Gestation Period In Domestic Animal

The gestation period or pregnancy period is the period from fertilization or

conception to parturition or the birth of young one. During this period single
cells divide and develop in to highly organized individuals. This antenatal period
is the least understood and probably one of the most important periods of life.
The mortality rate of the ovum, embryo or fetus during this period is much greater
than for any other period of equal length after birth. Because they are usually
unrecognized, early death of the fertilized ovum or the small embryo with
resulting resorption or abortion is often considered as sterility or infertility.
PRE-NATAL DEVELOPMENT
The pre-natal development of farm animals may be divided in to three main
periods based on the size of the individual and the development of its tissues and
organs.
• Period of embryo and Organogenesis
• Period of fetus and fetal growth
• Period of ovum or blastula

PERIOD OF OVUM OR BLASTULA

• In cow it is about 10-12 days.
• It extends from the time of fertilization that usually occurs within a few hours
after ovulation, to the development of the zygotes primitive fetal membranes in
the uterus.
• In domestic animals, the size of the ovum not including the zona pellucida is
about 120- 180 µm at the time of fertilization and the shedding of the second
polar body.
• During this period, division of the fertilized ovum progresses in the region
of the ampullary isthmic junction of the oviduct to the morula stage
characterized by the inner and outer cell masses totalling about 16-32 cells.
• In sows, on the 3rd day and 4th to 5th day in other domestic animals the
morula enters the uterus.
• By 6-10 days after fertilization the zona pellucida fragments and a blastocyst is
formed composed of the embryoblast or inner cell mass and trophoblast or outer
cell mass and fluid.
• By 11 days in the ewe and 12 days in the cow, the blastocyst is about 1 and 1.5
mm in size.

PERIOD OF EMBRYO AND ORGANOGENESIS

• It extends from 12-15 days to about 45 days of gestation in cow, 11-34 days
in ewes, 12-55 to 60 days in horse.
• During this period the major tissues, organs and systems of body shape
occur so that by the end of this period the species of the embryo is readily
recognizable. This usually coincides with the development of the eyelids.
• The trophoblast elongates starting at 12 days in the ewe and 14 days in the cow.
• By 18-19 days of gestation in the cow, the trophoblast may extend in to the
opposite horn.
• In horse, dog, and cat the trophoblast does not elongate but remains oval during
this period causing a localized enlargement in the uterus helpful in early
pregnancy diagnosis.
• By 22 days - heart is crudely formed and beating
• The allantois is well developed, anterior limb buds are formed, eye and brain
development is well advanced.
• In the cow, as in other animals, attachment of the fetal membranes is a gradual
process that begins with the formation of the first villi about 30 days of gestation
and progresses to a primitive attachment of the chorioallantois to the
endometrium in the caruncular areas about 33-36 days of gestation.
• Until the well- developed attachment of the chorion to the endometrium, the
nourishment of the ovum and embryo is provided by the secretion of the
uterine glands called "Uterine milk" a yellowish or whitish, thick, opaque
secretion grossly resembling and occasionally mistaken as for a purulent
exudate.
• During this period:
Severe teratological defects or anomalies of development occur.
Embryo may die and be expelled unnoticed at the next estrum.
 Becomes macerated and absorbed without external signs.

PERIOD OF FETUS AND FETAL GROWTH

• It extends from 34 days in sheep and goat, 45 days in cattle and 55 days in horse
to parturition.
• During this period minor details in the differentiation of organs, tissues and
systems occur along with the growth and maturation of the antenatal individual.
• Changes in the bovine fetus from 70 days to parturition are not radical.
• The increase in the size of bovine and equine fetus takes place very rapidly the
last 2-3 months of gestation.
• From 210-270 days the increase in weight of bovine fetus is equal to 3 times
the increase from the time of fertilization to 210 days.

FETAL CIRCULATION

Blood from the placenta is carried to the fetus by the umbilical vein. About less
than a third of this enters the fetal ductus venosus and is carried to the inferior
vena cava, while the rest enters the liver proper from the inferior border of the
liver. The branch of the umbilical vein that supplies the right lobe of the liver first
joins with the portal vein. The blood then moves to the right atrium of the heart.
In the fetus, there is an opening between the right and left atrium (the foramen
ovale), and most of the blood flows through this hole directly into the left atrium
from the right atrium, thus bypassing pulmonary circulation. The continuation of
this blood flow is into the left ventricle, and from there it is pumped through the
aorta into the body. Some of the blood moves from the aorta through the internal
iliac arteries to the umbilical arteries, and re-enters the placenta, where carbon
dioxide and other waste products from the fetus are taken up and enter the
maternal circulation.

