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The Crime Scene
A Visual Guide

Marilyn T. Miller
Peter Massey

AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON


NEW YORK • OXFORD • PARIS • SAN DIEGO
SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • SYDNEY • TOKYO

Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier


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Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including
photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on
how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such
as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions.

This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be
noted herein).

Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes
in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods,
compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the
safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.

To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or
damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods,
products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.

ISBN: 978-0-12-801245-1

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Dedication

Marilyn T. Miller
As I look through the many book offerings in crime scene investigation I never cease to be amazed. I will never believe
that one television series is responsible for the explosion of interest in crime scene investigation. I believe it is a public
awakening centered on using physical evidence and not just solving a case by confession or eyewitnesses. The explosion
has helped keep me working with amazing crime scene professionals and equally amazing students who cannot wait to get
the job done! I dedicate this text book to those professionals and students. Thank you for wanting to learn and to always
do the best job they can do. This textbook is the result of a “war storytelling” session with Pete. On my goodness, how I
treasure our friendship! Patience and pride from home is important too! So, to home, thanks for the space and I hope to
always make you proud.

Peter Massey
We have spent countless hours teaching and training students and professionals the proper and correct way in which to
recognize, evaluate, document, and collect evidence from forensic scenes. It is for those past students and those who will
follow that drive the passion to offer this book. To my children, Emily, Abigail, Rebecca, and Zachary—you are never too
old to grow and learn—and to give back. To Brooke and Sharon thank you for your contributions. Marilyn—mere words
cannot express my love and respect for you, and for your support and guidance throughout our friendship. To my best
friend, soul mate, and absolute love of my life, my wife Sandy, thank you for all of your support and sacrifices for me.
Foreword

I appreciate the opportunity to introduce this new textbook on crime scene investigation and procedures by a pair of authors
who have long and varied theoretical and practical experience in this area. This book emphasizes the visual—principles are
highlighted and discussed using crime scene visuals as centerpieces. This approach follows the idea that the use of visuals
with text is a more effective instructional tool than text alone—an idea with considerable support in the learning techniques
literature.
The book is divided into three parts, each containing several chapters. Part I introduces basic concepts upon which crime
scene investigation is based, and discusses all important fourth amendment search-and-seizure rules. Preliminary scene
procedures are included in this part. Part II is primarily about scene and evidence documentation, as well as searching. Its
title, “Making a Scene Relevant” summarizes the importance of these activities. In Part III, Concluding Processes, we learn
about reconstruction activities, current technologies, and some concluding remarks by the authors.
Chapter 1 covers important basic concepts. It is important for investigators to consider the types of physical evidence
that might be found at scenes, and also their uses, i.e., how might a physical evidence item help inform the case. The scien-
tific basis for crime scene investigation is the Locard Exchange Principle, the idea that when things come into contact, they
exchange some matter. The issue in crime scene investigation is whether or not these mutual exchanges are recognizable or
detectable. In some instances, such as where a fingerprint is deposited or a DNA-containing body fluid trace left, the matter
is comparatively easy. In others, such as where small quantities of trace may be left behind, it is not so easy. An important
point is that recognition of physical evidence at a scene is the sine qua non for everything that follows. In the search for
evidence, a scientific approach involves hypothesis formation. There can be more than one hypothesis, more than one set
of events and circumstances that could have led to the scene at hand. The hypothesis—the “educated guess” as to what
might have happened—can inform the search for evidence. It is this approach that separates crime scene investigation from
crime scene processing. Chapter 1 also discusses the 4th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution which governs legal aspects
of search and seizure. Physical evidence is not useful by definition unless it is admissible. Crime scene investigators do not
have to be lawyers, but they have to understand the constraints governing admissibility, when a search warrant is required,
etc. Chapter 2 looks at initial procedures. Highlights here include the actions of first responders and initial scene survey and
security implementation. Multilevel scene security procedures insure that the core scene is properly protected while still
providing work and staging areas for authorized personnel.
In Part II, Chapters 3, 4, and 5 cover scene and evidence documentation. There must be a good and recoverable record
of a scene’s initial condition and the location in context of every relevant item of physical evidence. In a case of perfect
documentation, a scene could literally be “reconstructed” from the documentation. Documentation includes notes, photog-
raphy, videography, and sketching. Each has a specific role, and none of them is replaceable by another one. Crime scene
investigators must be familiar with the detailed technical aspects of video, photography, and sketching. With the exception
of items actually collected from a scene, only the documentation record will be available later after the scene has been
released. Complete documentation is thus a requirement. Sometimes, video records, photographs, and finished sketches are
presented as evidence at trials. These are the only ways the trier of fact can understand how the scene appeared. Chapter 6
discusses searching for evidence at the scene. There are different “methods” of searching, applicable to different scenes and
circumstances. But as noted, the key to thorough searches is a consideration of the overall scene and circumstances.
Specialized lighting and other equipment or specialized chemicals may also be helpful or necessary. In recent years, laboratory
analytical methods have gotten more and more sensitive. This development makes it necessary for crime scene investigators
to don protective clothing and footwear to keep any of their own traces from contaminating the scene (as well as to protect
them from any potentially hazardous materials within the scene).
Part III, the final part, discusses Concluding Processes. Chapter 7 is about reconstruction. Good crime scene inves-
tigators, in collaboration with lab scientists and other forensic specialists like pathologists, anthropologists, etc., can do
reconstructions. Good reconstructions are based on good scene investigation and documentation. Reconstructions arise
from hypothesis formulation and testing. The physical evidence record informs the hypothesis, and the “best fit” hypothesis

