Focus: Plant and Animal Biology

_____________________________________________________________________________________

Part I – Content Update

The Domains of Life and Kingdom System

During the time of Linnaeus, there were only two kingdoms: Animaliaand Plantae. With the
discovery of more organisms especially the microbes, the concept of kingdoms have changed. To date, the
most popular is the five – kingdom system, although the six-kingdom is also gaining popularity. Some
taxonomists have already proposed the eight and ten-kingdom system. These are some of the amazing
progress in the science of taxonomy. Under the five-kingdom system, there is only one prokaryotic
kingdom, the Monerans, and a unicellular, eukaryotic kingdom, the Protist, and three multi-cellular
eukaryotic kingdoms, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia. Over and above all these categories of classification is
the domain, the taxonomic level higher than the kingdom. There are three recognized domains -Archaea,
Bacteria, and Eukarya.

Domain Bacteria Domain Archaea

Kingdom Eubacteria Kingdom Archeabacteria

Domain Eukarya

Kingdom Protista
Kingdom Fungi
Kingdom Plantae
Kingdom Animalia

Features Domains
Bacteria Archaea Eukarya
Membrane – bounded Absent Absent Present
organelles
Peptidoglycan in the cell Present Absent Absent
wall
First amino acid formed Formylmethionine Methionine Methionine
in a protein synthesis
Number of different RNA One Several Several
polymerases

The Six Kingdom System

1. Kingdom Eubacteria
 Eubacteria are considered the “true” bacteria. Most bacteria belong to this kingdom. They
are found almost everywhere and are the ones people are most familiar with.
 They come in various shapes and sizes and have distinct biochemical and genetic
characteristics.
 Eubacteria show different shapes, some are rod, spherical, and spiral in shape. They are
unicellular but the cells may be found in clumps or chains.
 They have varied types of nutrition, autotrophic by photosynthesis or chemosynthesis and
heterotrophic by absorption of nutrients available in the surroundings.
 They reproduce asexually by binary fission and sexually by a simple type of conjugation.
 Examples of these are Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia.

2. Kingdom Archaeabacteria
 This is the other group of bacteria popularly called as ‘extremophiles”. They live in
extremely different types of environment.
 These organisms are today classified under Kingdom Archeabacteria, They can live in
places where few organisms can survive such as volcanic vents with a temperature of
around 380 degrees Fahrenheit, hot springs, highly saline environment and extremely cold
environment.
 They are said to be “ancient” because they resemble the first forms of life on earth. Based
on the environments in which they live, they are classified into:

1. Halophilic – those live in extremely salty environment such as the Salt Lake.
2. Thermoacidophilic – heat loving organisms and can live in places with boiling water
temperature, and in an acidic condition of even less than pH.
3. Methanogens – they live in oxygen – free environments and produce methane gas.
They are common in swamps, bogs and landfills. They create a peculiar odor in these
places.
4. Sulfulobus – are sulfur-loving bacteria. They live in places of high sulfur content like in
mud springs and hot springs.

3. Kingdom Protista
 This is composed of unicellular eukaryotes with varied types of nutrition including
photosynthesis. Asexual and sexual reproductions are present, may be found in colonies
or solitary.
 This kingdom is divided into three groups; the plant-like protists, the animal-like protists,
and the fungus-like protists.
 Plant like are those with chlorophyll and are self-nourished through photosynthesis. They
can have one or more flagella that make them very motile but some do not have
flagella.Examples under the flagellated groups are the Euglena, Chlamydodomonas, and
Volvox. Non-flagellated includes Pleurococcus, and Chlorella.
 Animal-like protists include the Paramecium and Amoeba. Paramecia have cilia while
Amoebae have pseudopodia for locomotion.
 Under the six-kingdom system, some groups of algae also fall under kingdom protista,
examples of these are the green, brown, and red algae.

4. Kingdom Fungi
 Fungi cannot make their own food. Most of them get their food from decaying bodies of
plants and other organisms decaying in the soil. Mushroom, yeasts, molds, and mildew are
all examples of organisms in the kingdom fungi.
  Most fungi are multicellular and consist of many complex eukaryotic cells. Their bodies are
composed of network of thread like hyphae with cellulose or chitinous cell walls.
 Reproduction is by spores produced asexually or by simple conjugation.
 There are four groups of fungi and they are as follows: zygomycetes, basidiomycetes,
ascomycetes, deuteromycets.

5. Kingdom Plantae
 Plants are photosynthetic, multicellular, eukaryotic, organisms that are more or less
stationary and with a complex alternating life cycle.

6. Kingdom Animalia
 All animals fall under this kingdom. The members of the animal kingdom are generally
group into two: the invertebrates and the vertebrates

Dichotomous Key

 For identifying organisms we use keys. A taxonomic key is a devise used to determine the identity
of an organism. It could help simplify the process of identification.
 The simplest type of key is the linear key. In here, contrasting character traits are arranged in pairs,
and one chooses the character trait that applies to the organism being classifies.

A sample key to the classes of Phylum Arthropodais given below:

1. With more than 3 pairs of legs 2

2. With three pairs of legs Class Insect
3. Body divisions: cephalothorax and abdomen 3
4. Body divisions: head and segmented trunk 4
5. Abdomen segmented Class Crustacea
6. Abdomen unsegmented Class Arachnida
7. With one pair of walking legs per segment Class Chilopoda
8. With two pairs of walking legs per segment Class Diplodia

In constructing a dichotomous key, it is proper to observe and record the taxonomic characters of
the assigned specimens. This could refer to the size, form, structure; behavior and appearance of the
organisms then run the assigned sample through the key similar to the sample given.

The Basic Needs of Plants

 Plant life is associated by the soil in which it is anchored although it is not always the case. Soil is a
mixture of minerals, organic material, air, water, and other microorganisms.
 It should be noted that almost one half of the volume of the soil is made up of pores filled with air or
water. Cultivation of a body land results in topsoil loss and nutrients depletion. The use of
pesticides, insecticides, and fertilizers in crop production causes water pollution.
 Nutrient requirement of plants include oxygen, carbon dioxide, water and various minerals required
in different amounts. Plants require eight micronutrients that should be supplied in minute amounts.
They include manganese, zinc, iron, boron, copper, nickel, molybdenum, and chlorine. The other
 nutrient requirements are nine macronutrients such as sulfur, phosphorus, carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, nitrogen, potassium, calcium, and magnesium. These are required in relatively large
amounts.
 Some plants live in acidic, nitrogen poor soil obtains supplementary nutrients by capturing and
digesting small insects and other animals. For epiphytic plants, they can make use of the nutrients
available in their host plants. Bacteria living close contact with the roots can also provide nitrogen
for the plants. This is very common in legumes like in the roots of peanuts and mungo beans where
nodules are formed. Rhizobium bacteria in the nodules can fix nitrogen gas into nitrate compound
usable for the plant cells as source of amino acids.

Beneficial Plants

 Generally, plants are beneficial to mankind, and other living organisms. They are so useful that not
a single day passes without the use of plants. Plants help regulate the global climate. They help
provide a cooler environment.
 Phytoremediation means the use of plants to help in the breakdown or reduce the concentration
of pollutants in the environment. These pollutants could either be concentrated or broken down into
simpler, non-toxic form of plants. A very good example of this is a certain species of sunflower that
is capable of removing radioactive cesium from the soil. These sunflowers are grown in the
contaminated soil and later on harvested to concentrate cesium to a small area, the plant body.
 One of the latest phytoremediation activities is the use of poplar trees to remove
Trichloroenthylene, a volatile solvent that is widely used in industries. It is an ingredient in paints
and cosmetics, a spot remover, and used in dry-cleaning industries. Trichloethylene is confirmed to
be carcinogenic and can also cause damage to the liver. Lately, scientists found out that it could be
naturally absorbed by the roots of the poplar trees and metabolize them later into CO 2 and Chlorine
before it is released into the atmosphere.

