Chapter 2

Database System Concepts and

Architecture

Dr. Khaled Wassif

Fall 2020-2021
DB 1

(This is the instructor’s notes and student has to

read the textbook for complete material.)
 Chapter Outline
◼ Data Models and Their Categories
◼ History of Data Models
◼ Schemas, Instances, and States
◼ Three-Schema Architecture
◼ Data Independence
◼ DBMS Languages and Interfaces
◼ Database System Utilities and Tools
◼ Classification of DBMSs
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Modified By Dr. Khaled Wassif
 Data Models
◼ Data Model:
– A collection of concepts that can be used to describe:
» the structure of a database,
» the operations for manipulating these structure, and
» the constraints that the database should obey.
◼ Data Model Structure and Constraints:
– Constructs are used to define the database structure.
– Constructs typically include elements as well as groups of
elements (e.g. entity, record, table), and relationships
among such groups.
– Constraints specify some restrictions on valid data; these
constraints must be enforced at all times.
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 Data Models (continued)
◼ Data Model Operations:
– These operations are used for specifying database retrievals
and updates by referring to the constructs of the data
model.
– Operations on the data model may include:
» basic model operations (e.g. generic insert, delete, update), and

» user-defined operations (e.g. compute_student_gpa,

update_inventory).

– Object oriented Data Model can include set of user defined

operations within the data model.
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 Categories of Data Models
◼ Data Models are categorized, according to the types of
concepts used to describe the database structure, into
these three categories:
– Conceptual (high-level, semantic) data models:
» Provide concepts that are close to how the users perceive data.

» uses concepts such as:

◼ Entities: represent real world objects as students, courses, projects, etc.

◼ Attributes: represent properties of the entity as names, scores, Tel, etc.

◼ Relationships: represent associations among two or more entities to

denote the interaction between them as enrolled-in relation between
student and courses entities.
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Categories of Data Models (cont.)
– Physical (low-level, internal) data models:
» Provide concepts that describe details of how data is stored as files in
the computer.
» Representing information such as record formats, record orderings
and access path to mange the data efficiently.
» Generally meant for computer specialists, not for typical end users.
– Implementation (representational) data models:
» Provide concepts that fall between the above two data models.
» Include concepts that can be understood by end user but not far from
some details of the physical representations.
» Used by most of the traditional DBMSs (as the widely used relational
data models and the legacy network and hierarchical data models).
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 Schemas, Instances, and
Database State
◼ The description of a database is called Database Schema.
– The schema is specified during the database design.
– The schema is not expected to be changed frequently.
– Each object of a schema (e.g., STUDENT, COURSE) is called
schema construct.
– The schema is called the “intension”.
– The schema description, stored in the DBMS catalog, is called
the “meta-data”.
– The schema is usually represented by a diagram called
Schema diagram.
– A schema diagram displays only some aspects of a schema (as
names of record types and data items) and some other aspects
(as data types and relationships) are not specified.
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 Example of a Database Schema

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 Schemas, Instances, and
Database State (cont.)
◼ The actual data in the database at a particular moment
in time is called a Database State.
– The database state includes the collection of all the data in
the database.
– The database state changes every time the database is
updated.
– The database state is called the “extension”.
– Also called database instance (or occurrence or snapshot).
– Initial state of a database refers to the state when it is first
loaded with the initial data.
– Valid database state is a state that satisfies the structure and
constraints specified in the database schema.
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 Example of a database state

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 Three-Schema Architecture
◼ Proposed to achieve DBMS characteristics of:
– Program-data independence.
– Support of multiple views of the data.
◼ Not explicitly used in commercial DBMS products,
but has been useful in explaining the database system
organization.
◼ Defines DBMS schemas at three levels:
– Internal schema at the internal level to describe physical
storage structures of the database.
» Typically uses a physical data model.

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 Three-Schema Architecture (cont.)
– Conceptual schema at the conceptual level to describe the
structure and constraints for the whole database for a
community of users.
» Uses a conceptual or an implementation data model.

– External schemas at the external level to describe the

various user views.
» Each user view describes a part of the database that is interested to a
particular user group.
» Usually uses the same data model as the conceptual schema.