xi
xii Foreword

to all the physical and investigative information represents a reconstruction. Many (probably most) reconstructions are
incomplete—not everything that happened will be known. It is important to distinguish between things that are actually
known and things that are part of a “best fit hypothesis.” An investigator may know for certain what caused a certain blood
pattern, for example, but might not know when in a sequence of events that pattern was formed. Reconstructions are not
scientific records of what actually happened overall. They are models which comport with all the available physical and
investigative information. Chapter 8 is about newer technologies, including those for software-based scene documentation,
for measurement, and lab techniques that may be used at a scene. There is a general trend toward the development of sophis-
ticated technologies (such as DNA profiling) that are portable and can be taken to and used at crime scenes. Realization
and implementation of these will have a huge impact on crime scene investigation efficiency and case resolution. Settling
questions such as whose blood made a pattern, what drugs are around, whose fingerprints are on an item, etc. at a scene,
instead of weeks or months later after lab analysis, would revolutionize case processing. Chapter 9 is a recap of the crime
scene process emphasizing important principles. This thinking hearkens back to the uses of physical evidence discussed
earlier. To be useful to the case, the physical evidence must have probative value, i.e., it must be able to tell investigators
something relevant about the case.
Each chapter is complete with learning objectives and discussion questions. Overall, the book is an outstanding intro-
duction to crime scene investigation. The visual approach, which is novel, should be helpful to practicing and aspiring crime
scene investigators on many levels, and will be an important pedagogic addition to the crime scene investigation literature.

R.E. Gaensslen, PhD


Professor Emeritus, Forensic Science
University of Illinois, Chicago
Preface

Crime scene investigation is about details and experience. Crime scene investigation skills are learned by doing and trying.
But how do you get the skills and experience without actually working a crime scene? There are many fine textbooks out
there that address the issue of crime scene investigation—some are just about the scene and some are about the scene and
the laboratory testing of the evidence from the scene. So, why yet another book on crime scene investigation? This textbook
is different, it briefly describes and then puts the visual experience in the face of the user. Bloom’s taxonomy of learning
shows that students learn better when they can visualize and then apply the skills while hearing new topics or ideas. This
text provides the visual aspect of learning crime scene investigation. The application of skills should follow for the student.
This text does not address the hands-on learning—there are other texts for that purpose.

xiii
Introduction

PURPOSE FOR TEXTBOOK


There are a plethora of excellent books already in print on how to instruct individuals on what may be called generally
accepted practices in processing a crime scene. The basic fundamentals for most of these texts are legal search, evidence
recognition, enhancement as part of a search, documentation, and collection/packaging. While these books have filled
bookshelves and have been used in many academic courses, as well as in service training classes, practical experience has
indicated that while individuals are trained the “correct way,” many continually operate in an “incorrect” mode. This text-
book has a unique method for correcting the “incorrect” processes that continue. It will indicate, using actual photographs,
errors, mistakes, and improper techniques and then will also visually indicate the “correct” way in which to process a crime
scene. The result will be less crime scenes and physical evidence compromised. There are currently no books available in
print using this style of instruction.
This textbook has a basis as presented because it represents the combined experience of almost 70 years in crime scene
investigation as primary responders and consultants giving testimony in all levels of courts in the USA. Additionally the
textbook is presented in such a manner so as to present academically sound pedagogy by use of learning objectives and
critical thinking exercises.