HORMONAL CONTROL OF GESTATION

• Nervous control of the uterus is not essential during gestation in man and other
animals.
• Conception, gestation and possibly normal parturition can occur with complete
paralysis and lack of nerves in the lower portion of the body.
• Gestation and the onset of parturition are entirely under hormonal control.
• In the cow, sheep and pig and probably the mare, about 12-16 days after estrum
and fertile coitus, the trophoblast of the embryo grows very rapidly and its
presence causes a persistence of the corpus luteum (CL) and cessation of the
estrous cycle.
This is accomplished by the effect of the trophoblast acting on the endometrium:
To cause a continuing release of pituitary luteotrophin by means of a neuro-
humoral mechanism acting on the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary gland, and
To prevent the release or formation of uterine luteolysin and thus block the
transport of this substance by the local utero-ovarian pathway to the CL.
The progesterone from the CL or the fetal placenta during pregnancy is essential
for
➢ Endometrial gland growth.
➢ Secretion of uterine milk.
➢ For endometrial growth.
➢ Attachment of placenta for the later nourishment of the fetus.
➢ For inhibiting the uterine motility to aid in placental attachment.
• A certain amount of ovarian or placental estrogen appears to enhance the effect
of progesterone and in later pregnancy to produce udder development, relaxation
of pelvic ligaments, initial uterine tonus and cervical relaxation and to sensitize
the uterus to oxytocin.
• Other hormones essential in maintaining pregnancy are the gonadotropic or
luteotrophic hormones from the anterior pituitary gland necessary for the
persistence of the CL and its active secretion of progesterone.
• In the mare, the gonadotropins can be produced by the endometrial cups and in
women by the chorion of the fetal placenta.
• The endocrine glands of the fetus, thyroid, adrenals, gonads, anterior pituitary
gland and possibly others besides the fetal placenta play important roles in
maintaining and terminating the pregnancy.
• The CL of pregnancy is required throughout gestation to maintain a normal
gestation period and permit a normal parturition. It is reported that the normal CL
in cows contains about 270 µg of progesterone. Levels below 100 µg were not
conducive to embryo survival.
• In sows, ovaries are essential for the maintenance of gestation (pregnancy)
throughout most of the gestation period.
• The ovaries or CL may be removed in the latter half of the gestation in the ewe,
mare, and woman.

DURATION OF PREGNANCY
• Duration of pregnancy is the period from implantation of the blastocyst in the
endometrium until termination of pregnancy (pregnancy or gestation).
• The length of gestation is calculated as the interval from fertile service to
parturition.
Species Duration (in days)
Cow 273 – 296
Horse 327 - 357
Sheep 140 - 155
Swine 111 - 116
Dog 60 - 63
Cat 56 – 65
Goat 148 – 156
Water buffalo 305 – 310

FACTORS INFLUENCING DURATION OF GESTATION

The duration of gestation is genetically determined, although it can be modified
by maternal, fetal and environmental factors.
1. Maternal factors
• In different species, the duration of pregnancy is influenced by the dam.
• A two day extension from the normal occurs in the 8 year old ewe.
• Young heifers carry their calves for a slightly shorter period than older
heifers.
2. Foetal factors
• In polytoccus species with exception of pig there is an inverse relation
between the duration of gestation and litter size.
• Monotocus species carrying multiple fetuses also have shorter gestation
periods.
• Twin calves are carried 3-6 days less than single calves.
• Interaction between fetal and placental sizes may influence gestation in
horse.
• The sex also determines the length of gestation; male calves are carried 1-2
days longer than females.
• Endocrine functions of the fetus may also influence the duration of
pregnancy.
3. Genetic factors
• The small variations in duration of pregnancy among breeds may be due to
genetic, seasonal or local effects.
• The extreme expression of genetically prolonged gestation is known among
dairy cows that carry fetus homozygous for an autosomal recessive gene.
• Breed of embryo determines the length of gestation in cattle. This has been
established by transferring the embryos from breeds with shorter gestation
length than the donor's and vice-versa.
• Genetic factors are also responsible for differences in gestation length
between mutton and wool breeds of sheep.

4. Environmental factors
• Season may influence the duration of gestation.
 • Foals conceived in late summer and autumn have significantly shorter
gestation periods than those conceived at the start of the breeding season in
early spring.

SHORT GESTATION
Abortions and premature births often lead to short gestation.
The gestation period is 3-6 days shorter in cattle carrying twins and is 0.6 days
shorter in sheep and goats. Adverse disease condition affecting the endometrium
and placenta or the fetus may result in abortion and short gestation.
• Other adverse influences include:
o Malnutrition.
o Chronic debilitating diseases.
o Deficiency diseases.
o Starvation.
o Severe stress.
o Other conditions favouring abortion.