◼ DBMSs perform mappings to transform requests and

results between the levels.
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 The three-schema architecture

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Three-Schema Architecture (cont.)
◼ Some DBMSs may include physical details in the
conceptual schema.
◼ Most of the DBMSs include external views in the
conceptual data model.
◼ Programs refer to an external schema, and are mapped
by the DBMS to the internal schema for execution.
◼ Data extracted from the internal DBMS level is
reformatted to match the user’s external view.
◼ Mappings between levels is a time-consuming process,
so some DBMSs do not support the external views.
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 Data Independence
◼ Defined as the capacity to change the schema at one
level of a database without having to change the
schema at the next higher level.
– The mapping between the levels is only changed to reflect
the change of the schema.
◼ There are two types of data independence:
– Logical Data Independence:
» The ability to change the conceptual schema without having to
change the external schemas and their associated application
programs.
– Physical Data Independence:
» The ability to change the internal schema without having to change
the conceptual schema.
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 Data Independence (cont.)
◼ Conceptual schema may be changed to expand the
database by adding new data items or reducing it by
removing data items.
─ The applications involved in the modified data items can only
changed without any effect on the remaining applications.
◼ Internal schema may be changed, due to some file
reorganization or new indexes are created, to improve
database performance.
◼ The three-schema architecture can make it easier to
achieve true data independence, both physical or logical.
─ However, the two levels of mappings create an overhead
during execution of a query, leading to inefficient DBMS.
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 DBMS Languages
◼ Data Definition Language (DDL):
– Used by the DBA and database designers to specify the
conceptual schema of a database.
– In many DBMSs, the DDL is also used to define internal and
external schemas (views).
– In some DBMSs, other two languages are used to define
internal and external schemas:
» Storage Definition Language (SDL) is used to define internal
schema, and
» View Definition Language (VDL) is used to define external schemas.
– DDL compiler is exist to process DDL statements and store
the schema description in the DBMS catalog.
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 DBMS Languages (cont.)
◼ Data Manipulation Language (DML):
– Used to specify database retrievals and updates.
– There two types of DMLs
» High-Level or Non-procedural Languages:
◼ May be used in a standalone way or may be embedded in a general-
purpose programming language such as COBOL, C, C++, or Java.
◼ can specify and retrieve many records in a single statement (set-at-a-time).
◼ If used in a stand-alone interactive manner, it is called Query language.
» Low Level or Procedural Languages:
◼ These must be embedded in a programming language.
◼ It retrieves individual records separately (record-at-a time).
– In both types of DML languages the programming language
is called host language and DML is called sublanguage.
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 DBMS Interfaces
◼ Stand-alone query language interfaces:
– Used by casual end users to specify their requests.
– Example: Entering SQL queries at the DBMS interactive
SQL interface (e.g. SQL*Plus in ORACLE).
◼ Programmer interfaces:
– Embedded Approach:
» e.g embedded SQL (for C, C++, etc.), SQLJ (for Java).
– Procedure Call Approach:
» e.g. JDBC for Java, ODBC for other programming languages.
– Database Programming Language Approach:
» e.g. ORACLE has PL/SQL like a programming language that
incorporates SQL and its data types as integral components.
◼ User-friendly interfaces
– For naïve users as menu-based, forms-based, GUI, etc.
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 User-Friendly DBMS Interfaces
◼ Menu-based interfaces:
– They present the user with lists of menus to formulate his
request.
– The menus generate the request and send it to the DBMS.
◼ Form-based interfaces:
– They display forms to users to help them in entering new
data or retrieving required data.
– It is usually used with naïve users of canned transactions.
◼ Graphical user interfaces:
– They display the schema in diagrammatic form where users
can specify their queries by manipulating these diagrams.
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User-Friendly DBMS Interfaces (cont.)
◼ Natural language interfaces:
– They accept requests written in English (or any other)
language to from the query.
– The users use the conceptual schema and some predefined
words to construct their requests.
◼ Interfaces for parametric users:
– They are usually a simple interface with some abbreviated
commands to minimize the user keystrokes.
– Functions keys are typically programmed in these
interfaces to help the users in performing their requests.
◼ Interfaces for the DBA:
– Special interfaces for the DBAs to perform their privileged
commands (as creating users, granting authorizations).
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 Database System Environment
◼ DBMS is a complex software which includes many
modules that support all user and system DB functions:
– Operating system controls the disk access functions.
– DDL compiler performs schema definitions and loads the
data description information into the database catalog.
– Run-time DB processor handles the database accesses at
run time.
– Query Compiler handles high-level queries by parsing,
analyzing and compiling their statements and then calls the
Run-time processor to execute it.
– Pre-compiler extracts the DML commands from the host
language.
– DML compiler compiles the DML to build the code which
is passed to the Run-time processor for execution.
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Typical DBMS Component Modules