TEXTBOOK ORGANIZATION
For each of the topics presented in the chapters, actual crime scene photographs are presented to illustrate the improper or
incorrect procedures that have been used in actual investigations. For comparison and corrective purposes examples of the
correct procedures are present.
The chapters are organized into three majors parts based on Part I—Preliminary Preparations, Part II—Making a Scene
Relevant by Documentation, and finally, Part III—Concluding Processes.
Part I—Chapter 1, Crime Scene Investigations, discusses the use and significance of physical evidence found at crime
scenes. The importance of the Locard Exchange Principle and legal implications for crime scene investigators is presented.
Chapter 2, Initial On-Scene Procedures, presents procedures and use of first responders, discusses the proper use and setup
for scene security, and the correct utilization of the preliminary scene survey.
Part II—Chapter 3, Notes and Videography, presents two of the components for documenting a crime scene. This
chapter compares correct and incorrect methods with challenges for taking notes and using the video for a visual record
of a crime scene. Chapter 4, Photography, again compares the correct and incorrect methods with challenges or barriers.
Additionally, because photography is the major technique for documenting a crime scene and its evidence, Chapter 4
discusses the issue of redundancies with photographs. Documentation process of sketching is presented in Chapter 5. The
various methods of sketching with their challenges are discussed. Finally, Chapter 6 shows methods for intensive searching
of crime scenes for evidence based on its composition along with on-scene testing.
Part III includes discussions of final or off-scene processes done as part of a crime scene investigation and future
considerations of crime scene investigation methodologies based on the physical evidence found at the scene. Chapter 7
looks at reconstruction activities; Chapter 8 identifies some current technologies; and Chapter 9 includes final thoughts on
the probative value of physical evidence at the scene.

USERS
The target users for this text are any current crime scene investigators, potential crime scene investigators in training, law
enforcement officers, criminal justice majors in college, law enforcement academies, medicolegal investigators, forensic
science laboratories, colleges or universities that have forensic science programs, fire fighters and investigators, accident
investigators, private and corporate investigators, and even criminal attorneys and their investigators.

xv
Chapter 1

Crime Scene Investigations

Chapter Outline
Types of Physical Evidence and Crime Scenes 3 Legal Concerns for the Crime Scene
Use of Physical Evidence Found Investigator11
at the Crime Scene 5 Discussion Questions 14
Locard Exchange Principle 6 Example Mincey Warrant Template 15
General Processes and Procedures
at the Crime Scene 6
Scientific Crime Scene Investigation 11

Learning Objectives
Upon completion of this chapter the reader should be able to:
l Identify various types of physical evidence found at a crime scene and the usefulness of the evidence in a criminal investi-
gation.
l Discuss and apply the Locard Exchange Principle to the investigation of crime scenes.
l Identify and utilize a variety of general processes and procedures to begin a crime scene investigation.
l Understand and apply legal requirements as part of a crime scene investigation.

TYPES OF PHYSICAL EVIDENCE AND CRIME SCENES


Any attempt at identifying all the types of physical evidence that could be found at a crime scene would be folly. See
Photo 1.1.
Physical evidence can be anything. It is oftentimes not always visible to the investigator. Visualization and enhancement
to assist searching for physical evidence at scenes must be done and become part of every scene investigation. Just using
your sight is not enough. This is especially true with bloodstained impressions. (See unenhanced bloody footwear impres-
sion and enhanced bloody enhancement in Figure 1.1.)
The physical evidence can range in size from huge to microscopic. It can be animal, vegetable, or mineral. The crime
scene investigator must expect the unexpected and more. By identifying the categories of physical evidence at the crime
scene, investigator will be assisted primarily in the determination of the collection mechanism or container to use. Regard-
less of the type of physical evidence found at the crime scene, the scene investigator must always remember that it is the
physical evidence that will make or break an investigation.
Because any item found at a crime scene can be physical evidence, it can be labeled the debris of criminal activity. While
there is considerable overlap of identifications of evidence, it can be categorized into the following broad groups based on
its origin, composition, or method of creation:
1. 
Biological evidence—any evidence derived from a living item. Includes physiological fluids, plants, some biological
pathogens.
2. 
Chemical evidence—any evidence with identifiable chemicals present.
3. 
Patterned evidence—any evidence with a pattern or predictable pattern of appearance.
4. 
Trace evidence—any evidence of such a small size so as to be overlooked, not easily seen or not easily
recognized.

The Crime Scene. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-801245-1.00001-3


Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. 3
4
PART | I Preliminary Preparations
PHOTO 1.1 Crime scene with a variety of different types of physical evidence.
Crime Scene Investigations Chapter | 1 5

FIGURE 1.1 Unenhanced and enhanced bloody footwear impressions.

