANT   F  m. a
i

NOTE: Newton’s Law: Inertia force 𝑭𝒊 is equal and opposite of the resultant forces.

 F  m.a p Fi p
 
p

 F  m
m.a m Fi m
(1)

However, in practice, a mode is designed to study the effects of only a few dominant forces. Dynamic
similarity requires that the ratios of these forces be kept the same between the model and prototype.

In problems of fluid flow, the inertia force will always exist and hence it is customary to find out the
force ratios with respect to the inertia forces, thus:

𝑰𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒂 𝒕𝒐 𝒗𝒊𝒔𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒔 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒔 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐

𝐹𝑖 𝐹𝑖
( ) =( ) (2)
𝐹𝑣 𝑚 𝐹𝑣 𝑃

𝑰𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒂 𝒕𝒐 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒔 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐

𝐹𝑖 𝐹𝑖
( ) =( ) (3)
𝐹𝑔 𝑚 𝐹𝑔 𝑃

𝑰𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒂 𝒕𝒐 𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒔 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐

𝐹𝑖 𝐹𝑖
( ) =( ) (4)
𝐹𝑒 𝑚 𝐹𝑒 𝑃

𝑰𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒂 𝒕𝒐 𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒔 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐

𝐹𝑖 𝐹𝑖
( ) =( ) (5)
𝐹𝑠 𝑚 𝐹𝑠 𝑃

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𝑰𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒂 − 𝒕𝒐 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒔 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐

𝐹𝑖 𝐹𝑖
( ) =( ) (6)
𝐹𝑝 𝑚 𝐹𝑝 𝑃

The above six equations are dimensionless groups. The significance of the dimensionless ratios is
discussed below:

Activity 5.7

What is meant by dynamic similarity?

(a) REYNOLDS NUMBER (phenomenon governed by viscous force)

A fluid in motion always involves inertia forces. If the inertial forces and viscous forces (example pipe
flow) can be considered to be the only forces that govern the motion, the ratio of these forces acting on
homologous particles in a model and its prototype is defined by the Reynolds number.

𝐹𝑖 (𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒)
𝑅𝑒 = =
𝐹𝑣 (𝑉𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒)

𝜌𝐿2 𝑉 2 𝜌𝐿𝑉 𝐿𝑉
𝑅𝑒 = = = (Non dimensional ratio)
𝜇𝑉𝐿 𝜇 𝜈

The Reynolds number is important when the viscous force is predominant. It is generally used to
correlate meter coefficient, pipe friction coefficient and drag coefficient, etc.

For dynamically similitude model and prototype:

𝐿𝑉 𝐿𝑉
(𝑅𝑒 )𝑚 = (𝑅𝑒 )𝑃 = ( ) =(𝜈) NOTE: D is taken as L for pipe flow.
𝜈 𝑚 𝑃

(b) FROUDE NUMBER: (phenomenon governed by gravity force)

When inertial forces and gravity forces are considered to be the only dominant forces in the fluid
motion, the ratio of inertia forces to gravity forces acting on the homologous elements of the fluid in the
model and prototype are considered as follows:

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𝐹𝑖 (𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒)
𝐹𝑟 = =
𝐹𝑔 (𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒)

𝐹𝑖 𝜌𝐿2 𝑉 2 𝑉2
𝐹𝑟 = √ = √ = √
𝐹𝑔 𝜌𝑔𝐿3 𝑔𝐿

The Froude number is important in open channel flow. It is useful in study of hydraulic jump, in design of
hydraulic structures and ships, etc.

For dynamically similitude model and prototype:

𝑉 𝑉
(𝐹𝑟 )𝑚 = (𝐹𝑟 )𝑃 = ( ) =( )
√𝑔𝐿 𝑚
√𝑔𝐿 𝑃

N.B 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝐿 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙.

𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑝, 𝐿 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒.

(c) WEBER NUMBER (phenomenon governed by surface tension)

The surface tension is a measure of energy level on the surface of a liquid body. The force is of primary
importance in hydraulic engineering practice in the study of small surface waves or control of
evaporation from a large body of water, such as water storage tank / reservoir.

In river and harbor models reduction of scale often leads to appreciable viscous and capillary effects in
the shallow regions of flow. The depth of flow in such cases should be sufficiently large so that capillary
effects are negligible.

