Department of Physics

Engineering Physics Engineering Physics

(01GS2101)

Marwadi University, Rajkot

Dr. Yogesh Jani

 Unit-2 : Semiconductor Physics

Intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors,

Carrier generation and recombination, Department of Physics

Carrier transport: diffusion and drift, p-n junction, Engineering Physics

(01GS1101)
Metal-semiconductor ,
junction (Ohmic and Schottky),
Optical loss and gain;
Photovoltaic effect,
Solar cell. Dr.Yogesh Jani
 Unit-2 : Semiconductor Physics

 CLASSIFICATION OF METALS, CONDUCTORS AND

SEMICONDUCTORS Department of Physics

Engineering Physics
(01GS1101)

Dr. Yogesh Jani

  Recap Questions (Try your self)
Q.1 What are resistivity and conductivity? Give their S.I units.

Q.2 List the parameters which affects resistivity of the materials.

Department of Physics
Q.3 Sketch relationship between temperature and resistivity Engineering Physics
conductors, semiconductors, insulators. (01GS1101)

Q.4 What do you mean by drift velocity?

Q.5 What is relaxation time?

Q.6 Define mobility.

Q.7 Why does resistivity of conductor increase with temp while it Dr. Yogesh Jani
decrease with temp for semiconductors?
 Unit-2 : Semiconductor Physics

 CLASSIFICATION SEMICONDUCTORS
Department of Physics

Engineering Physics
(01GS1101)

Dr. Yogesh Jani

Unit-2 : Semiconductor Physics

Elemental semiconductor
Part of periodic table
Department of Physics

II III IV V VI Engineering Physics

(01GS1101)
B C(6)
Al Si(14) P S
Zn Ga Ge(32) As Se
Cd In Sb Te

Dr. Yogesh Jani

Unit-2 : Semiconductor Physics

Elemental semiconductors: Si, Ge

Compound semiconductors: GaAs, InP
Department of Physics
Ternary semiconductors: AlGaAs, HgCdTe
Engineering Physics
Quaternary semiconductors: InGaAsP, InGaAlP (01GS1101)
Elemental IV Binary III-V Binary II-VI
Compounds
Si SiGe AlP CdTe
Ge SiC GaAs CdS
As InP ZnS
GaP CdSe Dr. Yogesh Jani
  Solids on the basis of energy bands

 According to the Bohr atomic model, in an isolated atom

the energy of any of its electrons is decided by the orbit in
which it revolves. Department of Physics

Engineering Physics
 But when the atoms come together to form a solid they (01GS1101)
are close to each other.

 So the outer orbits of electrons from neighbouring atoms

would come very close or could even overlap.

 This would make the nature of electron motion in a solid

very different from that in an isolated atom Dr. Yogesh Jani
  Solids on the basis of energy bands
 Inside the crystal each electron has a unique position and
no two electrons see exactly the same pattern of
surrounding charges. Department of Physics

Engineering Physics
 Because of this, each electron will have a different (01GS1101)
energy level.

 These different energy levels with continuous energy

variation form what are called energy bands.

 The energy band which includes the energy levels of the

valence electrons is called the valence band. Dr. Yogesh Jani
  Solids on the basis of energy bands

 Energy bands
Electron When atoms are
energy Department of Physics
brought together to
form a solid various Engineering Physics
interaction occurs (01GS1101)
between the atom.

Splitting of energy
levels occurs due
One atom Two atoms Many atoms in a
the Pauli’s
crystal Exclusion Principle

Dr. Yogesh Jani

  Solids on the basis of energy bands

 Energy bands of metals

Department of Physics

Engineering Physics
(01GS1101)

Dr. Yogesh Jani

  Solids on the basis of energy bands

 Energy bands of semiconductors and insulators

Department of Physics

Engineering Physics
(01GS1101)

Dr. Yogesh Jani

  Solids on the basis of energy bands

 Energy bands of Pure semiconductors.

Department of Physics

Engineering Physics
(01GS1101)

Dr. Yogesh Jani

 Concept of energy Band and Energy band gap

Department of Physics

Engineering Physics
(01GS1101)

Dr. Yogesh Jani

  INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
 Intrinsic structures are called the diamond-like
structures.
Department of Physics
 Each atom is surrounded by four nearest
Engineering Physics
neighbours. Si and Ge have four valence electrons. (01GS1101)

 In its crystalline structure, every Si or Ge atom

tends to share one of its four valence electrons with
each of its four nearest neighbour atoms, and also
to take share of one electron from each such
neighbour
Dr. Yogesh Jani
  INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR

 In intrinsic semiconductors,

Department of Physics

Engineering Physics
(01GS1101)