Basic Needs of Animals

 Unlike plants that are autotrophic, animals are heterotrophic which means that they depend o other
organisms for food in order to survive. Based on the type of food sources, animals are classifies
into: herbivore, carnivore, and omnivore. How animals capture their prey varies. Some are swift;
others are slow, using different techniques in the capture of their foods.
 The ingestion of food serves two functions for the body of animals: it provides a source of energy
for the animal and provides the raw materials that the animal itself cannot synthesize. Substances
that an animal cannot manufacture yet necessary for their health and must be supplied in the diet
are called essential nutrients. Vitamins and certain organic substances that are required in trace
amounts are called essential nutrients.

Beneficial Animals

 Most animals are useful except for some that may do harm to other organisms. Some animals like
snakes may not appear useful to you, however, they are very important in the food chain. They
help in the biological regulation of populations. To date, medicinal leeches are being cultured since
they are useful in surgical operations. Animal pollinators are also important in agriculture they
include bats, bees, birds and other insects. Bats are the number one pollinators of durian trees.
They do this at nighttime since they are nocturnal animals. Earthworms also help farmers make
their lands more productive by helping them cultivate the soil. Many animals not included in the
discussion have other economic uses.
Nutrition in Plants

 The type of nourishment employed by the plants is called autotrophic nutrition. It is also shared by
certain protists and bacteria. It always involves the synthesis of organic compounds from inorganic
raw materials.
 There are two types of autotrophic nutrition: photosynthesis and chemosynthesis.
 Photosynthesis is the method employed by all green plants and also by some protists and bacteria.
It is the synthesis of sugar from CO 2, and water using sunlight as the source of energy and
chlorophyll for trapping light energy.
 Chemosynthesis is the synthesis of organic compounds from carbon dioxide and water but the
energy for the synthesis does not come from sunlight but from various organic materials such as
hydrogen sulfide, ammonia and iron available in the environment. This is especially true in the
deep –sea vents where sunlight can no longer penetrate.

Heterotrophic Nutrition

 Organisms that do not synthesize their own food from simple inorganic raw materials must obtain
their food in organic form. These organisms are called heterotrophs and these include all animals,
fungi, protists, and some bacteria.
 There are three types of heterotrophic nutrition: holotrophic, saprotrophic, and parasitic nutrition.
 Holotrophic nutrition involves feeding on solid organic material coming from the bodies of other
organisms. This is usually true to animals, is some protists, and carnivorous plants.
 Saprotrophic nutrition involves feeding on soluble organic compounds obtained from dead animals
and plants. A number of protists, fungi, and some animals practice this method of feeding.
 Parasitic nutrition involves feeding on the organic substances present in the body of other living
organism. Examples or organisms using this method are some animals, fungi, bacteria and
protists.
 To acquire and ingest these substances, a variety of structures are employed depending on the
organism. Examples are tentacles, claws, teeth, and pincers and so on. Through these devices,
food is taken into the gut or alimentary canal. Food is then subjected to chemical and physical
digestion that converts food unto their soluble forms.
 These products of digestion is absorbed across the gut and transported to all the cells of the body
through the help of the circulatory system. They are then assimilated by the cells and built into new
complex materials or used by the cells in cellular respiration in order to supply energy for the cells.

Transport Materials

 Transport system in animals range from ciliated water-filled canals like jellyfishes to the most
complicated circulatory system of mammals.
 There are two types of circulation: the open and closed circulation. In certain invertebrates like
arthropods, the blood is contained in the body cavity, hence called haemocoel and the circulating
fluid is called haemolymph. Here, the blood flows forward in the dorsal tubular heart where it enters
the haemocoel and returned to the heart through openings called ostia.
 In closed circulation, blood flows in tubular blood vessels and returned to the heart where it is
brought to the lungs for gas exchange.

Gas Exchange in Animals

 In small animals, gas exchange is not really a big problem. This is because the surface – volume
is good enough for diffusion to cross the general body surface.
  Animals that use the general body surface for gas exchange includes the coelenterates, flatworms,
and many annelids, including earthworms. Other animals have developed special respiratory
surfaces. Examples of these are gills, the breathing organs usually found in fishes and the lungs, a
breathing organ common in vertebrates like man. In insects, they use the tracheal tubes which
branch through the body supplying air to the tissues. All these respiratory devices may seen
different but one essential function is common, to exchange gasses with the environment.

Excretion and Osmoregulation

 Toxic wastes of metabolism are removed from the body through the excretory system. There are
different types of wastes that the body cells produce such as gaseous wastes, nitrogenous wastes
and bile pigments.
 The process of excretion and osmoregulaton differs in different groups of organisms. For example,
in Amoeba, and other freshwater protists, they use the contractile vacuole, a small roundish,
organelle surrounded by several radiating canals. These radiating canals help collect excess fluid
in the body and pump this water to the contractile vacuole, where it is ejected outside of the body
of the organism. Another excretory organ are the antennal glands found in the most crustaceans
like the crabs. They are found close to the antennae, hence, their name antennal gland. They are
responsible for nitrogenous excretion in vertebrates, the kidneys are the most efficient and useful
excretory organ. Nephrons are the functional unit inside the kidney that excretes the nitrogenous
wastes.
 Osmoregulation is the process by which osmotic pressure of the blood and fluid and is kept
constant.
 Marine bony fishes are hypotonic to their surroundings and are having a problem with
osmoregulation. To overcome this, they do the following: (1) drink a lot of sea water and having a
kidney with a low filtration rate. (2) Excrete salts through the help of chloride secretory cells in their
gills. (3) Eliminate nitrogenous wastes in the form of a compound which is soluble but non-toxic.

Locomotion

 In most living organisms, locomotion is brought about by the contraction of muscles against some
kind of skeletons. Skeletons and muscles are inseparable since skeletal muscles are mostly
attached to bones.
 In mammals and other animals, there are two types of skeletons: the exoskeleton and the
endoskeleton. In endoskeleton, the bone or cartilage are found internal to the muscles that are
attached to them, exoskeleton are those found outside of the muscles, like the hard cuticles of
most arthropods and the nails, claws and beaks found in some animals.
 The wings of the birds are also locomotory organs. The bones that make up the wings of birds
provided with air spaces to make them lighter as they fly.
 In aquatic organisms like fishes, movement is brought by the side to side lashing of the tail and
other fins present like the pectoral, pelvic and dorsal fins. Swim bladders also make the fish more
buoyant.
 Microscopic organisms make use of other locomotory organelles such as cilia and flagella, these
structures enable the organisms to move.

Life Energy

 The acquisition of energy in usable form is a necessity for all living cells. It is through energy that
the cell can maintain itself and keep it from a disorganized state. There are two energy
transformations in the cell: photosynthesis and cellular respiration.
 Photosynthesis
 The ultimate source of energy for most living things is sunlight, transformed by green plants
into chemical energy in the process called photosynthesis. Green plants utilize the energy
of light to remove the hydrogen from water and use it to reduce carbon dioxide in organic
material. Oxygen is formed as by-product. The summary equation for the photosynthesis
process is given below:

6CO2 + 12H2O + light chlorophyll 6CO2 + C2H12O6 + 6H2O

 The leaves of plants are the principal organs for photosynthesis. Photosynthesis takes
within the chloroplasts of the mesophyll tissue. The pigments are arranged within the
membranes of the flattened sacs called thylakoids. The light dependent reaction of
photosynthesis takes place within the thylakoid membranes, while the light independent
reaction takes place in the stroma.
 The reaction of photosynthesis can be divided into two parts; the light reactions, in which
light energy is trapped and stored, and the dark reactions, in which hydrogen atoms are
transferred from water to carbon dioxide to form carbohydrate.
 There are two pathways of photophosphorylation in the light dependent reaction: cyclic and
non-cyclic photophosphorylation. In cyclic photophosphorylation, light energy is trapped by
chlorophyll molecules in Photosystem I and raises electrons to a high energy level. The
energy released during transfer is used to synthesize ATP form ADP and inorganic
phosphate. In non-cyclic photophosphorylation, electrons from water are passed to
Photosynthesis II, where they are energized by light.
 The important end products of noncyclic photophosphorylation are ATP, NADPH, and O 2.
These ATP and NADPH produced in the light reactions are then used to reduce carbon
dioxide to carbohydrates during the light independent reaction to form PGAL.