The ratio of Inertia to Surface tension forces in prototype and model is:

Fi V 2 L2 V2
 
Fs L 
L

The square root of this dimensionless ratio is known as WEBER NUMBE (We):

V
We=

L

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It is applied at the leading edge of a very thin sheet of liquid flowing over a surface. Like:

 Capillary movement of water in solids.

 Flow of liquid at a very small depth over a surface.
 Flow over weir at very small heads.
 Spray of liquid from the exit of discharging tube resulting in the formation of drops of
liquids.

(d) MACH NUMBER (phenomenon governed by elastic forces)

The Mach number can be regarded as the ratio of inertia and elastic forces. Is important in compressible
fluid flow problems at high velocities, such as high velocity flow in pipes or motion of high speed
projectiles and missiles, also important in

 Aerodynamic testing
 Flow gases exceeding the velocity of sound.
 Water hammer problems. (Design of surge tanks).

The ratio of Inertia forces & elastic forces in prototype and model is:

𝐹𝑖 𝜌𝐿2 𝑉 2 𝑉2
= =
𝐹𝑒 𝐸𝐿2 𝐸⁄
𝜌

The square root of this dimensionless number is known as

Mach number (M). Thus:

V V
M  
E C


This is for fluid velocity (or velocity of the body through a stationary fluid) to that of a sound
wave in the same medium.

C is the sonic velocity (or celerity) in the given medium.

(e) EULER NUMBER (Phenomenon governed by pressure forces.)

The ratio of Inertia forces to pressure forces for both prototype and model is given by:

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Fi V 2 L2 V 2
 
Fp PL2 P


The square root of this dimensionless number is known as EULER NUMBER (𝐸𝑢 ). Thus:

V V V
Eu   
2 P
2 g  P 
P
   

The Euler number is important in the flow problems in which a pressure gradient exists.

For complete dynamic similarity to exist between the model and the prototype and its model, all the
above mentioned parameters should be satisfied. It is impossible to obtain complete dynamic similarity
because no two fluids are known to have the requisite properties to satisfy all conditions. Fortunately, in
most engineering problems, all conditions are not required to be satisfied because some of the forces
(a) may not act, (b) may be insignificant, (c) may oppose each other and thus cancel out. Usually 2 or 3
types of forces may be predominant. A sound knowledge of the fluid phenomenon is essential to
ascertain the forces that are significant in a particular phenomenon.

Example 5.4 The general expression for discharge of a centrifugal pump is

𝐷 𝑁 2 𝐷2 𝜌𝑁𝐷 2
𝑄 = 𝑁𝐷 3 𝜙 [ , , ]
𝐵 𝑔𝐻 𝜇

The performance of a new design of the pump is to be studied by testing a 1: 6 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑙. the pump is to
run at 1500 𝑟. 𝑝. 𝑚

Solution

𝑄𝑚 (𝑁𝐷 3 )𝒎 1800 1 3
= = ∗( )
𝑄𝑝 (𝑁𝐷 3 )𝑃 1500 6

𝑄𝑝 = 3 ∗ 180 = 𝟓𝟒𝟎𝒍𝒑𝒔

Now
𝑁 2 𝐷2 𝑁 2 𝐷2
( ) =( )
𝑔𝐻 𝑚 𝑔𝐻 𝑃

Or
(1800)2 ∗ 1 (1500)2
= ∗ (6)2
2.5 𝐻𝑃

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𝐻𝑃 = 𝟔𝟐. 𝟓𝒎

𝑊𝑃 𝐻𝑃 9.81 ∗ 0.54 ∗ 62.5

𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = =
𝜂 0.70

= 𝟒𝟕𝟐. 𝟗𝟖𝑲𝑾

𝑁𝑃 √𝑄𝑃
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑, 𝑁𝑆 = ⁄4
𝐻𝑃3

1500 ∗ √540
= = 𝟏𝟓𝟔𝟖
62.53⁄4

Example 5.5 The drag on a sphere is expressed as

𝑉𝐷
𝐹 = 𝜌𝑉 2 𝐷2 𝜙 ( )
𝜈

A Sphere of diameter D when placed in water moving with a velocity of 2 m/s experiences a drag of 6N.
Determine the drag on another sphere of diameter 2D placed in a wind tunnel at the corresponding
velocity. Take 𝑣𝑎 = 13𝑣𝑤 , 𝜌𝑎 = 1.30 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜌𝑤 = 1000 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3

Solution

For dynamic similarity,

𝑉𝐷 𝑉𝐷
( ) =( )
𝜈 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝜈 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