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 Database System Utilities
◼ Most of DBMSs have some utilities that help
DBA in managing his database system as the
following types of functions:
– Loading data stored in files into a database which
includes data conversion tools.
– Backing up the database periodically on tape.
– Reorganizing database file structures.
– Report generation utilities.
– Performance monitoring utilities.
– Other functions, such as sorting, user monitoring,
data compression, etc.
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 Other Tools
◼ Data dictionary / repository:
– Used to store schema descriptions and other information
such as design decisions, application program descriptions,
user information, usage standards, etc.
◼ Application Development Environments and
CASE (computer-aided software engineering) tools:
– Examples:
» PowerBuilder (Sybase)
» JBuilder (Borland)
» Jdeveloper (Oracle)
◼ Communication software:
– Used to allow users at locations remote from the database
system site to access the database.
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Modified By Dr. Khaled Wassif
 Classification of DBMSs
Criteria Categories
Relational – Object oriented – Object Relational – Network
Data Model
– Hierarchical

# of users Single user – Multiuser

Centralized – Distributed (Homogeneous – Heterogeneous)

# of sites
– Client-Server
$100-$3000 (single user) - $10,000-$100,000 -
Cost
$100,000 and more

Purpose General-purpose - Special-purpose

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 History of Data Models
◼ Network Model
◼ Hierarchical Model
◼ Relational Model
◼ Object-oriented Data Models
◼ Object-Relational Models

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 History of Data Models
◼ Network Model:
– The first network DBMS was implemented by Honeywell
in 1964-65 (IDS System).
– Later implemented in a large variety of systems – IDMS,
DMS 1100, IMAGE, VAX – DBMS.
– Advantages:
» Able to model complex relationships.
» Can handle most situations for modeling using record types and
relationship types.
– Disadvantages:
» Navigational and procedural nature of processing.
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 Example of Network Model Schema

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 History of Data Models
◼ Hierarchical Model:
– Hierarchical model was formalized based on the IMS
system which initially implemented by IBM around 1965.
– IBM’s IMS product still has a very large customer base
worldwide.
– Advantages:
» Simple to construct and operate.
» Corresponds to a number of natural hierarchically organized
domains, e.g., organization chart.
– Disadvantages:
» Navigational and procedural nature of processing.
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 History of Data Models
◼ Relational Model:
– Proposed in 1970 by IBM and first commercial system in
1981-82.
– Now in several commercial products (e.g. DB2, ORACLE,
MS SQL Server, SYBASE, INFORMIX).
– Several free open source implementations, e.g. MySQL.
– Currently most dominant for developing database
applications.
– SQL relational standards: SQL-89 (SQL1), SQL-92
(SQL2), SQL-99, SQL3, …
– Chapters 5 through 11 describe this model in detail.
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 History of Data Models
◼ Object-oriented Data Models:
– Several models have been proposed for implementing in a
database system.
– One set comprises models of persistent O-O Programming
Languages such as C++ (e.g., in OBJECTSTORE or
VERSANT), and Smalltalk (e.g., in GEMSTONE).
◼ Object-Relational Models:
– Relational systems incorporate concepts from object
databases leading to object-relational.
– Exemplified in the latest versions of Oracle-10i, DB2, and
SQL Server and other DBMSs.
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 Summary
◼ Data Models and Their Categories
◼ History of Data Models
◼ Schemas, Instances, and States
◼ Three-Schema Architecture
◼ Data Independence
◼ DBMS Languages and Interfaces
◼ Database System Utilities and Tools
◼ Classification of DBMSs

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Modified By Dr. Khaled Wassif