Cellular Metabolism
 Cellular metabolism refers to the enzyme-mediated reactions of living cell. It can be
divided into two phases: anabolism, the building up phase, and catabolism, the breaking
down phase. Before the potential energy stored in complex organic compound can be
used by the cell to do work, the compounds must be broken down in a series of chemical
reactions.
 The reaction in the degradation of glucose is called glycolysis. It is the breakdown of
glucose to two molecules of pyruvic acid, with the production of two NADH and a net gain
of two ATP molecules. This process common to all living cells is anerobic. In the absence
of sufficient O2pyruvic acid may be reduced by NADH to form CO 2and ethyl alcohol or
lactic acid, in process called fermentation.
 The presence of oxygen, the pyruvic acid can be further oxidized with the accompanying
synthesis of ATP; this process is called cellular respiration.
 The final stage of respiration involves the passage of hydrogen electrons from the carrier
molecules down a ‘respiratory chain’ of electron-transport molecules to oxygen, with which
electrons and H+ ions from the medium combine to form water. As the electrons are
lowered step by step down the energy gradient, energy is released, and some of it is used
to make ATP, a process called oxidative phosphorylation.

Behavioral Adaptations of Animals

 The topic will explain some of the behaviors of animals that help them adjust to their environment.
There are two types of behaviors: the species-characteristics behavior and the individual characteristic
behavior. The first type is distinctive to particular specie, for example, courtship and copulation in many
animals. The latter refers to the behavior learned by the individual during its lifetime like the tricks learned
by trained dogs.

Fundamental Processes in Animal Behavior

 Orientation – is similar to reflex action; however the response is generally more complex
and not short-lived as in reflex action.
 Reflex action – they can happen unconsciously, and is short-lived.
 Learning – is an adaptive change in behavior due to past experiences. Learned behavior is
therefore, acquired during the life time of an individual as a result of experience.
a. Habituation – the animal is subjected to repeated stimulation. If the stimuli are
harmful, the animal ceases to respond to this repeated stimulation.
b. Association learning – the animal learns to associate a particular response
with a reward or punishment. Conditioned reflex is associated with conditioned
stimulus.
c. Trial and error – is more or less confirmed to animals with well-developed
brains. Imprinting behavior explains that a young animal would always tend to
follow or imprint on their parents, the objects as they see after birth. In
classical conditioning, the paired representation of two different types of
stimuli may cause animal to form an association between two stimuli.

The Principle of Unity in Diversity

No matter how diverse life is, there always unifying themes that come into play regardless of the
organism or the kind of interaction involved. These themes are as follow”
 All organisms are made up of cells, the basic structural and functional unit of life.
 The continuity of life from generation is explained by the presence of the DNA or genetic material.
 The complementarity between structure and function is true to all living organisms.
 Evolutionary change is the key to the diversity of life.
 Stability and homeostasis
 Reproduction

The Principle of “Complementarity between Structure and Function”

This is one of the unifying themes in Biology and it explains that there are always a relationship
between the structure and function in the body or organisms. In the living system, we can infer about
functions of the molecules and body parts if the body structure of the parts are known. For example, a cell
provided with a great number of mitochondria must be a very busy cell in terms of energy consumption, just
like the active sperm cells and muscle cells.

Secretory cells, like those found in the glands, are also provided with more ribosomes, golgi
complex, and endoplasmic reticulum than that of the ordinary skin cell. The differences could be attributed
to the different roles that these cells perform in our body.

_____________________________________________________________________________________
ECOLOGY
Basic Concepts

 Ecology - is the study of interactions between organisms and their environment.

