Journal of Materials Processing Tech.

271 (2019) 85–92

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Materials Processing Tech.

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jmatprotec

Workpiece vibration augmented wire arc additive manufacturing of high T

strength aluminum alloy
⁎
Chen Zhanga, Ming Gaob, , Xiaoyan Zengb
a
The Institute of Technological Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, PR China
b
Wuhan National Laboratory for Optoelectronics, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430074, PR China

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Associate Editor: E. Budak Wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) aluminum alloys faced the challenges of high porosity, coarse mi-
Keywords: crostructures, and low mechanical performance. This study tried to suppress these imperfections by developing a
Additive manufacturing new approach, which employed workpiece vibration to augment the WAAM with variable polarity cold metal
Aluminum alloy transfer arc. The microstructures were analyzed by scanning electron microscope, electron back-scattered dif-
Vibration fraction and transmission electron microscope in details. Some new phenomena caused by the workpiece vi-
Tensile properties bration were found. Firstly, the workpiece vibration broke the dendrite arms by introducing the bending stress
on them, and then refined the grains by promoting the formation of more nuclei. This effect reduced the average
grain size by 22.5% max compared to the non-vibrating sample. Secondly, the workpiece vibration induced a
strong stir in the molten pool, which removed the fine grain zone at the interlayers and suppressed the porosity
of tensile fracture from 6.66% to 1.52%. Finally, the optimized microstructures increased the ultimate tensile
strength (UTS) of the vibrated samples up to 343 MPa, which exceeded the wrought alloys with the UTS less than
340 MPa.

1. Introduction WAAM technology. Colegrove et al. (2016) found that the post rolling
after WAAM could reduce the porosity. The rolling process greatly
Lightweight requirements of new aerospace structures produce in- limited the manufacture of cantilever and thin-walled structures. Sun
creasing applications of topologically optimized structures of aluminum et al. (2018) combined WAAM with laser shock peening in manu-
alloy. Additive manufacturing (AM) is the most suitable mothed for the facturing 2219 alloy parts, which produced finer grains, high density
structures. Wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) of large and dislocations and twins. The average grain size decreased from 59.7 μm
complex components has enormous advantages in cost and efficiency as to 45.7 μm and residual tensile stress converted to compressive stress,
reported by Derekar (2018). The multi-layer accumulation of WAAM which increased the yield strength by 72%. The laser shock peening
cause multiple thermal cycle effects and surface oxide remelting, which technology can only work on the surface, and the high cost greatly
makes the WAAM aluminum alloy difficult to achieve finer micro- offset the low cost advantage of WAAM. Vibration assisted welding
structures, low porosity and high strength. Novel approaches are (VAW) is able to reduce residual stresses and distortions, and improves
needed to improve WAAM aluminum alloys. mechanical properties of weld. The VAW becomes a successful re-
Cong et al. (2015) found that a variable polarity cold metal transfer placement for heat treatments and post-weld treatments as reported by
(VP-CMT) arc significantly reduced the porosity of WAAM Al-Cu alloy. Jose et al. (2016). Inspired by the VAW, Cunningham et al. (2018)
Zhang et al. (2018) discovered that the VP-CMT arc in WAAM Al-Mg expected that vibration augmented WAAM would be an effective so-
alloy not only reduced the porosity but also transformed coarse co- lution to suppress defects and improve mechanical property. The actual
lumnar grains into fine equiaxed grains. The micro pores on the inter- research for the vibration augmented WAAM has not been carried out
layers still existed, which leaded to anisotropy of the mechanical until now, and it will be the subject of this study.
property. In view of the successful application of hybrid methods in The main alloy elements of Al alloys contain Si, Cu, Mg and so on. Si
selective laser melting as reported by Ning et al. (2018) and laser en- and Cu elements, that are not sensitive to absorb H element, benefit the
gineered net shaping as reported by Das et al. (1999), one of the di- elimination of pores. Brice et al. (2015) reported that the mechanical
rections to solve the quality problem is developing appropriate hybrid properties of the WAAM Al-Cu exceeded the level of wrought aluminum