Dr. Yogesh Jani

  INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR

 Semiconductors posses the unique property in which,

apart from electrons, the holes also move. Department of Physics

Engineering Physics
(01GS1101)

Dr. Yogesh Jani

  INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR

 Under the action of an electric field, these holes move

towards negative potential giving the hole current, Ih . Department of Physics
The total current, I is thus the sum of the electron Engineering Physics
(01GS1101)
current Ie and the hole current Ih :

Dr. Yogesh Jani

  INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
 An intrinsic
semiconductor will
behave like an Department of Physics
insulator at T = 0 K as
Engineering Physics
shown in Fig. (01GS1101)

 It is the thermal
energy at higher
temperatures(T> 0K),
which excites some
electrons from the Dr. Yogesh Jani
valence band to the
conduction band.
  INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR

 Empty state in VB is called a hole, contributes in the

process of conduction. A hole can be regarded as a free
Department of Physics
particle with positive charge.
Engineering Physics
 Conduction band electron and corresponding valence (01GS1101)

band hole is together known as electron-hole pair (EHP).

 Si atom density is about 5x1022 atoms/cm3 while at room

temperature there are about 1010 EHP/cm3.

Dr. Yogesh Jani

  INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
• Comment:Si is first purified to very high degree,
99.999999999%, before making devices in it.
Si Department of Physics
e- Intrinsic : when
no impurities are Engineering Physics
added to the (01GS1101)
h+
material

At the equilibrium
Recombination rate, ri = gi, Generation rate

(electron/cm3) n = p (hole / cm3) n(Si)=1010 EHP/cm3 Dr. Yogesh Jani

  INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
 C, Si and Ge have same lattice structure.

 Why is C insulator while Si and Ge intrinsic Department of Physics

semiconductors?
Engineering Physics
(01GS1101)

Intrinsic conductivity increases at the rate of 5% per o C

for Ge and 7% per o C for Si. Dr. Yogesh Jani
 Germanium
Silicon versus Germanium
 Silicon diodes have, in general, higher PIV and current
rating and wider temperature ranges than germanium
diodes. Department of Physics

Engineering Physics
 PIV ratings for silicon can be in the neighbour hood of (01GS1101)
1000 V, whereas the maximum value for germanium is  Silicon
closer to 400 V.

 Silicon can be used for applications in which the

temperature may rise to about 200°C (400°F), whereas
germanium has a much lower maximum rating (100°C).
Dr. Yogesh Jani
 Effect of Temperature on Semiconductor
 At absolute temperature:

Department of Physics

Engineering Physics
(01GS1101)

 Why Semiconductor behave like Insulator at absolute

temperature? Dr. Yogesh Jani
 Effect of Temperature on Semiconductor

Above absolute zero:

 Origin of the negative temperature coefficient? Department of Physics

Engineering Physics
(01GS1101)

Dr. Yogesh Jani

  EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
 The conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor depends
on its temperature, but at room temperature its
conductivity is very low. Department of Physics

Engineering Physics
 As such, no important electronic devices can be (01GS1101)
developed using these semiconductors.

 Hence there is a necessity of improving their

conductivity. This can be done by making use of
impurities.

Dr. Yogesh Jani

  EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
 When a small amount, say, a few parts per million
(ppm), of a suitable impurity is added to the pure
semiconductor, the conductivity of the semiconductor is Department of Physics
increased manifold.
Engineering Physics
(01GS1101)
 Such materials are known as extrinsic semiconductors
or impurity semiconductors.

 Such a material is also called a doped semiconductor.

Dr. Yogesh Jani

  n-type semiconductor
 Suppose we dope Si or Ge
with a pentavalent element
as shown in Fig. Department of Physics

Engineering Physics
 When an atom of +5 (01GS1101)
valency element occupies
the position of an atom in
the crystal lattice of Si, four
of its electrons bond with
the four silicon neighbours
while the fifth remains very
weakly bound to its parent Dr. Yogesh Jani
atom.
  n-type semiconductor
 As a result the ionisation
energy required to set this
electron free is very small Department of Physics
and even at room
Engineering Physics
temperature it will be free to (01GS1101)
move in the lattice of the
semiconductor.