Levels of Organization in the Living World:
 Biosphere – is the region of the earth that supports all living things
 Ecosystem – is a group of plants, animals and micro organisms that work together in an
environment with non-living factors
 Community refers to the populations of different kinds of organisms living in the same place.
 Population – is a group of organisms of the same species that live together in a particular
location
 Organism – is an individual that possesses all the unique characteristics of the species it
represents.
 Habitat – is the place where a given organism normally lives
 Niche – is the functional role and position of an organism in the ecosystem
Natural and Managed Ecosystem
 An ecosystem is a unit composed of groups of organisms belonging to different species,
interacting together within a particular unit of space.
 Natural ecosystems are those present in the environment that receives no human intervention.
Examples of natural ecosystems are mangrove forest, coral reef, grassland, and tropical forest.
 Managed ecosystems are artificial ecosystems, wherein human intervention is common.
Examples of these ecosystems are the fish ponds, aquariums, garden, and artificial forest
parks.
 Natural ecosystem is usually better than the managed ecosystems. However, there is need of
managed ecosystems for the betterment of human life. for example, if there is a need to
produce more crops, a cultivated rice paddy would be much better than a naturally occurring
rice fields.
Biomes
Biomes are communities categorized according to its dominant vegetation and sometimes by their
location on the biosphere. They can be defined by temperature and rainfall, as these may affect the
growth of certain plants.
The Types of Biomes
1. Tundra – found in the northern polar region. Limited plants grow in this biome, as little
precipitation is received, and there exist permanently frozen subsoil called permafrost. This
 prevents the roots of the trees from penetrating the soil further and obtaining sufficient
nutrients. Precipitation here is often in the form of snow, and the temperature is cold even the
day. Growing season is short, and nutrients are very limited. Grasses, mosses, and other low-
lying plants are most adapted to this biome.
2. Taiga – (also called boreal or coniferous forest) found in cool, elevated areas of Northern
America, Asia, and Europe. Marked by the dominance of tall conifers with needle-like leaves.
Long winter is experienced in this biome and summer, in small amount of precipitation is
received. Growing season is also short.
3. Temperate Deciduous Forest – marked by growth of deciduous trees, whose leaves change
color together with the season, and shed in preparation for winter. Climate here is mild, as
summer remains warm and winter is cold. Animals common to temperate region like bears,
deer, and squirrel are common inhabitants of this biome.
4. Tropical Forest – located in the tropics (23.5latitude of the equator). Average temperature is
23C with 12-hr. daylight length.
a. Tropical Dry Forest. Dry season in forest is longer, rainfall is less common. Succulents and
thorny shrubs are the most common vegetation of this biome.
b. Tropical Deciduous Forest. Deciduous trees are common to this biome. During the long
dry season, these trees shed their leaves to conserve water. Resprouting of leaves occurs
when the rainy season starts.
c. Tropical Rainforest. Receives the greatest amount of rainfall (greater than 250 cm/yr) of all
the tropical rainforests. It is said to be one of the biomes with the greatest diversity.
5. Savanna – grasslands with growth of few shrubs and widely spaced trees. Seasonal rainfall is
experienced, which affects the activity of animals and plants. The landscape of Africa often
depicted as dry grassland with few trees is an example of this biome.
6. Grasslands – found most abundantly in the temperate regions of America and Eurasia. This
marked by the dominance of grasses, herbs, and small flowering plants. Precipitation in
grassland is just enough to support the growth of the aforementioned plants, and frequent fires
occur. Few trees grow in the area since less water is available for them and fire prevents them
from growing.
7. Desert – marked by dry condition of soil and atmosphere as it receives the least amount of
precipitation of all biomes. The plants that grow in this biome are those adapted to low water
condition, capable of stori9ng much water. Most animals living in deserts are nocturnal, to
avoid the drastic effects of extreme temperature and water scarcity. Diurnal animate that are
present have developed means to reduce the threats posed by the environment.
Components of Ecosystem:
A. Biotic (living organism)
1. Producer or autotrophic – are organisms that make their own food and for the entire
community
Examples: plants, euglena, cyanobacteria
 2. Consumer or heterotrophic – are organisms that cannot make their own food.
a. herbivore – plants eaters
example: cows, deer
b. carnivore – meat eaters
example: eagle, frog
c. omnivore – eat both plants and animals
example: dog, cat, man
d. scavenger – feed on the tissues of dead organisms.
Example: vultures, crows
e. decomposer – obtain food from dead organisms and organic wastes and
returned simple nutrients to the soil.
Example: bacteria and fungi
f. detritivores- feeds on small pieces of leaves and other organic matter.
Ex. animals usually feed on forest floor, in soil and bodies of water.
B. Abiotic Factors or the Physical Environment: These are the non-living parts of the environment
that are essential for the existence of living organisms. This includes water, soil, light, space and
temperature.
Physical Factors in the Environment
1. Temperature. Various metabolic activities of organisms, such as respiration, are
affected by temperature. Organisms tend to have different tolerance to temperature
variation.
2. Light. The primary source of energy in the ecosystem is the light coming from the sun.
Through photosynthesis, the light energy is converted into chemical energy that is
passed on to different members of the ecosystem. Seasonal events such as re-
sprouting, flowering or bearing fruits are most signaled by photoperiod.
3. Water. The properties of water; like high heat of vaporization, high specific heat
capacity, makes it essential in maintaining life processes. Water is integral in
osmoregulation and thermoregulation in organisms. It is also important medium of
transport and chemical reactions,
4. Wind. The effect of temperature on organisms may be lessened due to wind.
Evaporation, transpiration, and convection are affected by wind, and heat loss in
organisms may be increased because of this factor. Humidity is hence affected by
wind. The atmospheric condition, in general, is affected by wind. The direction of wind
also affects water current, hence the distribution of nutrients and organisms are also
affected.
5. Atmospheric gases. The atmosphere serve as a reservoir for many material
necessary for most organisms. The distribution of these materials like carbon dioxide,
and oxygen are of great importance since it does not only regulate the activities of the
organisms, but rather impart a greater effect on climate.
 6. Soil. The distribution of organisms is greatly affected by soil. Particle size, porosity,
moisture and material content are basically the controlling properties of soil. The type
of soil of an ecosystem will determine the productivity of the area as it will serve as
reservoir for materials, and shelter for terrestrial organisms.
C. The Flow of Energy through a Trophic Structure.
 Tropic level – is the successive level or step in the transfer of
energy/nourishment in the food chain.
 Sun is the basic source of energy in an ecosystem as well as in food chain.
 Energy is the capacity to do work. It is essential in enabling the process in the ecosystem
to occur, and at most, in allowing the survival of organisms.
 The first law states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed; it can only be
transformed in another type. This gives us an idea that the energy in the ecosystem is not
created nor completely lost by any component in the ecosystem; rather, it is just
transformed into a form usable to organisms in the ecosystem.
 The second law states that there is no 100% efficiency in the transformation of energy, as
a portion of energy will be transformed into unavailable form, which is heat. This implies
that organisms receive lesser amount of energy at each transfer.
 The 10% law – only 10% of energy is made available for transfer to the next trophic level.
 90% of energy is used by the organism at each trophic level for their own life process and
much of this energy is lost as heat.
 Feeding relationship of organisms may be represented through a food chain. This linear
illustration diagrams the transfer of energy from one trophic level to the next. It also
identifies the role of the organisms, base on their diet.
 Food web is a more complex representation of energy transfer and feeding relationship. It
is composed of interrelated food chains
D. BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES
Matter in ecosystem is limited; hence, recycling of materials is necessitated. Biogeochemical cycle
refers to the cycling of chemicals which involves biological and geological processes. Materials that are
being recycled do not come abundantly from living organisms, rather a great portion comes from the
nonliving reservoir in the environment
 Carbon and Oxycle cycle:
 The carbon cycle is often describe together with oxygen because the two are often involved
together in most reactions. The abundance of carbon in living organisms makes them a
reservoir for carbon.
 Photosynthesis and cellular respiration are part of the biological processes of the carbon and
oxygen cycles
 Photosynthesis is the process of food manufacturing in plant which uses water and carbon
 dioxide as raw materials to produce glucose, water and oxygen.
 Respiration is the process of producing ATP energy water and carbon dioxide from food
molecules and oxygen.
 Decomposition action by bacteria and fungi into dead bodies and animal waste give off
carbon dioxide.
 Combustion or burning of fossil fuels (oil, coal, natural gas) released carbon in the
atmosphere
 Nitrogen Cycle
 The preponderance of nitrogen in living organisms is attributed to the fact that amino
acids contain nitrogen, and so other important organic compounds.
 Nitrogen must be fixed first to a form usable by plants.
 The organisms responsible for this event are the nitrogen-fixing bacteria found in roots or
leguminous plants, and in soil for free living ones.
 Ammonia and nitrates can then be taken in by plants, and are made available to
heterotrophs.
 Decomposition of organic matter also releases nitrogen into the environment.
 Prokaryotes and fungi release ammonium from the decaying matter, and ammonium
associates with hydrogen to become ammonia.
 The process wherein ammonia is converted to nitrates is called nitrification.
 Nitrates can also be used by the denitrifying bacteria and release nitrogen gas or nitrous
oxide in atmosphere, a process called denitrification.
 Atmospheric nitrogen can again be used by nitrogen-fixing bacteria to make nitrogen
available to plants, and the cycle goes on.
E. Interrelationships among living organisms.
Description Examples

1. Competition Participating organisms have identical Frog – frog

needs – food, water, space etc.
Frog – spider

Plants of the same kind or plants of

different species

2. Predation All consumers are predators, Organism - sheep (prey) wolf (predator-
eaten is the prey while the one that eats
is the predator Frog (predator)- flies (prey)

3. Parasitism One organism benefits (parasite) while Child (host) – ascaris (parasite)
the other is harmed (host)
Dog (host) – ticks (parasite)
 4. Mutualism Relationships beneficial to both species Algae – fungus

Termites – protozoa

5. Commensalism One organism benefits while the other is Orchids growing on larger trees
neither benefited nor harmed
Barnacles - whales

F. Disruption of Ecological balance

 Human activities can either deliberately or inadvertently alter the balance of an ecosystem.
 The destruction of plants and animals habitat and the abuse and misuse of natural resources is
threatening the stability of the planets ecosystems.

Some Ways Humans Adversely Influence Ecosystem

Human Influence Effect on Ecosystems

Population growth Our increasing numbers are using excessive amounts of the
Earth’s limited resources.

Over consumption Industrialized societies are using more resources per person
than people from poor nations.

Advancing Technologies Often we introduce technology without knowing how it will

influence the environment

Direct Harvesting This has resulted in a large loss of rainforest and many
adverse influences on ecosystems. products associated with
its biodiversity.

Pollution Land, air water, and nuclear pollution have many adverse
influences on ecosystems.

Atmospheric Changes These include the addition of Greenhouse gases mostly to the
stratospheric ozone layer. Other pollutants also have negative
effects

 Pollutants are harmful substances that make a resource unfit for use by living things.

 Biological magnification is the build up of pollutants in organisms at higher tropic levels in a food
chain.

 Greenhouse effect is the trapping of heat by gases in the Earth’s atmosphere, mainly water vapor
and carbon dioxide.

 Global Warming is an increase in the Earth’s temperature from the rapid build up of carbon dioxide
and other greenhouse gases.
- it might cause the melting of the polar ice caps, the raising of sea levels as much as
 100 m, and the flooding of New York, Miami and Los Angeles.
- World climate might also change drastically.
 Acid Rain – is formed when sulfur dioxide gas combines with water in the atmosphere to form
sulfuric acid. It reduces fertility of the soil.
- it is destructive to ecosystems, buildings and statues made of limestone.
 Chloro fluorocarbon are gases used as aerosol can propellant, coolant in air conditioner,
refrigerator and freezers.
- Ozone, CFCs and ultraviolet light from the sun combine destroying the ozone layer
 Eutrophication or nutrient enrichment of the lake that results to algal bloom and decrease in the
amount of oxygen in the
 Volcanic eruptions are another natural source of air pollution. It releases chemical pollutants such
as sulfur dioxide bodies of water.