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (M. Gao).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2019.03.028
Received 8 October 2018; Received in revised form 15 March 2019; Accepted 19 March 2019
Available online 21 March 2019
0924-0136/ © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
C. Zhang, et al. Journal of Materials Processing Tech. 271 (2019) 85–92

Fig. 1. Schematic of the vibration augmented WAAM and the test samples.

alloys after heat treatment. Because Mg element has strong absorption In this study, the pores in a WAAM deposit layer were so small
capacity of H and O elements, Horgar et al. (2018) discovered that the (generally ≤ 100 μm) that were not detected by ordinary precision X-
pore defects in WAAM Al-Mg alloys were difficult to suppress and de- ray nondestructive testing. Because the tensile cracks propagate along
velopments of new feedstock must be targeted. This research aimed to the pores concentration zone, the distribution of the pores on the tensile
address the issue of Al-Mg alloys by the vibration augmented WAAM. It fracture reflects the degree of pore. The SEM images of the tensile
focused on the effects of workpiece vibration on the defects, micro- fractures were used to calculate the porosity. The porosity is the per-
structures and mechanical properties. centage of total pores area to fracture area referencing to the statistical
method in standard ISO 10,042. The tensile tests were conducted in
2. Experimental procedure accordance with the standard ISO 6892-1, and the ultimate tensile
strength (UTS), yield strength (YS) and elongation were recorded. The
Fig. 1 is a schematic diagram of the experimental setup. The WAAM results were the average of three samples at a stretching speed of 2 mm
system integrated a Fronius CMT-Advanced welder, a Fanuc 710i ro- min−1. The anisotropic calculation method of the tensile properties is
botic arm, and a SHENHUA SHZG2106 vibration aging system (or Vi- that the absolute value of the difference between the transverse and
bratory Stress Relief, VSR). The welder adopted the VP-CMT mode. The longitudinal property ratio the larger of the properties.
vibration mode is half-sine according to the principle of vibration aging.
The feedstock was Al-Mg wire having a diameter of 1.2 mm and Table 1 3. Results
shows its compositions. The substrate was pure aluminum. The
shielding gas was pure argon. Table 2 shows the experimental para- 3.1. Microstructures
meters. The acceleration of workpiece vibration, which can reflect the
change of vibration energy or vibration intensity, was studied as the The vibration significantly refined grain size and homogenized grain
only variable. It is determined by the rotating speed and the eccentric distribution. Fig. 2 shows the EBSD grain orientation distribution of all
distance of the exciter. It is also the variable that the vibrator can samples, and Fig. 3 is the corresponding grain size statistics. Fig. 2a-d
control freely. The acceleration determined the vibration frequency and illustrates that all the grain morphologies are equiaxed and have no
amplitude. The resulting frequencies of the acceleration were 35.7, 36.3 evident orientation distribution. The blue region in Fig. 2e-h is the
and 37.3 Hz respectively according to the rotating speed of the exciter. distribution of the grains with a size smaller than 20 μm, and the area
The amplitude of oscillation was estimated value. The vibration aging ratios are 5.8%, 9.8%, 8.7%, and 13.5%, respectively. The grains
equipment started to work first, and when it became stable, the WAAM smaller than 20 μm in the samples #1 and #2 are mostly concentrated
process began. at the interlayers, which produces finer grain zones. When the vibration
As shown in Fig. 1, the metallographic sample containing central acceleration increases to 15 m s−2 or more, the grain size of the samples
deposited layer and interlayer was used for microstructure analysis, and #3 and #4 is evenly distributed and the concentration phenomenon
the crystal structure was analyzed by electron backscatter diffraction disappears. Fig. 3a illustrates that, when taking the finer grain zone
(EBSD) of scanning electron microscope (SEM). The EBSD samples were under consideration, the average grain size decreases from 28.50 to
mechanically ground and then electropolished with 90% perchloric 22.10 μm as the vibration acceleration increases from 0 to 20 m s−2,
acid and 10% absolute ethyl alcohol for 20 s. The voltage and the with a drop of 22.5%. Furthermore, the average grain size of the
current were 27 V and 1 A, respectively. The precipitates and the dis- samples #1 and #2 are 40.8 and 29.8 μm respectively when ignoring
locations were analyzed by transmission electron microscopy (TEM). the finer grain zone, which are higher than that with finer grain zone.
The TEM samples were mechanically thinned to about 50 μm and then This result means a strong grain refining effect. Fig. 3b indicates that
electropolished in the solution of nitric acid (33 vol. %) and methanol vibration can increase the proportion of small grain size. Fig. 3c is the
(67 vol. %) with temperature of 253 K and current of 12 A. misorientation statistical diagrams of grain boundary angle. The mis-
orientation angles of all samples are close to random distribution and
Table 1
no obvious texture was formed.
Compositions of Al-Mg alloy feedstock content (Weight mass fraction, %). The vibration could not change the number of precipitation
strengthening phases and dislocations. Fig. 4 is TEM microstructures of
Elements Mg Mn Si Ti Fe Al
the vibration sample and the non-vibrating sample. Although the wire
Content 6.12 0.48 0.23 0.18 0.15 Bal used in the experiment contained a small amount of alloying elements
such as Si and Ti which can synthesize the strengthening phase, samples