 For example, the energy

required is ~ 0.01 eV for
germanium, and 0.05 eV
for silicon. Dr. Yogesh Jani
  n-type semiconductor
 In a doped semiconductor the total
number of conduction electrons ne is
due to the electrons contributed by Department of Physics
donors and those generated
Engineering Physics
intrinsically, while the total number of (01GS1101)
holes nh is only due to the holes from
the intrinsic source.
 But the rate of recombination of holes
would increase due to the increase in
the number of electrons.
 As a result, the number of holes would
get reduced further. Dr. Yogesh Jani
  p-type semiconductor
 This is obtained when Si
or Ge is doped with a
trivalent impurity like Al, Department of Physics
B, In, etc.
Engineering Physics
(01GS1101)
 The dopant has one
valence electron less than
Si or Ge and, therefore,
this atom can form
covalent bonds with
neighbouring three Si
atoms but does not have Dr. Yogesh Jani
any electron to offer to the
fourth Si atom.
  p-type semiconductor
 For such a material, the holes are
the majority carriers and electrons
are minority carriers. Department of Physics

Engineering Physics
 Therefore, extrinsic semiconductors (01GS1101)
doped with trivalent impurity are
called p-type semiconductors.

Dr. Yogesh Jani

 Extrinsic semiconductors

Department of Physics

Engineering Physics
(01GS1101)

Dr. Yogesh Jani

Hole current
Generation of Hole current:

Department of Physics

Engineering Physics
(01GS1101)

Dr. Yogesh Jani

Electron current
Generation of Electron current:

Department of Physics

Engineering Physics
(01GS1101)

Dr. Yogesh Jani

  Energy Band diagram of Extrinsic semiconductors
 The semiconductor’s energy band
structure is affected by doping. In the
case of extrinsic semiconductors, Department of Physics
additional energy states due to donor
Engineering Physics
impurities (ED) and acceptor (01GS1101)
impurities (EA ) also exist.

 In the energy band diagram of n-type

Si semiconductor, the donor energy
level ED is slightly below the bottom
EC of the conduction band and
electrons from this level move into the Dr. Yogesh Jani
conduction band with very small
supply of energy.
  Energy Band diagram of Extrinsic semiconductors
 At room temperature,
most of the donor
atoms get ionised but Department of Physics
very few atoms of Si
Engineering Physics
get ionised. (01GS1101)

 So the conduction
band will have most
electrons coming from
the donor impurities, Energy band diagram of n -type
as shown in Fig.
Dr. Yogesh Jani
  Energy Band diagram of Extrinsic semiconductors
 for p-type semiconductor,
the acceptor energy level
EA is slightly above the Department of Physics
top EV of the valence
Engineering Physics
band as shown in fig. (01GS1101)

 With very small supply of

energy an electron from
the valence band can Energy band diagram of P -type
jump to the level EA and
ionise the acceptor
negatively. Dr. Yogesh Jani
  Energy Band diagram of Extrinsic semiconductors
 The electron and hole concentration in a semiconductor
in thermal equilibrium is given by,
Department of Physics

Engineering Physics
(01GS1101)
 Suppose a pure Si crystal has 5 × 1028 atoms m–3. It is
doped by 1 ppm concentration of pentavalent As.
Calculate the number of electrons and holes. Given that
ni =1.5 × 1016 m–3 . (Try your self)

Dr. Yogesh Jani

 Energy Band diagram of P –N Junction

Department of Physics

Engineering Physics
(01GS1101)

Dr. Yogesh Jani

 Energy Band diagram of P –N Junction
 The voltage applied to a pn junction falls mostly
across the depletion region,
Department of Physics

Engineering Physics
(01GS1101)

Dr. Yogesh Jani

  CONDUCTIVITY OF SEMICONDUCTOR:
 In a pure sc, the no. of holes is equal to the no. of
electrons.
Department of Physics
 Thermal agitation continue to produce new electron-
Engineering Physics
hole pairs and the electron hole pairs disappear because (01GS1101)
of recombination. with each electron hole pair created ,
two charge carrying particles are formed .

Dr. Yogesh Jani

  CONDUCTIVITY OFSEMICONDUCTOR:
 One is negative which is a free electron with mobility μn
The other is a positive i.e., hole with mobility μp .
Department of Physics
 The electrons and hole move in opposite direction in a
an electric field E, but since they are of opposite sign, Engineering Physics
(01GS1101)
the current due to each is in the same direction.

 Hence the total current density J within the intrinsic sc

is given by,
J = Jn + Jp
= q n μn E + q p μp E
= (n μn + p μp) qE Dr. Yogesh Jani
J=σE
  Revision Questions
1. In an n-type silicon, which of the following statement is
true:
(a) Electrons are majority carriers and trivalent atoms Department of Physics
are the dopants.
Engineering Physics
(01GS1101)
(b) Electrons are minority carriers and pentavalent atoms
are the dopants.

(c) Holes are minority carriers and pentavalent atoms are

the dopants.