Sustainable Development and Environmental Protection:

 Sustainable development – it is the development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
 Economic development - may be pursued but not at the expense of a degraded environment.
Ways of Achieving Sustainability:
a) Utilize renewable resources at a rate slower than the rate at which those resources can be
regenerated.
Ex. the number of trees cut down is more or less balanced by the number of saplings to replace
them.
b) Selective logging- it means cutting only mature trees but 60 to 70% should be left to ensure a
constant supply of seeds of forest trees.
c) Use technologies which produce little or no waste and which do not degrade the environment.
d) Reduce, Reuse and Recycle non- biodegradable materials- this materials cannot be broken down
or recycle by natural processes.
Ex. plastics, bottle, styrofor, metals.
e) Use of organic fertilizers instead of the commercial inorganic fertilizers.
f) limiting pollutants on air, land and water.
g) Reduce the use of energy from fossil fuels by using other sources like solar, water and wind.

Biochemistry and Cell Biology

Part I – Content Update

The Biomolecules
Biomolecules are complex organic substances that make up the bulk of our body. Biomolecules
includes carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acid.

Carbohydrates
 Carbohydrates are made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms. The simplest carbohydrate has a
formula of CH2O.
 The different monosaccharides are named according to number of carbon atoms present e.g. triose
(3 carbon atoms. pentose (5 carbon atoms), and the hexose (6 carbon atoms).
 Glucose is the immediate fuel of cells. It is also used as raw materials for making other organic
compounds including amino acids.
 Monosaccharides can also form complex polysaccharides. As to function, polysaccharides may be
classified as structural or storage. Examples of polysaccharides are starch, glycogen, cellulose and
many more.
 Lipid is a group of compound which is soluble in ether but insoluble in water. It is considered a
stored energy. The backbone is anchored on fatty acid and alcohol unit. The most prominent
alcohol linked to fatty acid is glycerol.
 Long fatty acid chain is water-insoluble because –COOH is not available for hydrogen bonding with
water. If carbon atoms in fatty acid are joined by multiple bonds, the substance is unsaturated.

Groups of Lipids

 Fats and oils

The first group of lipids is neutral fat or simply fat and oil. Three fatty acids attached to
glycerol forms triglyceride. Triglyceride is the lipid stored in adipose tissues of animals. One
fatty acid (monoglyceride) or two fatty acids (diglyceride) may link to glycerol.

Thus, unsaturated fats are liquid at room temperature while saturated fats are solid at room
temperature. Plant fats are unsaturated and are called oil because it is liquid at room
temperature. Coconut oil, corn oil, olive oil, and sesame oil are common example of plant
oil. In margarine, the label that says, “it contains hydrogenated vegetable oil”. This means
that oil was made unsaturated by adding hydrogen atoms to make it solid at room
temperature.

Most animal fats are saturated. Butter and lard are example of animal fats and are solid at
room temperature. Consumption of large amount of saturated fats has been associated with
atherosclerosis. This is a cardiovascular disease wherein lipid – containing plaques are
deposited on the walls of blood vessel. The plaques in the wall reduce blood flow.

 Waxes

It is composed of fatty acids linked to alcohol. Waxes are more hydrophobic and serve as
natural coats. Fruits and leaves of plants that appear shiny are coated with waxes. Some
 insects have waxy coats that prevent them from drying out.

 Phospholipids

It is an important lipid present in cellular membranes. Two fatty acids are linked to glycerol.
A phosphate group is attached to the third –OH group of glycerol. Substances like choline,
serine or ethanolamine may be attached to the phosphate, forming a polar head and non-
polar hydrocarbon tail.

 Steroids

Steroid is the fourth group of lipids. The backbone is not an alcohol but a four-ring
hydrocarbon.

The most common example is cholesterol. Cholesterol is present in the plasma membrane
of animal cells and makes the cell fluid even during cold days. The cholesterol deposited in
the walls of blood vessel contributes to atherosclerosis, a disease characterized by the
hardening of the walls of the blood vessels.

Some steroids acts as vitamins. Vitamins are either water-soluble or fat-soluble. Fat-soluble
vitamins A, D, E and K, are transported in the blood as complexes linked to proteins or
lipids. Vitamin is important in the formation of visual pigments. Vitamin K is important in
blood clotting mechanisms among vertebrates. Water-soluble vitamins B and C, are
transported in the blood and serve as coenzymes in many reactions. Excess water-soluble
vitamins are excreted in the urine but fat-soluble vitamins are accumulated in fatty tissues
and may reach a toxic level.

Proteins
 Proteins are vital component of life. The building block of protein is amino acid. There are twenty
common amino acids. Amino acids may be essential or not essential. Essential amino acid must be
included in the diet. Most proteins are deficient in one or more amino acid.

 Most animal proteins contain all essential amino acid of enough quantity. Lean meat, milk, fish,
eggs, and cheese are good sources of proteins.

 Pregnant woman requires more protein. Protein deficiency leads to kwashiorkor, a common disease
in Africa. A child with inadequate nutrition inside the mother’s womb and onward is hopelessly
handicapped throughout his/her lifetime.

 Considering the amino acid inadequacy of some protein food, some foods like mongo and rice are
mixed. Even with food combination problem may crop p because Vitamin B 12is not found in plant
matter.

 Enzymes are proteins that can act as biological catalyst. A catalyst is a substance that speeds up
chemical reaction without them being used up in the reaction. Enzyme speeds up chemical reaction
by lowering the activation energy. Enzymes are synthesized in the cell.

Nucleic Acid
 Nucleic acids are compounds made up of nucleotides. A nucleotide is made of phosphate group
(from phosphoric acid), 5-carbon sugar (pentose) and nitrogenous bases (purine and pyrimidine).
 There are two kinds of nucleic acids – deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA).

Table 1. Differences and Similarities of DNA and RNA

 Base pairing in DNA us specific. Adenine pairs with thymine while cytosine pairs with guanine. The
two strands of DNA are stabilized by hydrogen bonds between bases. The sequence of bases
forms a code, which carries genetic information. The code is passed from one generation to the
next generation.

Some Reactions of Biomolecules

Cellular Respiration
Cellular respiration is the oxidation of glucose into CO2 and water. It is an exergonic reaction that
drives ATP synthesis, an endergonic reaction. It occurs un 4 phases – glycolysis (anaerobic), oxidation of
pyruvic acid (aerobic and occurs in the mitochondrion), Kreb’s cycle (aerobic and occurs inside the
mitochondrion) and passage of electros along the electron transport system. The general equation is
shown below.

C6H12O6 + O2- CO2 +H2O + Energy

Glycolysis
The process breaks down glucose (6 carbon) into two 30carbon molecules, pyruvic acid. The
energy from other sugars, such as fructose, is also harvested using this process. Glycolysis happens in the
cytoplasm of the cells, not in some specialized organelle. Glycolysis is one metabolic pathway found in all
living organisms.

Photosynthesis: The Food Making Process

Produces, the green plants and the photosynthetic bacteria, trap energy from the sun. The energy
is stored in the chemical bonds of the food they produce via photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is a process of
Criteria DNA RNA
Pyrimidine base Cytosine and thymine Cytosine and uracil
Purine base Adenine and quinine Adenine and guanine
Sugar Deoxyribose Ribose
Inorganic acid Phosphoric acid Phosphoric acid
Number of strands 2 1
Conformation Helix Helix
Location Nucleus, mitochondrion, Nucleus, cytoplasm,
chloroplast ribosomes
converting carbon dioxide from air into sugar. It is a redox process as shown in the equation below.

Reduction

6 CO2 + 12 H2O C6H12O6 + 6 H2O + 6 CO2

Cell Biology

 Cell Biology is the study that deals with the smallest unit of living organisms, the cell. The eggs of
birds are example of cells. However, not all cells are as big a eggs of many egg-laying animals like
birds and reptiles. Cells are mostly small and not visible to our naked eye.

 German biologist Lorenz Coken, MatiasSchleiden, Theodore Schwann, and Rudolf Virchow put odd
ideas and observation about cells into a modern cell theory.