USE OF PHYSICAL EVIDENCE FOUND AT THE CRIME SCENE


In addition to identifying the type of physical evidence found at a crime scene it is necessary and possible to obtain valuable
investigative information from the analysis of the items of physical evidence. The types of information that can be obtained
from the use of physical evidence:
l Determination of corpus delicti—the evidence is used to determine if a crime has taken place. For example, a red-brown
stain on a wall in a kitchen may not be human blood. It may just be dried tomato sauce. A broken window may not always
mean a breaking and entering has occurred (see Figure 1.2).
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6 PART | I Preliminary Preparations

l Modus operandi identification—criminals repeat behavior. Repeated methods of entry, for example, by kicking in a back
door with the same shoe leaving the same footwear impressions throughout the crime scene (see Figure 1.3).
l Association or linkage—the Locard Exchange Principle—transfer of evidence by contact. See the next section to
follow.
l Disproving/supporting victim/suspect/witness statements—the evidence may or may not support what these groups say.
For example, an eyewitness may say that the suspect fled the crime scene wearing tennis shoes but the only footwear
impressions and shoes found at the scene are bloody slippers (see Figure 1.4).
l Identification of suspects/victims/crime scene location—fingerprints and even DNA can be used to identify who was pres-

ent at a crime scene (see Figure 1.5).


l Provide for investigative leads for detectives—the use of the physical evidence to give information to detectives that will

assist them in locating victims and suspects. An example would be to determine the make, model, and year of the vehicle
involved in a hit and run that left paint chips at the crime scene (see Figure 1.6).

LOCARD EXCHANGE PRINCIPLE


The Locard Exchange Principle forms the foundation for why crime scenes are searched for physical evidence to be used
in a criminal investigation. The principle states that whenever two objects are in contact there will always be a mutual
exchange of matter between them. Generally, the physical evidence found at a crime scene will link the suspect to the scene,
the victim to the scene, and the suspect to the victim (and vice versa). In the example shown below, the Locard Exchange
Principle links or associates the bleeding victim to the suspect, the vehicle and the foyer of the house by use of the physical
evidence found at the various crime scenes (see Photo 1.2).
1. Victim’s blood is found on the suspect’s shoes and shorts;
2. A bloody trunk liner was found 10–15 feet from a vehicle. The trunk liner has victim’s blood and the trunk liner matches
the vehicle;
3. Impact blood spatter from the victim is found in the foyer of the house.

GENERAL PROCESSES AND PROCEDURES AT THE CRIME SCENE


Scientific crime scene investigation is not just going to a crime scene, taking a couple of pictures, taking some notes,
and collecting some physical evidence. It is the first step and the most crucial step of any criminal investigation. The
foundation of all crime scene investigations is the ability of the crime scene investigator to recognize the potential and
importance of physical evidence, large and small, at the crime scene. The subsequent identification of that physical evi-
dence along with determination of its source or origin is the next step in the investigation. Proper crime scene investiga-
tion is the starting point for the process of establishing what happened and who did it. Because of the legal requirements
in any criminal investigation and for the correct analysis of the evidence by the crime laboratory, careful processing,
documentation, and collection of physical evidence are integral parts of the “investigation process” and the crime scene
investigation.
Contrary to the way it is portrayed in popular media, crime scene investigation is not glamorous or accomplished
in an easy or lackadaisical manner. It is an organized, methodical, systematic, and logical process—it is scientific in
nature. It is based on an understanding of the scientific nature of the physical evidence and the use of the physical
evidence in a criminal investigation. It is a discovery process, subject to review and refinement. If done properly, it
requires not only adequate training, current and ongoing, and experience on the part of the investigator, but neces-
sitates a managed and coordinated team effort. Crime scene investigation must never restrict the flow of informa-
tion from the scene, it must provide for an opening of communication between scene investigators and all other law
enforcement personnel.
Crime Scene Investigations Chapter | 1 7

FIGURE 1.2 Reassembled window pane (broken by lawn mower).

FIGURE 1.3 Consistent footwear impressions.


8
PART | I Preliminary Preparations
FIGURE 1.4 Bloody slipper and impression.
Crime Scene Investigations Chapter | 1 9

LATENT PRINT ROLLED PRINT

10 1 10 1

9 2 9 2

3 8 3
8

4 7 4
7

6 5 6 5
FIGURE 1.5 Fingerprint comparison/identification.

FIGURE 1.6 Automotive paint evidence.


10 PART | I Preliminary Preparations

PHOTO 1.2 Victim’s blood on suspect’s shoes and shorts; blood on trunk liner from victim; trunk liner from car; impact spatter from victim in house.
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
Gogstad Viking ship, 117-121;
replica of, crosses Atlantic, 119
Gold rushes and shipping, 268
Gondola, the, 16
Goodwins, the, 319
Gosport, 326
Grapnel, the, 154
Gravesend, 321
Greece, ancient ships of, 55-72;
Phœnician influence, 47, 55;
materials of ships, 62;
galleys, 9;
naval warfare, 64;
navigation, 71
Green, Mr. Richard, 267
Green, Messrs., of Blackwall, 267, 271, 272
Greenock, 267, 326
Greenwich Naval Museum, models in, 5, 255, 256, 257, 260
Greenwich Royal Observatory founded, 235
Greenwich, yacht race in 1661, 321
Guns and gunpowder, 158
Guns, placing of, 168, 173, 253
“Gunwale,” origin of, 168
Gustafson, Professor Gabriel, and the Gogstad Viking ship, 118;
Oseberg Viking ship, 121
Guy, Captain, 239