(d) Holes are majority carriers and trivalent atoms are Dr. Yogesh Jani
the dopants.
  Revision Questions
2. Carbon, silicon and germanium have four valence
electrons each. These are characterised by valence and
conduction bands separated by energy band gap Department of Physics
respectively equal to (Eg )C , (Eg ) Si and (Eg )Ge. Which
Engineering Physics
of the following statements is true? (01GS1101)
(a) (Eg ) Si < (Eg )Ge < (Eg )C
(b) (Eg )C < (Eg )Ge > (Eg ) Si
(c) (Eg )C > (Eg )Si > (Eg )Ge
(d) (Eg )C = (Eg ) Si = (Eg )Ge
Dr. Yogesh Jani
  Revision Questions
3. In an unbiased p-n junction, holes diffuse from the p-
region to n-region because,
Department of Physics
(a) free electrons in the n-region attract them. Engineering Physics
(01GS1101)
(b) they move across the junction by the potential
difference.
(c) hole concentration in p-region is more as compared to
n-region.
(d) All the above Dr. Yogesh Jani
  Revision Questions
4. When a forward bias is applied to a p-n junction, it
(a) raises the potential barrier.
Department of Physics
(b) reduces the majority carrier current to zero.
Engineering Physics
(c) lowers the potential barrier. (01GS1101)

(d) None of the above.

Dr. Yogesh Jani

  Revision Questions
5. In an insulator, the number of electrons in the valence
shell in general is,
a) less than Department of Physics

Engineering Physics
b) more than (01GS1101)
c) equal to 4
d) none of these

Dr. Yogesh Jani

  Revision Questions
6. Not an example for intrinsic semiconductor,
a) Si
Department of Physics
b) Al
Engineering Physics
c) Ge (01GS1101)

d) Sn

Dr. Yogesh Jani

  Revision Questions
7. Electrons exist in____,
a) Valence band
Department of Physics
b) Conduction band
Engineering Physics
c) Forbidden band (01GS1101)

d) Both valence and conduction band

Dr. Yogesh Jani

  Revision Questions
8. What is the origin of energy bands in solids?
a) Atomic mass
Department of Physics
b) Temperature
Engineering Physics
c) Closely packed periodic structure of solid (01GS1101)

d) Atomic number of atoms in solid

Dr. Yogesh Jani

  Revision Questions
9. Which of the following decides electrical properties of a
solid?
a) Electronic configuration Department of Physics

Engineering Physics
b) Inter atomic distance (01GS1101)
c) Both Electronic configuration and Inter atomic distance
d) Neither Electronic configuration nor Inter atomic
distance

Dr. Yogesh Jani

  Revision Questions
10. Valence band of a semiconductor at 0 K will be __,
a) completely filled
Department of Physics
b) partially filled
Engineering Physics
c) completely empty (01GS1101)

d) either completely filled or completely empty

Dr. Yogesh Jani

  Revision Questions
11. Conduction band of a semiconductor at temperatures
above 0 K will be___,
a) completely filled Department of Physics

Engineering Physics
b) partially filled (01GS1101)
c) completely empty
d) either completely filled or completely empty

Dr. Yogesh Jani

  Revision Questions- Numerical
Example : 1
Find the resistance of an intrinsic germanium rod 1cm
long, 1mm wide and 1mm thick at 300K. For germanium Department of Physics
ni =2.5 x 1019 m-3 ; me = 0.39 m2V-1S-1 and
Engineering Physics
mh = 0.19 m2V-1S-1 (01GS1101)
( Ans. : 4310 ohm)

Dr. Yogesh Jani

  Revision Questions- Numerical
Example : 2
A silicon material is uniformly doped with phosphorus
atoms at a concentration of 2 x 1019 m-3 . The Mobility of Department of Physics
holes and electrons are 0.05 and 0.12 m2V-1S-1
Engineering Physics
respectively. ni = 1.5 x 1016 m3. Find the electron and (01GS1101)
hole concentration and its electrical conductivity.

Dr. Yogesh Jani

  Revision Questions- Numerical
Example : 2

Department of Physics
( Ans. : holes = 1.125 x 1013 m-3 , electrons = 2 x 1019 m-3
Engineering Physics
conductivity = 0.384 Ω-1 m-1 ) (01GS1101)

Dr. Yogesh Jani

 Rivision Points

Properties of Semiconductors

Department of Physics

Engineering Physics
(01GS1101)

Dr. Yogesh Jani

  Home work -Numericals
Example -1

Department of Physics

Engineering Physics
(01GS1101)

Example -2

Dr. Yogesh Jani

  Mobile carriers
 Silicon is the most commonly used semiconductor
material in the integrated circuit industry.
Department of Physics
 Silicon has four valence electrons and its atoms are
Engineering Physics
bound together by covalent bonds. At absolute zero (01GS1101)
temperature the valence band is completely filled with
electrons and no current flow can take place.