Modern Cell Theory

1. Cells are the basic unit of life.
2. All organisms are composed of cells. Every living thing is either single-celled or multi-celled.
3. Except for the origin of life itself, all cells arise from pre-existing cells.
4. Cells of multi-cellular organisms are sometimes interconnected. Thus, population of cells functions
as a single unit.
5. Cells of multi-cellular plants and animals stick to solid surfaces to divide, move, assume specific
shapes and carry out many functions.

Table 2. Differences between Prokaryotic Cell and Eukaryotic Cell

Structures Prokaryotic Cell Eukaryotic Cell

Cell wall Peptidoglycan with unique amino Cellulose
disaccharide
Plasma membrane Present Present
Organelles Not membrane-bound Membrane-bound
Sub-cellular structure in Ribosomes (70s) Ribosomes (80s)
cytoplasm
Thylakoids Endoplasmic Reticulum
Golgi apparatus
Vacuole and vesicles
Lysosome
Peroxisomes
Mitochondrion
Chloroplast
Cytoskeleton
Cells and Flagella Does bot have a 9 +2 pattern of With 9 + 2 pattern of microtubules
microtubules
Centriole Absent 9 + 0 pattern of microtubule
Nucleus Nucleoid (not enclosed by a Nuclear envelope surrounding
membrane) nucleoplasm, chromatin and
Innumerable enzymes nucleolus
Chromosome (loop of DNA)
Nucleolus Absent Concentrated area of chromatin.
RNA and proteins.
 Table 3. Comparison of Animal and Plant Cell
Structure Animal Cell Plant Cell
Extracellular matrix Ranges from tough tendon to Cell wall
crystal like cornea with collagen
as main fiber.
ATP-generating organelle Mitochondrion Chloroplast and Mitochondrion

Centriole Present Absent

Vacuole Mostly in lower forms Prominent
Cytokinesis Cleavage flow Cell plate

Plasma Membrane
 Cells have contact with the environment though cell surface which includes plasma membrane, its
lipids and protein molecules. Part of these molecules extends from membrane t extracellular
medium. The plasma membrane is composed of two unit membranes. The two-unit membrane is
separated by space. A unit membrane is made up of two layers of phospholipid with hydrophobic
hydrocarbon tails inside the hydrophilic head on the surface. This bilipid layer is sandwiched by
proteins.

 Membrane glycoproteins also act as surface receptors for cell to cell signaling. It allows cells to
recognize and bind signal molecules such as peptide hormones, growth factors and
neurotransmitters. Binding of signal molecules to membrane receptors triggers and responses such
as increase or decrease of transport rate, oxidative metabolism, secretion, cell movement and cell
division.

 The substances in the membrane can be destroyed by toxin produced by infectious

microorganisms. A good example is Clostridium perfringenswhich causes gas gangrene. One
symptom of this disease is destruction of the red blood cells. This results from the action of the
phospholipase enzyme on the membrane phospholipids.

Cytoplasmic Organelles

Mitochondrion
 Mitochondrion is an elongated, double-membrane organelle that produces ATP. The outer
membrane of mitochondrion is smooth and covers the inner folded membrane. The folds are
cristae. Cristae contain short rod like projections with small pocket attached to the surface. The
outer and inner membranes are separated by intermembrane compartment. Enclosed by the inner
membrane is a jelly-like matrix. The matrix contains granules, fibers of crystals. Some granules
are intramitochondrial granule which contains ion and mitochondrial ribosomes.

Chloroplast
 Chloroplast belongs to a family of pigment-containing and ATP-producing organelle called plastid.
It is surrounded by two continuous membranes. The two membranes enclosed in an inner
compartment, the stromata. In stomata is the third membrane consisting of small flattened sacs
called thylakoids.

Ribosomes
  Like the prokaryotic cell, eukaryotic cell synthesizes many proteins. Proteins are made in the
ribosome. It is a non-membranous structure that is either attached or free from the surface of
endoplasmic reticulum. Unattached ribosome makes catalytic proteins like enzymes.

Endoplasmic Reticulum
 Many substances are moved from various points in the cell. Reactions also occur in the call. The
substances need channels. The reactions require surfaces where reactants are anchored.
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) fulfills these requirements. There are two types of ER – rough ER
(ERR) and smooth ER (SER). Ribosomes are attached on the outside surface of RER. Cells with
extensive RER produces large amount of proteins. SER acts as surface for normal channel
reaction to make lipids and destroys harmful substances into harmless substances.

Golgi Apparatus or Body

 The substances made in the ribosome are sometimes modified and packaged for secretion. The
site for modification and packaging is the golgi apparatus. It is composed of stack of three to seven
membranous sacs. The edges of the sacs form a vesicle with mucus, protein, glycoprotein,
hormones, or polysaccharides is pinched off from the main sac.

Vacuoles and Vesicles

 Vacuole is surrounded by a single unit membrane. The membrane may come from the plasma
membrane. Golgi body or ER. In many algae, water, food, waste and nutrients are stored in large
centrally located in vacuole. Many smaller vacuoles with food and other substances are observed
in protozoans. Smaller vacuoles are called vesicles. Plant cells have prominent vacuoles.

Lysosome
 Lysosome is a special type of vesicle. It is a “bursting body” because it contains protein-destroying
and lipid-destroying enzyme. These enzymes destroy cellular debris, pathogenic bacteria and
fungi.

 Microtubules are hollow made up of protein subunits. It provides structural support and allows
motion. It can be lengthened or shortened by adding or subtracting the protein subunits called
tubulin. It is the component of spindle apparatus of dividing cells.

Microfilaments
 Microfilaments are solid, helical rods. It is composed of globular proteins called actin. Actin
molecules are twisted to form a double chain. Actin microfilaments aid cells to change shape and
move by assembling at one end and disassembling at the other end.

Nucleus and Inclusions

 All activities of the cell are controlled and coordinated by the nucleus. The nucleus is the largest
cell organelle.
Focus: Microbiology and Biotechniques
___________________________________________________________________________

Part I – Content Update

Prokaryote
Prokaryotes are cells which do not have true nucleus. A true nucleus has a nuclear membrane to
compartmentalize its components (cells with true nucleus are called eukaryotes). Prokaryotes have
nucleoid region where the circular DNA is found. Cell wall is usually present. Capsules may also be
present. Cell membrane, cell wall and capsule are coverings of prokaryotic cell. Other cellular parts found
in prokaryotes are ribosome (for protein synthesize), and flagella (for movement)

Figure 1 Prokaryote

The reproduction of prokaryotes is usually through binary fission. The nuclear materials duplicate, the cell
splits into two.

Figure 2 Binary fission

Prokaryotes have two groups namely the

archeobacteria and the eubacteria. In the five kingdom
classification system, these two groups belong to Kingdom
Monera. In other classification systems, they may be classified
separately.

Archeobacteria
The term archeobacteria means ancient. They are one of the earliest forms of life on earth.
Archeobacteria are able to live in the harshest condition known to man. They can live in extremely hot
environment like volcanic areas. They can live in extremely salty surroundings like the Dead Sea. They can
also live in exceptionally acidic environment. These are the reasons why they are also called
extremophiles.

Table 1. Some major groups of archea, its characteristics and representative species are tabulated below.

Group Characteristic Representative species

Thermophile Heat loving Thernusaquaticus
Methanogen Release methane as by product Methanobacterium
Halophile Salt loving Halobacterium
Acidophiles Acid loving Ferroplasmaacidarmus

Another group is called methanogens. These are acheanstha can realse methane as by product.
 Archea have no peptidoglycans in their cell walls. Peptidoglycan is a structural molecule containing
N-acetylglucocamine and N acetylemuramic acid, terapeptide side chain and peptide chain. The cell wall
prevents archean cell to burst when places in hypotonic environment. The absence of peptidoglycans is
similar to the cell walls of eukaryotes.
The archeanTherasmusaquaticus has unique DNA. DNA polymerase is an enzyme that
synthesizes DNA by copying from a template. DNA polymerase of T. aquaticus has the ability to withstand
extreme heat without being destroyed. This characteristic is crucial to the operation of Ploymerase Chain
Reaction (PCR).PCR is a technique that uses DNA polymerase to amplify a DNA fragment. PCR uses the
DNA polymerase of T. aquaticus
Eubacteria
The term eu means true. Most species of bacteria are under this group. Their cell wall has
peptidoglycans.