PROLONGED GESTATION IN DOMESTIC ANIMALS

In general, the length of gestation period varies depending upon the breed and
certain hybrid. In domestic animals, the gestation period gets prolonged in a
variety of conditions.
PROLONGED GESTATION IN CATTLE
Three types of prolonged gestations have been observed in a number of cattle
breeds.
a) Associated with premature, long haired fetal giants in Holstein and Ayrshires
and in other breeds: Due to a homozygous recessive autosomal gene, Gestation
prolonged by 20-90 days Characteristic features of premature fetuses Fetus
weight 130-200lbs Long hooves Erupted incisors teeth Dehydration Hypoplastic
adrenals
b) Associated with cretin-like immature fetuses with cranial and CNS anomalies
including hydrocephalous, anencephaly or cyclopia and short, deformed loose
jointed legs with aplasia of anterior pituitary gland and a degree of hairlessness.
Observed in Guernsey, Ayrshires, and Swedish Red cattle Due to autosomal
recessive mode of inheritance Gestation gets prolonged from 20 to over 230 days
over the normal period. Dystocia may occur, but not a serious problem
c) Associated with cerebral hernia or Catlin mark is an opening of the frontal and
parietal bones.
Observed in Holsteins
Results in dystocia
Prolonged gestation: 20-60 days overtime
In the last three conditions no pre-partum or post-partum changes are
observed at the time of parturition and the udder in undeveloped until after the
fetus has been removed. Parturition does not occur unless the fetus dies in-utero.
• Cattle carrying male fetus had one or two day’s longer gestation than
female fetus.
• Gestation lengths in heifers and in second pregnancy carry one or two
days less than parous cows.
• High doses and continued injection of progesterone or progestins delayed
parturition.
• Most fetuses die the following month of normal parturition.

PROLONGED GESTATION IN SOWS

• Iodine deficiency or the administration of thiouracil to produce hypothyroidism
results in prolonged gestation by 4-10 days longer than normal with poorly viable,
goitrous, and hairless piglets.
• Gestation period gets prolonged by 3-4 weeks in inbred sows.
• High doses and continued injection of progesterone or progestins delayed
parturition.
• Most fetuses die the following month of normal parturition.

PROLONGED GESTATION IN EWES

• Ingestion of veratrum californicum about the 14th day of gestation caused
severe deformities of the face, head with hypoplasia of the hypophysis resulted
in prolonged gestation up to 230 days with fetal giantism and even rupture of
prepubic tendon.
• Deficiency of Vitamin A resulted in prolonged gestation by 1-4 weeks.
• Decapitation of ovine fetuses resulted in overtime small, weak, edematous
lambs with adrenals one fourth to one fifth the normal size.
• Destruction of pituitary glands of ovine fetuses by electro cautery at 90-142
days results in prolonged gestation.
• High doses and continued injection of progesterone or progestins delayed
parturition.
• Most fetuses die the following month of normal parturition.

PROLONGED GESTATION IN MARES

• Normal gestation in mares is considered to be 330 days, with a range of 320-
340 days.
• Pregnancies that extend well past this upper range have been reported.
• In most cases, the mares progress past the expected foaling date with no signs
of impending parturition such as mammary development or pelvic ligament
relaxation. Delivery of these offspring’s has spontaneously occurred from 365-
415 days following ovulation or breeding.
• Fetal oversize has not been typically associated with this condition as it has
been in cattle.
• Etiology of prolonged gestation is not fully understood, but it is thought to
involve a period of embryonic diapause. This has been suspected when mares
have embryonic vesicles that do not grow normally in the first month of gestation
and endometrial cup formation is delayed. This delay in endometrial cup
formation has been reported to extend for up to 1 month in some cases. The idea
of embryonic diapause is supported by the lack of fetal overgrowth with the
extended gestation length.
• Ingestion of fescue infected with endophyte has also been associated with
prolonged gestation. The average gestation length of mares consuming infected
fescue past 300 days of gestation is 2 weeks to 20 days longer than mares not
ingesting the endophyte. These mares also do not have mammary development
prior to delivery and on occasion do not even develop the gland following
parturition.
• Parturition in these mares is frequently associated with dystocia. This can result
from fetal malformations, edema of placenta and premature placental separation
without rupture of the chorioallantois at parturition, or "Red Bagging".
• Emaciated status of the fetus may be due to the decrease in the availability
nutrients from across the placenta because of vasoconstriction.
• Vasoconstriction may also be partially responsible for the presence of edema in
the fetal membranes at delivery.
• An ergot alkaloid is thought to be responsible for the associated complications
of fescue ingestion because it causes vasoconstriction and decreased prolactin
from increased dopaminergic activity and decreased serotoninergic activity.