Dr. Yogesh Jani

  Mobile carriers
 The process of creating free electron-hole pairs is called
ionization.
Department of Physics
 The free electrons move in the conduction band.
Engineering Physics
(01GS1101)
 The average number of carriers (mobile electrons or
holes) that exist in an intrinsic semiconductor material
may be found from the mass-action law,

Dr. Yogesh Jani

 Mobile carriers

Department of Physics

Engineering Physics
(01GS1101)

Dr. Yogesh Jani

 Mobile carriers

Department of Physics

Engineering Physics
(01GS1101)

Dr. Yogesh Jani

  Mobile carriers
 The mobile carrier concentrations are dependent on the
width of the energy gap, Eg , measured with respect to the
thermal energy kT. Department of Physics

Engineering Physics
 For small values of T ( kT << Eg ), ni is small implying, (01GS1101)
there are less mobile carriers.

 For silicon, the equilibrium intrinsic concentration at

room temperature is,

Dr. Yogesh Jani

  Mobile carriers
 Of the two carriers that we find in semiconductors, the
electrons have a higher mobility than holes.
Department of Physics
 For example, intrinsic silicon at 300o K has electron
Engineering Physics
mobility of 1350 cm2 / volt-sec and hole mobility of (01GS1101)
480 cm2 / volt-sec.

 The conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor is given by

Dr. Yogesh Jani

  Mobile carriers (Extrinsic Semiconductors)
 Electron and hole concentrations
 Extrinsic semiconductors are formed by adding specific
amounts of impurity atoms to the silicon crystal. Department of Physics
 An n-type semiconductor is formed by doping the silicon
Engineering Physics
crystal with elements of group V of the periodic table (01GS1101)
(antimony, arsenic, and phosphorus)

 In a semiconductor material (intrinsic or extrinsic), the

law of mass action states that,
p n = constant
 For intrinsic semiconductors, p = n = ni
 So p n= ni2 Dr. Yogesh Jani
  Mobile carriers (Extrinsic Semiconductors)
 The law of mass action enables us to calculate the
majority and minority carrier density in an extrinsic
semiconductor material. Department of Physics
 The charge neutrality condition of a semiconductor
Engineering Physics
implies that, (01GS1101)

Dr. Yogesh Jani

  Mobile carriers (Extrinsic Semiconductors)
 In an n-type semiconductor, the donor concentration is
greater than the intrinsic electron concentration, i.e.,
ND is typically 1017 cm-3 and ni = 1.5 x 1010 cm-3 in Si at Department of Physics
room temperature.
Engineering Physics
 Thus, the majority and minority concentrations are given (01GS1101)
by

Dr. Yogesh Jani

  Mobile carriers (Extrinsic Semiconductors)
 In a p-type semiconductor, the acceptor concentration NA
is greater than the intrinsic hole concentration pi = ni .
Thus, the majority and minority concentrations are given Department of Physics
by
Engineering Physics
(01GS1101)

Dr. Yogesh Jani

  Revision -Examples
Example -1

Department of Physics

Engineering Physics
Ans : (1.38 x 1016 m-3) (01GS1101)

Example -2

Ans : (2.016 / Ohm -m, 1.44 x 104 / Ohm –m) Dr. Yogesh Jani
Fermi Energy level

Department of Physics

Engineering Physics
(01GS1101)

Dr. Yogesh Jani

Fermi Energy level

Department of Physics

Engineering Physics
(01GS1101)

Dr. Yogesh Jani

Fermi Energy level

Department of Physics

Engineering Physics
(01GS1101)

Dr. Yogesh Jani

Fermi Energy level

Department of Physics

Engineering Physics
(01GS1101)

Dr. Yogesh Jani

Fermi Energy level

Department of Physics

Engineering Physics
(01GS1101)

Dr. Yogesh Jani

  Revision (Try your self)

Example -1

Department of Physics

Engineering Physics
(01GS1101)

Example -2

Dr. Yogesh Jani

  Revision (Try your self)

Example -1 –Solution

Department of Physics

Engineering Physics
(01GS1101)

Dr. Yogesh Jani

 Revision (Try your self)

Example -2 –Solution
Department of Physics

Engineering Physics
(01GS1101)

Dr. Yogesh Jani

Fermi Energy level

Department of Physics

Engineering Physics
(01GS1101)

Dr. Yogesh Jani

Fermi Energy level

Department of Physics

Engineering Physics
(01GS1101)

Dr. Yogesh Jani

 Fermi Energy level
 The Fermi level, EF , is a chemical energy of a material.