Eubacteria may be classified based on their shape. The groupings, its shape and representative
species are tabulated below.

Table 2. The Classification of Source of Bacteria Based on Shape

Group Shape Representative Species
Coccus Round Staphylococcus
Bacillus Rod Streptobacilli
Spiral Twisted Spirillum

Bacteria may remain associated with its parent cell division. If such occurs, it can be further
classified. Below is the list of other possible classifications.

Table 3. The other Classification of Bacteria

Classification Characteristic/s
Diplococci Two cocci
Streptococci Chain of cocci
Tetrad Four cocci; division in two planes
Sarcinae Eight cocci; cube like in arrangement; division in three plane

Staphylococci Cluster of cocci

Some bacteria have exotoxin or endotoxin. Toxins are poisonous chemicals by organisms.
Exotoxins are toxins secreted by a pathogen. Pathogen is any organism that causes a disease. Exotoxins
are proteins in nature. Clostridium botilinumreleases exotoxin causing paralysis.

Endotoxins are part of some bacterial cell wall. It is released when the bacteria undergo lysis
(damage of the cell by breaking the cell membrane). Endotoxins are lipopolisaccharide (lipid and
carbohydrate) in nature. Salmonella typhi releases endotoxin causing typhoid fever.

Bioremediation is the process of cleaning contaminants in the environment using living organisms.
Bacteria are efficient organisms for this purpose.

Probiotics are food supplements using bacteria or fungi. They are considered the good bacteria.
When present in the digestive tract, the good bacteria compete with the harmful bacteria. Since the good
bacteria is present first in the tract, they are already numerous and they can easily win the competition.
Lactobacilli is a common probiotics ingredient.

Lactic acid bacteria are used in cheese production. These organisms are able to utilize the lactose
in milk producing lactic acid. Their metabolism adds distinctive taste to the cheese. Lactobacillus may be
used for this purpose.

Nitrogen is the most abundant gas in the atmosphere. Plants need nitrogen but not in nitrogen gas
form but usually in nitrate form. Nitrogen cycle ensures that this is possible for the plants’ health. One of the
steps in the nitrogen cycle is the nitrogen fixation. Nitrogen fixation is trapping of the nitrogen gas from the
atmosphere. Rhizobium, a symbiont in the legume roots is one the bacterial species which can do nitrogen
fixation. Anabaebaand Azotobacterare also nitrogen fixers.

Protist
Protists are the simplest of the eukaryotic cell. They have fungus, animal and plant like
characteristics. They may be found as unicellular organisms. They may also be observed as a colony.
Acolony is a group of unicellular cells acting as one.

The following are some major phyla of kingdom protista, its characteristics, representative species
and its economic importance.

Table 4. Fungus like Protists and their Characteristics

Phylum Characteristics Representative species Economic importance

Water molds Found in damp Phytophtorainfestans Causes potato blight

environments
Slime molds Lack chitin in their cell Physarumpolycephalum Decomposition
walls

Table 5. Animal like Protists and their Characteristics

Phylum Characteristics Representative Economic importance
species
Sarcodinia Pseudopodia Amoeba Causes amoebaiasis
CIliata Cilia Paramecium Plays a key role in the
food chain of ponds

Mastigophora Flagella Trypanosoma Causes African sleeping

sickness
Sporozoa None Plasmodium Causes malaria

Table 6. Plant like Protists and their Characteristics

Phylum Description Representative Economic importance
species
Rhodophyta Red algae Porphyra Source of nori, an edible
seaweed
Chlorophyta Green algae Caulerpa Source of food
Phaeophyta Brown algae Sargassum Habitat for marine
animals
Chrysophyta Yellow-green algae Diatoms Produces the
diatomaceous earth
used for abrasives and
filtering aids
Dinoflagellates Some are Gonyaulax Causes red tides
bioluminescent

Virus
Virus means poison in ancient Rome. Virus is characterized by the presence of capsid, a protein
coat covering the nucleic acid. It cannot reproduce outside a host. It needs the machineries of the host cell
to reproduce.

Multiplication of virus passes through several stages namely attachment, penetration, replication
and synthesis, assembly and release. In attachment, virus locates a specific binding site on the recipient
host cell. In penetration, genetic materials or the whole virus enters the cell. In replication and synthesis,
the genetic component of the virus dictates to the host cell to reproduce materials needed by the virus for
reproduction. In assembly, viral materials are structured to become new viruses. Lastly, in release, new
viruses are liberated from the host cell.

Biotechniques

Herbarium
 Herbarium is a collection of plant specimens which are dried, arranged and classified. It serves as
basis of identifying plants in succeeding collection. It provides pertinent information to researchers in
case another collection is needed.

Aquarium and Terrarium

 Aquarium is miniature water ecosystem. It can be marine or fresh water aquariums. Terrarium on the
other hand is a miniature terrestrial ecosystem.

Taxidermy
 Taxidermy is the art of preserving the skins of different animals for the study of exhibition. It provides
realistic visual aid in teaching concepts in animals like integumentary system and habitat.

Microscopic Technique
 Microscopic technique prepares materials for microscopic observation and study. This is important in
the study of the microscopic world.

Table 7. Steps in Microscopic Techniques

Steps Description
Anesthetization Reduce or eliminate pain in dissection
Dissection and Subdivision Careful exposition of desired animal part
Fixation For preservation of tissues and its components; improves staining
potential of specimen
Washing Removal of excess fixative agents
Dehydration Removal of water from the specimen and replacing it by alcohol

Clearing Clearing agent replaces the dehydrating agent

Infiltration Substances like paraffin is used to penetrate inner layers of the
tissue specimen; this allows sectioning possible
Embedding Substances like paraffin is allowed to solidify around the
specimen
Sectioning Cutting to desired thickness
Deceration Removal of paraffin from the specimen
Staining Coloring of the specimen using stains
Mounting Placing the specimen on the slide and covering with glass slide

Drying, cleaning, and labeling Letting the mounting medium to dry; cleaning with solvent of the
mounting medium; identifying the specimen prepared

Genetics and Evolution

_____________________________________________________________________________________

Part I – Content Update

Genetics is a field of study that deals with heredity. Heredity is the transmission of the genes from
one generation to the next generation. Genes are DNA molecules that determine the traits of the
organisms.

The three general areas of genetics are:

1. Classical Genetics’ – this area deals with the chromosomal theory of the inheritance which states
that genes are located in a linear fashion on the chromosomes and that the relative positions of
genes can be determined by their frequency in the offspring through mating.
2. Molecular Genetics – is the study of the genetic material, its structure, replication and expression. It
also involves the information revolution arising from the discoveries of recombinant DNA
techniques or the technologies involving the DNA.
3. Evolutionary Genetics – is the study that deals with the mechanisms of evolutionary change, the
changes in frequencies in populations, Darwin’s concept of natural selection is related to the
principles of genetics.

Gregor Mendel and Genetics

Gregor Johann Mendel is an Austrian monk. He is considered the Father of Genetics. He
presented in experiments the nature of inheritance in 1866. Mendel used the garden pea as his main
specimen for his genetics experiments.

When he started his experiments, he started with purebred peas. Purebred means if you allow
these peas to self-pollinate, these peas would produce offspring identical to themselves. One group of
plants produces only tall plants; another group produces only wrinkled seed. Mendel used these purebred
pea plants as the basis for his experiments

Mendelian Laws of Genetics

Terms to make the study of genetics simpler

 Genes – these are factors (DNA molecules) or information carried by each individual organism.
  Dominant Genes – is the gene or factor that masks another gene. The resulting trait is called
dominant trait
 Recessive Gene – this is the gene or factor that is masked by the dominant gene. In Mendel’s
experiment, this is the short gene, since the tall gene masks it; the short trait is not expressed.
However if an individual will carry both recessive genes, the recessive will be expressed. So if you
cross a short plant with another short plant, the result will also be short plant.
 Alleles – these are the genes that are found in the same loci of homologous chromosomes or these
are the different forms of a gene. E.g. tall allele (T) or short allele (s)
 Homozygous genes – genes that are morphologically alike. E.g. TT for tall tt for small

 Heterozygous genes – genes that are morphologically different. E.g. Tt determines tall trait, one allele
for tall trait (T) and another allele for short trait (t)
 Genotype – this is the genetic make up or genetic composition for a particular trait. TT or Tt is the
genotype for the tall trait while tt is the genotype for short trait.
 Phenotype – the appearance or characteristic of the organism or the trait that is expressed as
determined by the genotype.
 Genome – the totality of all the genotypes for all traits of an organism.
 Gene pool – the sum or total of all genotypes of all individual in a given population.