Hakluyt, Richard, 3, 49, 132, 138, 140, 141, 147, 148, 149, 152,
191, 192, 202, 211
Hakluyt Society’s stamp, 236
Hall, Mr. H. R., 22
Hamble (or Hamill), 174, 179
Hamburg, 274
Hanseatic League, 159;
wane of, 191;
English ships purchased from, 190
Harold, ships of, 134
Harrow, seal at, 167
Harwich, 290
Hastings, seal of, 152
Havre, 266
Hawkins, Sir John, 193, 245
Hawse, 178
Hemp, Russian, &c., 234
Hemy, Napier, 5
Henry I. and maritime industry, 138
Henry II., progress of shipping under, 138;
crusade of, 153
Henry III., ships under, 148;
and Norwegian merchants, 145
Henry IV., ships under, 159
Henry V., ships of, 160;
and Genoese ships, 172;
increase of navy, 173
Henry VI., shipbuilding in reign of, 161
Henry VII., ships of, 173
Henry VIII., ships of, 185-191, 204
Heyward, Edward, 241, 242
Hiring ships, 177
Holbein’s “Embarkation of Henry VIII.,” 185
Holland. See Dutch
Holland, English merchants of, seal of, 167
Holyhead, 321
House of Lords tapestries, 207, 208
“Hovelling,” 319
Howard of Effingham, Lord, 200, 201, 207
Howard, Sir Philip, 78, 245
Hoyle, Dr., Manchester Museum, 4
Hubert of Borough, 148
Hudson River, 295
Huguenots, the, 209
Hull, 159
Huntingdon, John Holland, Earl of, seal of, 166

India, 272. See also East India Company


Ipswich, manufacture of sail-cloth at, 209
Iron in shipbuilding, 259, 268
Ironworks, temp. Charles I., 234

James I., ships of, 222-228;


and English piracy, 222
Jesup Expedition, the, 32, 104
Jochelson, Mr., and Koryak boat, 104
John, King, and the Navy, 148
Keels, 134;
sliding, 255
Kempenfelt, Admiral, 250
Kent, men of, 133
Khorsabad, Palace of, 51
Kiel Museum, boat in, 95
King’s Cup, 331
Kinyras, King of Cyprus, and terra-cotta “fleet,” 69
Kipling, Mr. Rudyard, 12, 294
Knights of Malta, 216
Koryak boats, 32, 104

La Rochelle, seal of, 167


Labour-saving on American schooners, 297
Lancaster, Sir James, and scurvy, 197
Langton, Archbishop, 148
Lapthorn & Ratsey, 326
Latchetes, 178
Lateen sail, 14, 175, 282, 309
Lateran Museum, 43
Layard, Sir Austin, 51
Lead ballast, 324
Lead-covered keels, 192
Lead-line, the, 79
Lead sheathing, 245, 276
Lepanto, battle of, 221
Leslie, Mr. Robert C., 265
Lifeboat, the, 255
Lipton, Sir Thomas, 333
Liverpool, 273
Loch Arthur, Dumfries, ancient boat in, 100
London as port, 138
London Bridge, Dutch schuyts at, 303
Longships, 61
Louis XIV. and the French navy, 236, 249
Louvre, the, 6
Lowestoft, 304, 307, 315
Lowestoft “drifters,” 13
Lug-sail, 312
Lynn, Norfolk, 156, 158

McCunn, Mr. James, 271


Macham’s voyage to Madeira, 158
Mackie & Thomson, Messrs., 274
McMillan, A., & Son, Messrs., 274
Madeira, Island of, 158
Magnet, the, 154
Mainsail, 285
Maldon, 328
Malta, Knights of, 216
Maltese galley, 216
Man, Isle of, 138
Manchester Museum, Egyptian boat in, 3, 33
Manuscripts, pictures of ships on, 129
Manwayring, Sir Henry, 198, 203, 205, 224, 303
Maritime laws under Richard I., 147
Mark, St., mosaic of, 144
Marlin spikes, 179
Marquez, Pero Menendez, 214
Marseilles, 113
Mary, Queen, fishing, &c., traffic in reign of, 193
Mason, Mr. Frank H., models by, 152, 181
Maspero, Professor, 41
Mass, dry, 190
Masts, 172, 242, 243, 274
Mediterranean craft, 56, 139;
galley, 16;
galley and North Sea ship, 91;
warship of thirteenth century, 142
Memling, pictures by, 4, 130, 163
Mercantile marine, progress of the, 257
Mercator’s chart, 193
Merchant ships, Egyptian, 85;
Greek, 61, 85;
Roman, 81;
Anglo-Saxon, 133;
Elizabethan, 201;
Mediterranean, 172
Merchantman and man-of-war, similarity of, in Stuart times, 227
Metallic age, the, and shipbuilding, 105
Middleton, Commissioner, 239
Milesian sea-traders, 48, 55
Mizzen mast, 172
Monson, Sir William, 197
Moore, Henry, 5
Moresby, Admiral, 263, 264
Motors as aids to sailing ships, 2, 277
Museums, models of ships in, 5