 It is used to describe the energy level of the electronic Department of Physics

state at which an electron has the probability of 0.5
Engineering Physics
occupying that state. (01GS1101)

 It is given as,

Dr. Yogesh Jani

 Fermi Energy level
 In an intrinsic semiconductor (Si and Ge) mn* and mp*
are of the same order of magnitude and typically,
EF >> k T . Department of Physics

Engineering Physics
(01GS1101)

 In an n-type semiconductor, there is a shift of the Fermi

level towards the edge of the conduction band. The
upward shift is dependent on how much the doped
electron density has exceeded the intrinsic value.
 The relevant equation is
Dr. Yogesh Jani
 Fermi Energy level
 In the case of a p-type semiconductor, there is a
downward shift in the Fermi level.
Department of Physics
 The total hole density will be given by
Engineering Physics
(01GS1101)

Dr. Yogesh Jani

Fermi Energy level

Department of Physics

Engineering Physics
(01GS1101)

Dr. Yogesh Jani

  p-n JUNCTION
 Two important processes occur during the formation of
a p-n junction: diffusion and drift.
Department of Physics

Engineering Physics
(01GS1101)

Dr. Yogesh Jani

  p-n JUNCTION
 When an electron diffuses from n
to p, it leaves behind an ionised
donor on n-side. Department of Physics

Engineering Physics
 This ionised donor (positive (01GS1101)
charge) is immobile as it is bonded
to the surrounding atoms.

 As the electrons continue to

diffuse from n to p, a layer of
positive charge (or positive space-
charge region) on n-side of the Dr. Yogesh Jani
junction is developed.
  p-n JUNCTION
 This space-charge region on either side of the junction
together is known as depletion region as the electrons
and holes taking part in the initial movement across the Department of Physics
junction depleted the region of its free charges.
Engineering Physics
(01GS1101)

Dr. Yogesh Jani

  p-n JUNCTION
 In a piece of sc, if one half is doped by p type impurity
and the other half is doped by n type impurity, a PN
junction is formed. The plane dividing the two halves or Department of Physics
zones is called PN junction.
Engineering Physics
(01GS1101)
 As shown in the fig the n type material has high
concentration of free electrons, while p type material
has high concentration of holes

Dr. Yogesh Jani

  p-n JUNCTION
 Therefore at the junction there is a tendency of free
electrons to diffuse over to the P side and the holes to
the N side. This process is called diffusion. Department of Physics

Engineering Physics
 As a consequence of induced electric field across the (01GS1101)
depletion layer, an electrostatic potential difference is
established between P and N regions, which are called
the potential barrier, junction barrier, diffusion
potential or contact potential, Vo.

 Vo is 0.3V for Ge and 0.72 V for Si.

Dr. Yogesh Jani
  p-n JUNCTION
 The electrostatic field across the
junction caused by the positively
charged N-Type region tends to drive Department of Physics
the holes away from the junction
Engineering Physics
and negatively charged p type (01GS1101)
regions tend to drive the electrons
away from the junction.

 The majority holes diffusing out of

the P region leave behind negatively
charged acceptor atoms bound to the
lattice, thus exposing a negatives Dr. Yogesh Jani
pace charge in a previously neutral
region.
  p-n JUNCTION
 Similarly electrons diffusing
from the N region expose
positively ionized donor atoms Department of Physics
and a double space charge
Engineering Physics
builds up at the junction as (01GS1101)
shown in the fig.

Dr. Yogesh Jani

 p-n JUNCTION

Department of Physics

Engineering Physics
(01GS1101)

Dr. Yogesh Jani

  p-n JUNCTION
 It is noticed that the space charge
layers are of opposite sign to the
majority carriers diffusing into Department of Physics
them, which tends to reduce the
Engineering Physics
diffusion rate. (01GS1101)

 Thus the double space of the

layer causes an electric field to be
set up across the junction
directed from N to P regions,
which is in such a direction to
inhibit the diffusion of majority Dr. Yogesh Jani
electrons and holes as illustrated
in fig.
  p-n JUNCTION
 The shape of the charge
density, ρ, depends upon
how diode doped. Thus the Department of Physics
junction region is depleted
Engineering Physics
of mobile charge carriers. (01GS1101)

 Hence it is called depletion

layer, space region, and
transition region. The
depletion region is of the
order of 0.5µm thick. Dr. Yogesh Jani
  p-n JUNCTION
 There are no mobile carriers in
this narrow depletion region.
Department of Physics
 Hence no current flows across
Engineering Physics
the junction and the system is in (01GS1101)
equilibrium.