Or
𝐷𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑉𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝑉𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 𝑉𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 ( )( )
𝐷𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑉𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

𝐷
= 2 ∗ ( ) ∗ 13 = 13 𝑚⁄𝑠
2𝐷
2 2
𝐹𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑉𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝐷𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑠, = 2 2
𝐹𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑉𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝐷𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

1.30 ∗ 132 2𝐷2

= = 0.2197
1000 ∗ 22 ∗ 𝐷 2

= 0.2197 ∗ 6𝑁 = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟏𝟖𝑵

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5.3 TYPES OF MODELS

In general hydraulic models can be classified under two broad categories

(a) Undistorted models

(b) Distorted models
(a) Undistorted Models: - if a model is geometrically similar to its prototype, it is known as
undistorted models. i.e., the scale ratios for the corresponding linear dimension are the same.
(b) Distorted models: - if one or more terms of the models are not identical with the prototype it is
known as distorted models. The distortion may be geometrical, or material or hydraulic
quantities or a combination of these.
 Geometrical distortion,
The distortion can be either of dimensions or that of configuration.

 When different scale ratios are adopted for the longitudinal, transverse, & vertical
dimensions; then it is known as distortion of dimensions.

It is adopted in river models where a different slope ratio for depth is adopted.

 Distortion of configuration results when the general configuration of the model doesn’t
have resemblance with its prototype.

If a river model has different bed slope ratio, this is distortion of configuration.

 Material distortion is occurred when the physical properties of the material used in the model
and prototype are different.

 Distortion of hydraulic quantities is occurred for certain uncontrollable hydraulic quantities

such as time, discharge etc.

The following are some of the reasons for adopting distorted models:

a) To maintain accuracy in vertical measurements;

b) To maintain turbulent flow;
c) To obtain suitable bed material & its adequate movement;
d) To obtain suitable roughness condition;
e) To accommodate the available facilities such as space, money, water supply &
time.

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Activity 5.8

State and explain the two types of hydraulic models

SELF-TEST EXERCISE
MULTIPLE CHOICES

1. Reynolds number may be defined as the ratio of

(a) Gravity forces and inertia forces
(b) Viscous forces and inertia forces
(c) Elastic forces and inertia forces
2. Select the phenomena which governed by Froude’s law
(a) Compressible flow in pipes
(b) Incompressible flow in pipes
(c) Flow through an orifice
(d) Flow around a submarine

3. Select the phenomenon in which inertial forces are not important

(a) Flow over a spillway
(b) Flow through an open channel
(c) Flow through pipes
(d) Flow through a long capillary tube
4. Weber’s law is not applicable in the following
(a) Small jets, droplet formation
(b) Flow of thin sheet of liquids over weirs
(c) Capillary movement
(d) Laminar flow through open channels
5. If the pressure at a point in a spillway model is p, the pressure in the prototype (Lr=1/10) will
be
(a) 50p
(b) 10p
(c) 100p
(d) None of the above
[Ans. 1. (b); 2. (c); 3. (d); 4. (d); 5. (b)]

GIVE SHORT ANSWER

1. What do you understand by hydraulic similitude? State the conditions for perfect similitude.
2. State the reasons for adopting distorted models.
3. State and explain the different types of distortion.

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WORK OUT

1. A 1:10 scale model of water supply piping system is to be tested at 200C to determine the
total head loss in the prototype that carries water at 850C. The prototype is designed to
carry 5.0m3/s discharge with 1m diameter pipes. Determine the model discharge and model
velocity. Discuss how losses determined from the model are converted to proto type loss.

2. An over flow spillway is designed to be 100m high and 120mlong, carrying a discharge of
1200 m3/5 under an approaching head of 2.75m. The spillway operation is to be analyzed by
a 1:50 model in a hydraulic laboratory. Determine
a) The model discharge,
b) If the discharge coefficient at the model crests measures 2.12, what is the prototype
crest discharge coefficient?
c) If the velocity at the outlet of the model spill way measures 25m/s, what is the
prototype velocity?

3. A 1:50 scale model is constructed to a study a gate prototype that is designed to drain a
reservoir. If the model reservoir is drained in 5.2 min, how long should if take to drain the
reservoir?

4. A 1 m long 1:50 model is used to study the wave force on a prototype of a sea wall
structure. If the total wave force measured on the model is 2.27 N and the velocity scale is
1: 10, determine the force per unit length of the prototype.

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