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Table 2
WAAM parameters.
No. Acceleration (m s−1) Frequency (Hz) Amplitude (mm) Scanning speed Heat input Interlayer wait-time Wire filling speed
(m s−1) (J mm−1) (s) (m s−1)

1 0 0 0 0.00613 177 (Arc current 103 A, Arc voltage 11.7 V) 60 0.1167

2 10 35.7 ＜1
3 15 36.3 ＜1
4 20 37.3 ＜1

#1 and #4 have no precipitation strengthening particle, which is a although micro pores exist in the fracture of all samples. The transverse
typical microstructure characteristic of non-heat-treatable Al alloy after samples have higher porosity than the longitudinal samples, which are
remelting. The number of dislocations is scarce, indicating the dis- similar to the author's previous study in Zhang et al. (2018). The por-
location proliferation caused by vibration is not significant. osity of the longitudinal and transverse non-vibrating samples were
4.72% and 6.66%, respectively. As the vibration acceleration increases,
the porosity of the longitudinal sample decreases approximate linearly
3.2. Mechanical property
to 1.52%. When the vibration acceleration is 10 mm s−1, the porosity of
the transverse sample does not decrease significantly. Instead, it de-
In general, the vibration is beneficial to improve the tensile strength
creases steadily with the further increase of acceleration, reaching a
of WAAM specimens, and unfavorable to the elongation and the ani-
minimum of 2.16%, which is close to the longitudinal sample.
sotropy. Fig. 5a shows the influence of the vibration acceleration on
UTS, YS and elongation. Both the longitudinal and transverse UTS in-
crease with increasing vibration acceleration. The max transverse UTS
4. Discussions
increases by about 20 MPa and the max longitudinal UTS increases by
about 30 MPa compared with the non-vibrating sample. The max UTS
4.1. Mechanism of vibration induced grain refinement
of 343 MPa greatly exceeded that of wrought Al-6Mg alloys, which is
less than 340 MPa under normal conditions. The longitudinal and
The solidification of molten pool is a dendrite epitaxial growth
transverse YSs of the vibrating samples are also improved. However, the
process of the impurity particles or the inner wall of the molten pool as
YSs are stable in the range of 181–191 MPa as the vibration acceleration
the heterogeneous nuclei. The grain refinement is to produce more
increases. There is no obvious change trend. As the vibration accel-
nuclei according to Murty et al. (2002). The workpiece vibration in this
eration increases, the longitudinal elongation is stable at about 22%,
study further enhanced the degree of grain refinement, indicating for-
and the transverse elongation is in the range of 6–12%. Fig. 5b shows
mation of more nuclei. Kou (2002) concluded that the nucleation me-
the anisotropy statistics of tensile properties. The tensile strengths and
chanisms mainly included: nucleating agents, molten pool super-
elongation show obvious anisotropy, but there is no obvious linear
cooling, and dendrite fragments. The vibration and non-vibrating
variation law. The YS anisotropy coefficient of the non-vibrating sample
samples applied the same feedstock containing grain refinement ele-
is about 2.03%, and that of the vibration sample is close to zero.
ments such as Ti and the same arc energy. The constant elemental
composition cannot produce more nuclei. The constant arc energy
3.3. Tensile fracture and porosity cannot make the molten pool cooler to produce more nuclei. The nu-
cleation of dendrite fragments caused by vibration is likely the main
Fig. 6 shows the tensile fractures of the vibration samples, and the mechanism of grain refinement. Kocatepe and Burdett (2000) reported
corresponding porosity statistical curves are shown in Fig. 7. The in- that the nucleation mechanism of dendrite fragments under low fre-
crease of vibration acceleration significantly reduces the porosity quency vibration could be explained as follows. (1) Turbulence of liquid