 To the left of this depletion

layer, the carrier concentration
is p= NA and to its right it is
n=ND.
Dr. Yogesh Jani
 p-n JUNCTION

Department of Physics

Engineering Physics
(01GS1101)

Dr. Yogesh Jani

 p-n JUNCTION

Department of Physics

Engineering Physics
(01GS1101)

Dr. Yogesh Jani

 p-n JUNCTION

Department of Physics

Engineering Physics
(01GS1101)

Dr. Yogesh Jani

 p-n JUNCTION

Department of Physics

Engineering Physics
(01GS1101)

Dr. Yogesh Jani

 p-n JUNCTION

Department of Physics

Engineering Physics
(01GS1101)

Dr. Yogesh Jani

 p-n JUNCTION

Department of Physics

Engineering Physics
(01GS1101)

Dr. Yogesh Jani

 p-n JUNCTION

Department of Physics

Engineering Physics
(01GS1101)

Dr. Yogesh Jani

  Home work examples (Try your self)
Example -1

Department of Physics

Ans : (J=5.9 x 109 Am-2) , m = 6.588 x 10-3 m2/V-sec Engineering Physics

(01GS1101)
Example -2

Dr. Yogesh Jani

Answers
  p-n junction diode under forward bias
 If the applied voltage is small, the barrier potential will
be reduced only slightly below the equilibrium value,
and only a small number of carriers in the material Department of Physics
those that happen to be in the uppermost energy levels
Engineering Physics
will possess enough energy to cross the junction. (01GS1101)

Dr. Yogesh Jani

  p-n junction diode under forward bias
 The direction of the applied voltage (V) is opposite to the
built-in potential V0 .
 As a result, the depletion layer width decreases and the Department of Physics
barrier height is reduced
Engineering Physics
(01GS1101)

Dr. Yogesh Jani

  p-n junction diode under forward bias
 When a diode is connected in a Forward Bias condition,
a negative voltage is applied to the N type material and
a positive voltage is applied to the P-type material. Department of Physics

Engineering Physics
 If this external voltage becomes greater than the value (01GS1101)
of the potential barrier, approx. 0.7 volts for silicon and
0.3 volts for germanium, the potential barriers
opposition will be overcome and current will start to
flow.

Dr. Yogesh Jani

 p-n junction diode under forward bias

Department of Physics

Engineering Physics
(01GS1101)

Dr. Yogesh Jani

  p-n junction diode under forward bias
 This is because the negative voltage
pushes or repels electrons towards the
junction giving them the energy to cross Department of Physics
over and combine with the holes being
Engineering Physics
pushed in the opposite direction towards (01GS1101)
the junction by the positive voltage.

 This results in a characteristics curve of

zero current flowing up to this voltage
point, called the "knee" on the static
curves and then a high current flow
through the diode with little increase in Dr. Yogesh Jani
the external voltage.
 p-n junction diode under forward bias

Department of Physics

Engineering Physics
(01GS1101)

Dr. Yogesh Jani

  p-n junction diode under reverse bias
 The electric field direction of the junction is such that if
electrons on p-side or holes on n-side in their random
motion come close to the junction, they will be swept to Department of Physics
its majority zone.
Engineering Physics
(01GS1101)
 This drift of carriers gives rise to current. The drift
current is of the order of a few mA.

Dr. Yogesh Jani

  p-n junction diode under reverse bias
 When a diode is connected in a Reverse Bias condition,
a positive voltage is applied to the N type material and
a negative voltage is applied to the P-type material. Department of Physics

Engineering Physics
 The positive voltage applied to the N-type material (01GS1101)
attracts electrons towards the positive electrode and
away from the junction, while the holes in the P-type
end are also attracted away from the junction towards
the negative electrode.

Dr. Yogesh Jani

  p-n junction diode under reverse bias
 The net result is that the depletion layer grows wider
due to a lack of electrons and holes and presents a high
impedance path, almost an insulator. Department of Physics

Engineering Physics
 The result is that a high potential barrier is created thus (01GS1101)
preventing current from flowing through the
semiconductor material.

Dr. Yogesh Jani

 p-n junction diode under reverse bias

Department of Physics

Engineering Physics
(01GS1101)

Dr. Yogesh Jani

  p-n junction diode under bias
 The circuit arrangement
for studying the V-I
characteristics of a Department of Physics
diode, (i.e., the variation
Engineering Physics
of current as a function (01GS1101)
of applied voltage) are
shown in figs.

 The battery is connected

to the diode through a
potentiometer (or
reheostat) so that the Dr. Yogesh Jani
applied voltage to the
diode can be changed.
  p-n junction V-I Characteristics
 A graph between V and I
is obtained as in fig.
Department of Physics
 Note that in forward
Engineering Physics
bias measurement, we (01GS1101)
use a milliammeter since
the expected current is
large (as explained in
the earlier section) while
a micrometer is used in
reverse bias to measure
the current. Dr. Yogesh Jani
 p-n junction V-I Characteristics

Department of Physics

Engineering Physics
(01GS1101)

Dr. Yogesh Jani

 p-n junction V-I Characteristics

Department of Physics

Engineering Physics
(01GS1101)

Dr. Yogesh Jani

 p-n junction V-I Characteristics effect of temperature

Department of Physics

Engineering Physics
(01GS1101)

Dr. Yogesh Jani

  Revision (Try your self)
Q.1 What are energy bands?