Nails, bronze, 276


Napoleon III’s trireme, 70
National Gallery pictures, 259, 284, 285, 323
“Nautical Almanac,” founded, 235
Naval architecture, scientific study of, 243;
progress in seventeenth century, 246;
in nineteenth century, 257
Naval expeditions of the crusades, 146
Naval officers and navigation, 264
Naval warfare, Greek, 64
Navigating methods of the Vikings, 126
Navigation, ancient Greek, 71
Navigation laws, Queen Elizabeth, 193
Naville, Dr. Edouard, 41
Navy Board and sheathing, 245;
rating, 249
Neco (Egyptian king), 49
Nelson, Lord, 251;
his signal, 251;
painting of his ships, 255
Nemi, Lake of, Roman ships in, 76
Nettings, 209
New York, 266, 267, 293, 296
New York Yacht Club, 325
New Zealand, 272
Newcastle hoys, 235
Newcastle-on-Tyne, 159, 258
Newfoundland fisheries, 202, 258, 294
Nicholas de Sigillo, 146
Nicholas of Lynn, 158
Nicholas, St., patron saint of sailors, 3, 129, 136, 161
Nicholson, Mr. C. E., 332
“Nor,” the prefix, 112
Norfolk wherries, 13, 34, 112;
yawls, 315
Norman ships, 134-138
Norris, Admiral Sir John, 186
Norsemen, the, 109-127, 131. See also Vikings
North Pole, Dutch voyage to, 283
North-East Passage, search for, 191, 219
North-West Passage, 291
Norwegian merchants, 145
Norwegian yawl, 13
Norwich, 307
Nottingham, Earl of. See Howard of Effingham
“Nugger,” Egyptian, 43
Nydam, Viking ship discovered at, 115

Oak, English, scarcity of, 268


Octher, voyage of, 132
Oleron, laws of, 147
Oppenheim, Mr., 175, 176, 178, 179, 233
Orwell, the, 302
Oseberg Viking ship, 121
Outriggers, 179

Paddle v. screw test, 263


Paddle-wheel steamers, 263
“Painters,” 178
Painting ships, 176;
of men-of-war, 255
Pallion, 271
Panama Canal, 277
Paris, Admiral, 310
Paris, seal of, 141
Paul, St., voyages of, 15, 79, 314
Pavisses, 179, 209
Penn, Sir William, 238
Penzance luggers, 318
Pepys, Samuel, 18, 187, 237-240;
“Register,” 246
Personality of ships, 12
Petrie, Professor Flinders, discovers model Egyptian boat, 3, 27,
33
Pett, Christopher, 321
Pett, Phineas, and family, 227, 229, 236, 246
Pharos, tower of, 71
Phœnician ships, 46-55
Phœnicians, the, influence of the Egyptians, 47;
as traders, 47;
as sailors, 48;
as explorers, 49;
and the North Sea ships, 92;
on the Baltic, 112
Pictures of ships, 5
Pilots, laws for, temp. Richard I., 147
Pin Mill, 302
Pine’s, John, engravings of House of Lords tapestries, 207
Pipe Rolls, 146
Piracy, temp. ancient Greece, 68, 85;
North Sea, temp. Henry IV., 159;
English, temp. Elizabeth, 222;
Algerian, 233
“Plimsoll” marks, early, 215
Pliny, the elder, 102
Plymouth hooker, 291
Pompei, tomb at, 60
Poole, 326;
seal of, 156
Poop, the, 16, 181
Portholes, 173
Portsmouth, 138, 209, 241, 245, 321
Portsmouth Dockyard, founded, 179
Portugal, maritime progress in sixteenth century, 180
Portuguese fishing boats, eyes on, 65
Potter, Messrs. W. H. & Co., 273
Prussia, 159
Pytheas’s gnomon, 71