Fig. 2. EBSD results; (a)˜(d): inverse pole figure map; (e)˜(f): grain map with grain size less than 20 μm; (a) (e): sample #1 with av = 0 m s−2; (b) (f): sample #2 with
av = 10 m s−2; (c) (g): sample #3 with av = 15 m s−2; (d) (h): sample #4 with av = 20 m s−2.

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Fig. 3. Crystal structure statistical distribution; (a) average grain size; (b) grain size statistics; (c) misorientation angle statistics.

around dendrite arms impacts the dendrite arms. (2) Temperature (4.42 × 103 kg m−3 for Al-Mg from Zhang et al. (2017)), η is the
fluctuations remelt the necks of dendrite arms. (3) The vibration in- viscosity of the liquid (3.25 × 10-3 N s m-2 for Al-Mg from Zhang et al.
duces movement of the liquid between the solid dendrites subjects the (2017)), f is the frequency, a is the amplitude. The melt flow with a Re
growing dendrites to bending stresses and overthreshold bending below 10 is laminar, and above 103 is turbulent, while between the two
stresses break the dendrite arms. values is mixed according to Campbell (1981). The diameter of the
Campbell (1981) reported that the workpiece vibration drived the dendrite arm was always smaller than the grain size. We brought the
vibration of the molten pool, which caused a turbulence. The stronger parameters of grain size, frequency and amplitude into Eq. 1, and found
the turbulence, the easier it is to break the dendrites. The Reynolds that the calculated Re of the samples #1-#4 were all less than 10, which
number – Re, which characterizes the intensity of the turbulence caused proved that the workpiece vibration hardly caused turbulence. The
by vibration, can be expressed as: turbulence is not the dominant mechanism to further strengthen the
dendritic fracture. The heat transfer theory has shown that the stronger
2πdρfα the turbulent flow, the more intense the convective heat transfer pro-
Re =
η (1) cess and the greater the temperature fluctuation according to Patankar
(1980). The turbulence caused by the workpiece vibration is weak, so
where d is the diameter of the dendrite arm, ρ is the density of liquid

Fig. 4. TEM results; (a) sample #1 with av = 0 m s−2; (b) sample #4 with av = 20 m s−2.

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Fig. 5. Tensile properties; (a) tensile strengths and elongation in different tensile direction; (b) anisotropic percentage of tensile strengths and elongation.

the temperature fluctuation will not increase further. The bending

stresses mechanism is most likely the reason for more nuclei.
The bending stresses mechanism generated by the workpiece vi-
bration is shown in Fig. 8. The melt flow caused by VP-CMT has already
shattered part of the dendrites and the remaining dendrites are shorter
in length according to Zhang et al. (2017). When the workpiece vi-
bration drives the remaining dendrite arms, the interdendritic melt
blocks the movement of the dendrites, and they exert a force on each
other. This force produces bending stresses on the dendrite arms. Since
the molten pool temperature of the epitaxial dendrite region is close to
the melting point, the mechanical strength of the dendrites is low ac-
cording to Kocatepe and Burdett (2000). It is obvious that the greater
the vibration acceleration, the greater the bending stresses. When the
stresses exceed a certain threshold, the dendrites will fragment and
more nuclei will be produced to refine grain size.