Q.2 What are values of band gaps for conductors, Department of Physics
semiconductors and semiconductors.
Engineering Physics
(01GS1101)
Q.3 What is 1 eV?

Q.4 What are diffusion and drift currents?

Q.5 What is depletion region?

Dr. Yogesh Jani

  Revision (Try your self)

Q.6 Define potential barriers. How does it varies with

forward and reverse bias? Department of Physics

Engineering Physics
Q.7 List the factors which affecting the width of depletion (01GS1101)
region?

Dr. Yogesh Jani

  Revision (Try your self)
1. A piece of copper and other of germanium are cooled
from the room temperature to 80K, then,
Department of Physics
a) resistance of each will increase Engineering Physics
(01GS1101)
b) resistance of copper will decrease
c) the resistance of copper will increase while that of
germanium will decrease
d) the resistance of copper will decrease while that of
germanium will increase Dr. Yogesh Jani
  Revision (Try your self)
2. In semiconductors at a room temperature,
a) the conduction band is completely empty
Department of Physics
b) the valence band is partially empty and the conduction
Engineering Physics
band is partially filled (01GS1101)

c) the valence band is completely filled and the conduction

band is partially filled
d) the valence band is completely filled

Dr. Yogesh Jani

  Revision (Try your self)
3. The difference in the variation of resistance with
temperature in semiconductor arises essentially due to
the difference in, Department of Physics
a) type of bonding Engineering Physics
(01GS1101)
b) crystal structure
c) scattering mechanism with temperature
d) number of charge carriers with temperature

Dr. Yogesh Jani

  Revision (Try your self)
4. The electron and hole concentrations in a intrinsic
semiconductor are ni and pi respectively. When doped
with a p-type material, these change to n and p, Department of Physics
respectively. Then:
Engineering Physics
a) n + p = ni + pi (01GS1101)

b) n + ni = p + pi
c) n p = ni pi
d) None of the above

Dr. Yogesh Jani

  Revision (Try your self)
5. At room temperature, the current in an intrinsic
semiconductor is due to
a) Holes Department of Physics

Engineering Physics
b) Electrons (01GS1101)
c) Holes and electrons
d) None of the above

Dr. Yogesh Jani

  Revision (Try your self)
6. Which of the following have a positive temperature
coefficient of resistance?
a) Good conductor Department of Physics

Engineering Physics
b) Semiconductor (01GS1101)
c) Insulators
d) Both semiconductors and insulators

Dr. Yogesh Jani

  Revision (Try your self)
7. Which of the following have a negative temperature
coefficient of resistance?
a) Good conductor Department of Physics

Engineering Physics
b) Semiconductor (01GS1101)
c) Insulators
d) Both semiconductors and insulators

Dr. Yogesh Jani

  Revision (Try your self)
8. Current in a semiconductor can be due to,
a) electric field
Department of Physics
b) density gradient of charge carriers
Engineering Physics
c) both electric field and density gradient of charge carriers (01GS1101)

d) either electric field or density gradient of charge carriers

Dr. Yogesh Jani

  Revision (Try your self)
9. Fermi energy level for n-type extrinsic semiconductors
lies,
a) At middle of the band gap Department of Physics

Engineering Physics
b) Close to conduction band (01GS1101)
c) Close to valence band
d) d) None

Dr. Yogesh Jani

  Revision (Try your self)
10. Fermi level for extrinsic semiconductor depends on,

a) Donor element Department of Physics

Engineering Physics
b) Impurity concentration (01GS1101)
c) Temperature
d) All

Dr. Yogesh Jani

  Revision (Try your self)

Example -1 :
The intrinsic carrier density at room Department of Physics
temperature is Ge is 2.37 x 1019m3. If
Engineering Physics
electron hole motilities are 0.38 and (01GS1101)
0.18 m2/V sec respectively, find out its
resistivity.
( Ans, 0.471 ohm – m)

Dr. Yogesh Jani

  Revision (Try your self)

Example -2 :
The electron and hole mobility in Department of Physics
intrinsic antimony are 6 and 0.2 m2/V sec.
Engineering Physics
At room temperature resistivity is 2 x 10-4 (01GS1101)
ohm–m. Assuming material is intrinsic,
determine intrinsic carrier density at room
temperature.
( Ans. 5.04 x 1021 /m3)
Dr. Yogesh Jani
 Department of Physics

Engineering Physics
(01GS2101)
Thank you for your kind attention

Yogesh Jani