“Quant,” 67

Raleigh, Sir Walter, 194, 197


Rams, Greek, 58, 63;
galleons, 213
Ramsgate, 303, 304
Rating rules, yachts, 332
Ratings, 237, 249
Red ensign, 254
Reefing gear, 276. See also Brails
Reefing in Elizabethan times, 195
Revenue cutters, 323
Richard I. in the Mediterranean, 17;
his navy, 138, 141, 146, 147
Richard II., reign of, 159
Richard III., shipping in reign of, 161
Rifeh, Egypt, early boat found at, 3, 27, 33
Rigging, ancient Egyptian, 11, 29, 38;
ancient Greek, 59;
Ark Royal, 198;
brigs, 300;
caravel of sixteenth century, 181;
Columbus’s ship, 182;
corvettes, 252;
development and progress, 81, 275-277;
East Indiamen, 264-265;
eighteenth century, 247-248;
Elizabethan, 210;
fore-and-aft, 220, 244, 281-334;
four-masted barques, 273, 274;
Henri Grâce à Dieu, 186;
lateen, 14;
Mediterranean warship, 143;
Phœnician, 48;
Roman, 74;
Royal Charles, 241;
ship of British Navy of 1815 (details), 278-279;
ship painted by Gentile da Fabriano, 161;
sloop, 220;
Spanish galleon, 213;
Spanish treasure-frigate, 214;
squaresail, 11;
three-decker, 230;
Victorian, early, 260-262, (model) 1;
warship of Henry VII., 174. See also Ships (types)
Rock carvings, Scandinavian, 110
Roman galleys, 9;
ships, 73-88, 106
Ropes, ancient Greek, 67
Roses, the Wars of the, 161, 173, 180
Rother, the, Kent, ancient boat found, 100
Rouen, 166
Roundships, 61
Royal ships hired to merchants, 177
Royal United Service Museum, models, &c., in, 5, 181, 216, 235,
243, 250
Royal Victoria Yacht Club, 325
Royal Yacht Squadron, 324
Royals, 230
Rudder-bands, 80
Rudders, 144, 150, 156
Ruisdael (artist), 5
Rutherglen, seal of, 167
Rye, seal of, 167