4.2. Mechanism of vibration induced disappearance of fine grain zone Fig. 7. Porosity percentages of fracture surfaces.

The vibration eliminated interlayer fine grain zone and homo- grain zone formed. After the workpiece vibration was added, the con-
genized grain structure, which is beneficial to restrict the anisotropy of vection flow was enhanced and more heat was transfered to the edge of
the microstructures and mechanical properties. The formation me- the molten pool, which increased the temperature gradient on the
chanism of fine grain zone at the interlayer is explored firstly as shown solid/liquid interface according to Yuan et al. (2016). Most of the
in Fig. 9. According to the solidification principle, the actual liquid broken dendrites entered inside the molten pool with the convection
temperature is below the liquidus temperature at the solid/liquid in- flow and melted, so the fine grain zone disappeared.
terface, which will generate supercooling and a mushy zone. At a high
degree of supercooling, the mushy zone becomes so wide that it is easer
for the equiaxed dendrites to nucleate than for the columanr dendrites 4.3. Mechanism of vibration induced porosity decreasing
to stretch. A fine grain zone forms finally. The WAAM interlayer is lo-
cated in the molten pool boundary, and the solidification process was The main source of pores in the arc welding process is the gas ele-
similar to the above process when it was not vibrated, so that the fine ment inside the raw material, so keeping the welding material and the

Fig. 6. Fracture surface morphology; (a) longitudinal #1; (b) longitudinal #2; (c) longitudinal #3; (d) longitudinal #4; (e) transverse #1; (f) transverse #2; (g)
transverse #3; (h) transverse #4.

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Fig. 8. The illustration of the further grain refinement based on the bending stresses generated by workpiece vibration; (a) weld pool with conventional pulse arc; (b)
weld pool with VP-CMT; (c) partially magnified weld pool (part A in (b)) at the beginning of vibration; (d) weld pool after vibration stabilization.

shielding gas clean is an effective way to suppress pores according to 4.4. Effects of vibration on mechanical properties
Toda et al. (2009). As shown in Fig. 10, WAAM is a process of multi-
layer depositing and the active element Mg in the Al-Mg alloy leads to a In addition to metallurgical defects, the microstructures such as
particularly large number of oxides on the surface of deposit layers. The grain size, precipitation strengthening phase, and high-density dis-
surface remelting of the deposit layers allows the oxides to be in- locations can hinder dislocation motion and crystal face slip, which is a
corporated into the molten pool. These oxide layers are difficult to be decisive factor for improving the mechanical properties of metals. The
removed efficiently during continuous AM processing. Therefore, comprehensive analysis of the microstructures showed that the most
overflowing the bubbles in the molten pool is the main way to suppress obvious change of the microstructures after workpiece vibration was
the pores. The molten pool stirring is conducive to bubble overflow as the reduction of porosity and grain refinement. The increased me-
reported by Cong et al. (2015). The workpiece vibration added a re- chanical strength is mainly attributed to these two factors. Although the
ciprocating force to the melt flow, which strengthened the molten pool mechanical properties of the workpiece vibration samples are im-
stirring and benefited the overflow of internal bubbles. proved, there are significant differences in the anisotropic degree of
UTS and YS. The UTS has a large anisotropy percentage, which is
caused by the unevenness of the micropores and microstructures on the
interlayers. The interlayer pores are more likely to reduce the

Fig. 9. The illustration of the disappearance of the fine grain zone; (a) generation of fine crystal zone; (b) workpiece vibration eliminating fine crystal zone; (i):
liquidus temperature profile in liquid, (ii): molten pool boundary, (iii): solidified microstructures at the molten pool boundary.

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Fig. 10. The illustration of the decrease of porosity; (a) schematic cross section of the processing of a deposited layer without workpiece vibration; (b) schematic
cross section of the processing of a deposited layer with workpiece vibration. (i): before processing, (ii): during processing, (iii): after processing.

transverse strength according to Zhang et al. (2018), and the interlayer Acknowledgments
of the finer grain is beneficial to the longitudinal strength enhancement.
Micropores have less influence on YS according to Ashton et al. (1975) This research is financially supported by the National Natural
and the microstructures are isotropic, thus the YS in this research has Science Foundation of China (Grant Nos. 51775206and51605343) and
almost no anisotropy. the Hubei Provincial Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant
No.2017CFB492).
5. Conclusion
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