Sagas, the, 89
Sail-making, 326
Sailcloth manufacture, 209
Sailing power, revival of, 277
Sailors under King John, 148;
temp. Queen Elizabeth, 197;
temp. James I., 225;
present-day “sailors,” 2
Sails, of the Ark Royal, 200;
colours of, 67;
cutting, 201;
decorated, 83, 209;
development of, 276, 284;
scientific treatment of, 243;
Viking sails, 122, 123, 124
St. Andrew’s flag, 241
St. George’s flag, 241, 242
San Francisco, 267, 291
San Sebastian, Spain, seal of, 156
Sandefjord, 272
Sandwich, seal of, 141, 149
Saracen ship and Crusaders, 140
Saxons, vessels of the, 109
Scandinavian coin, ship on, 133
Scandinavian rigs, 12
Scandinavians. See Norsemen
Scarborough Bay, 317
Schank, Admiral, 255
Schooner, origin of the name, 293
Scotch fishing boat, Norwegian influence on, 317
Scott, Messrs., 267, 268
Screw propeller, 257
Screw steamer, advent of, 263
Sea, the call of the, 19
Sea-terms in Elizabethan English, 210
Seals, mediæval, ships on, 128
Seamanship, early European, 137;
“marlin-spike seamanship,” 275
Sennacherib, palace of, 51
Seppings, Sir Robert, 257, 259
Shakespeare, sea-terms used by, 210
Sheathing, 245, 250, 251, 276
Sheer, 277
Sheerness, 237, 245, 277
Shetland Isles boats, 13
Shields, 179
Shields, North and South, 258
Shipbuilding, origins of, 90, 94;
Norse, 125;
Norman, 135;
temp. Queen Elizabeth, 193;
progress of, 218;
in England in 1841-47, 266
Shipbuilding terms, ancient, still extant, 103
Ships, cost of building, seventeenth century, 246
Ships, history:
Sources for history, 3-4
Reconstruction and development, 6-8
Primitive man, 23
Early Egyptian, 20-45
Phœnician, 46-55
Greek, 55-72
Roman, 73-88, 106
Northern Europe, 89-127
Mediæval, eighth century to 1485, 128-169
Anglo-Saxon, 131-133
Norman, 134-138
Henry VII. to Elizabeth (1485-1603), 170-222
Spain and Portugal, 180
James I. to eighteenth century, 222-253
Nineteenth and twentieth centuries, 254-280
Ships, named:
Alarm, 251, 324, 325
Alecto, 263
Alexandria, 323
Aline, 326
Alnwick Castle, 271
America, 293, 324, 325
Ann Gallant, 190
Anne, 321
Ariel, 270
Ark Royal, Ark Raleigh, or Anne Royal, 194, 197-201, 226, 228
Arrow, 323, 324, 325
Ascension, 221
Atlantic, 327
Bear, 228
Bellerophon, 176
Bezan, 321
Black Adder, 270
Bloodhound, 327
Bona Confidentia, 192
Bona Esperanza, 192
Bonaventure, 245
Britannia, 329, 330
Buss of Zeland, 160
Busship, 160
Caledonia, 255
Challenge, 267, 269
Challenger, 267
Charles, 246
Christopher Spayne, 160
Chrysolite, 269
Cogge, 159
Columbia, 331
Columbia II., 50
Commerce de Marseilles, 252, 255
Constant Warwick, 232
Constitution, 331
Cordelière, 173, 179, 184, 188
Cutty Sark, 270
Cymba, 326
Cynthia, 256
Defender, 331
Desdemona, 272
Dogger, 160
Doggership, 160
Dreadnought, 16, 176;
(Charles II.), 245
Dunkerque, 273
Edward Bonaventure, 192
Egeria, 326
Elizabeth, 331, 332
Fantôme, 299
Fiery Cross, 270
Florencia, 212
Flying Cloud, 266, 270
Fortuna, 272
France, 273
Fredonia, 295
Friday, 159
Gainsborough, 233
Germania, 331
Gjöa, 291
Godezere, 159
Golden Lion, 240
Governor, 174
Grâce à Dieu, 174, 177, 178, 179
Grand Louise, 184
Great Republic, 267
Harry Grâce à Dieu, 177
Hawkin Derlin of Dantzik, 159
Hector, 221
Helena, 160
Henri Grâce à Dieu, 185, 186, 196
Henrietta, 245
Holigost, 160
Hotspur, 271
Isabel, 160
Isle of Wight, 321
James, 246
James of London, 185
Jemmy, 321
Jesus, 160
Jesus of Lubeck, 187, 197
Jullanar, 305, 328
Katherine, 321
Katherine Pomegranate, 185
Kestrel, 323
Keying, 311, 312
La Blanche Nef, 138
La Félipe, 156
Las Cinque Llagas, 216
Leicester, 204, 211
L’Esperance, 327
Liverpool, 273
Lord of the Isles, 268
Louisa, 324
Lulworth, 324
Macquarie, 272
Madre de Dios, 215
Mahratta, 319
Margaret, 159
Marie Rose, 195
Martin, 299
Martin Garsia, 174
Mary, 289, 321
Mary Fortune, 177
Mary of the Tower, 174
Mary Rose, 185
Mauretania, 75, 189, 274
Merchant Royal, 204, 211
Merhonour, 228
Meteor, 331
Michael of Yarmouth, 159
Minion, 321
Mora, 137
Murrian, 187, 188
Newcastle, 258
Nicholas, 160
Nina, 180, 183
Northampton, 271
Nyria, 333
Oimara, 326
Olive Bank, 273
Pampas, 331
Peter, 160
Peter of Wiveton, 160
Peter Pomegranate, 185
Phœnix, 245
Pinkie, 294
Pinta, 180, 183
Potosi, 274
Preussen, 275
Prince Royal, 197, 227, 228, 229, 230, 242
Prince, The, 240, 242
Queen, 260, 261, 262
Queen Margaret, 274
Rattler, 263
Red Dragon, 221
Regent, 174, 180, 184
Reliance, 331
Resolution, 242, 244
Royal Charles, 240, 241
Royal Frederick, 260
Royal George, 10, 195, 250, 251, 322
Royal Louis, 239, 243
Royal Prince, 242
Royal Sovereign, 229
Royal Sovereign (yacht), 322
Rupert, 244
Sans Pareil, 257
Santa Maria, 53, 176, 180, 181, 183;
modern replica, 180;
model, 182
Sappho, 326
Satanita, 329
Scomberg, 270
Sea Witch, 269
Serica, 270
Shamrock, 10, 282
Shamrock III., 331, 332
Shamrock IV., 333
Shipper Berline of Prussia, 159
Sir Lancelot, 270, 271
Soll Royal (Le Soleil Royal), 239, 243
Sovereign, 175, 179, 180, 184, 185, 242
Sovereign of the Seas, 7, 229, 230, 267
Stonehouse, 271
Struse of Dawske, 187, 188
Sunbeam, 297, 327, 330
Susan, 221
Sweepstake, 177
Taeping, 270
Taitsing, 270
Tartarus, 263
Terrible, 250
Thermopylæ, 270, 271
Thistle, 328
Thomas W. Lawson, 296
Thyatera, 270
Tiger, 190
Tillikum, 302
Trade’s Increase, 226
Trinitie, 159
Trinity of Wight, 185
Trinity Royal, 160
Triumph, 197, 204
Valhalla, 327, 330
Valkyrie, 330
Valkyrie I., 330
Vanguard, 201
Vernon, 260
Victoria and Albert, 322
Victory (Elizabethan), 242
Victory (Nelson’s), 140, 251, 262
Whang-Ho, 312

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