Law of Segregation

This law states that all the genes for all the traits of an organism are equally divided and are
equally distributed in all the resulting gametes after meiosis; This principle states that, each individual carry
two hereditary alleles affecting any given character or trait. In meiosis, these two alleles becomes
separated or segregated from each other when the number of the chromosomes is reduced from diploid to
haploid. An allele for every character trait is then incorporated into each maturing gene (ovum or sperm)
and is transmitted during fertilization to the next diploid generation. The new diploid individual has in every
nucleus of the cell two alleles for each character, one from each parent.

The possible gene combinations in the offspring that result from a cross can be determined by
using a diagram. This diagram is called a Punnett square.

Law of Independent Assortment

This law states that alleles of different genes are distributed randomly to the gametes and
fertilization occurs at random.

Law of Dominance

Law of Complete Dominance

This principle states that a cross between homozygous dominant genes and homozygous
recessive genes will result to a progeny of heterozygous genes determining all dominant traits.

Law of Incomplete Dominance

This principle states that a cross between homozygous dominant and recessive genes will result to
a progeny of heterozygous genes determining an intermediate trait between the dominant trait and
recessive trait. Both alleles exert an effect and jointly produce an intermediate phenotype.

Law of Co-Dominance
 This principle states that a cross between homozygous dominant genes will result to a progeny of
heterozygous genes determining a phenotype where both the dominant trait and recessive trait are
expressed.

Multiple Alleles

A given gene can have more than two alleles. Although any particular individual can have only two,
there may be many alleles of a given gene in a population. The classic example of multiple alleles in human
is in the ABO blood group. These groups are called A, B, AB, and O. Both the allele for type A blood type
and that for type B blood are dominant. When this combination is inherited (A parent + B parent), the child
will have an AB blood type. The O allele however is recessive. So a person who inherits an O and B allele
will have type B blood. Only when an O allele is combined with O allele can one obtained a Type O blood.

Table 1. Blood Types and their corresponding genotypes

Blood groups Possible genotypes
A AA or AO
B BB or BO
AB AB
O OO

Chromosomes
Chromosomes are rod-shaped structures that are located in the nucleus of every cell. These are
DNA molecules that are packed by protein called histones in eukaryotes. Sutton’s belief that genes are
found on chromosomes came to be known as the chromosome theory of genetics.

Chromosome Theory of Inheritance

 Mendelian factors or genes are located on chromosomes
 It is the chromosome that segregates and independently assort
 Menedelian inheritance has its physical basis on the behavior of chromosomes during
sexual life cycles. In the early 1900s, geneticists showed that chromosomal movements in
meiosis accounts for Mendel’s laws.
 Morgan traced a gene to a specific chromosome which led to the discovery that the X
chromosome in Drosophilia carries a gene for eye color. This supported the chromosome
theory of inheritance.

Chromosomes and Sex Determination

 Through a number of experiments, Morgan discovered that the X and Y chromosomes
determine the sex of an organism. In general, any organism that has two X chromosome is
a female. Any organism that has one X chromosome and one Y chromosome is a male.
This X and Y chromosomes are called sex chromosomes.
 Human diploid cells contains 22 pairs of autosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes: X
and Y. The diploid female cells contain two X chromosomes (XX). The diploid male cells
contains X and Y chromosomes (XY).
 Female cells contain XX chromosomes thus female gametes contain one X chromosome.
 Since male cells are XY, half of the male gametes contain X chromosome and the other
half has Y chromosomes.
 During fertilization, an egg nucleus containing an X chromosome fuses with a sperm
nucleus, which may contain either an X or Y chromosome. If the sperm has the X
chromosome, the resulting zygote will be carrying XX and thus, develops into a female
organism. However if the sperm nucleus contains Y chromosome, then the zygote is XY,
and develops into a male organism. Therefore, in man, it is the sperm cell that determines
the sex of the zygote and not the egg cell.

Sex Linkages
 The condition in which a gene responsible for a specific trait is located on a sex
chromosome, resulting in sexually dependent inheritance of the trait.
 The tendency for certain characteristics to occur exclusively or predominantly in one sex
only. Human examples include red-green colorblindness and hemophilia, both found
predominantly in males. In both cases, these characteristics are recessive and are
determined by the genes on the X chromosome.
 Since female possesses two X chromosomes, any such recessive allele on one of them is
likely to be masked by the corresponding allele on the other. In males (who have only one
X chromosome paired with a largely inert Y chromosome) any gene on the X chromosome
will automatically be expressed. Color blindness and hemophilia can appear in females,
but only if they are homozygous for these traits.

Mutations

A mutation is a change in genes or chromosomes, which causes a new trait to be inherited. It was
Hugo de Vries who called these sudden changes in the characteristics mutation.

If a mutation occurs in a body cell such as skin cell, the mutation only affects the organism that
carries it. This is called non-heritable mutation. But if a mutation occurs in a sex cell, then the mutation can
be passed on to the next generation. The mutation may then be cause a change in the characteristics of
the next generation. This called inheritable mutation.

Some mutations may be helpful and cause desirable traits in living things. For example, when
mutation occurs in crop plants, the crops may become more useful to people. A gene mutation in potatoes
produced a new variety of potato called the Katahdin potato. This potato is resistant to diseases that attack
other potatoes. Also, the new potato looks and tastes better than the other types of potatoes. This type of
mutation is the mechanism for evolution to occur.

It may seem as if mutation produces only helpful or harmful traits. This is not so. Many mutations
are neutral and do not produce any obvious changes. Still other mutations are lethal, or deadly, and result
in the death of an organism.

Types of Mutation

Single Gene Disorder

Genes are paired – one of each pair is inherited from the mother and the other from the father.
Generally, the alteration means that the information contains in the particular gene is either changed or
absent. The four main ways of inheriting an altered gene include:
  Autosomal dominant – the alteration (mutation) is present in every generation and may
cause the condition in every person who has the alteration. This is because the altered
copy of the gene is dominant over the healthy copy. Examples include Huntington’s
disease and familial hypercholesterolemia.

 Autosomal recessive – the affected person has two copies of the altered gene (they have
inherited an altered copy of the gene from both parents). They develop the disorder
because they do not have the functioning copy of the gene. Examples of autosomal
recessive genetic disorders include cystic fibrosis, phenylketonuria (PKU) and sickle cell
anemia.
 X-linked dominant – this type of disorder generally occurs in females. The ‘X’ refers to one
of the sex chromosomes that decide gender. The mother always provides an X, while the
father provides either X (female child) or Y (male child). Women with an X-linked dominant
disorder have one altered copy and one normal copy of a gene that is on the X
chromosome. An example of X-linked dominant genetic disorder is a rare form of rickets
known as hypophosphatemic or Vitamin D resistant rickets.
 X-linked recessive – this type of disorder is more common in males. It is cause by an
alteration in a gene on the X chromosome. Since a male has one X and one Y (XY), he
does not have a second ‘healthy’ copy of the gene. An example of X-linked recessive
genetic disorders includes Duchenne muscular dystrophy and hemophilia.

Chromosomal Abnormalities or Chromosomal Aberrations

 Changes in number – a person has 23 pairs of chromosomes, or 46 chromosomes in all, when

the egg or sperm are made, the pairs split up so that each germ cell only contains 23
chromosomes. Occasionally, an error occurs during the division where there is failure of
chromosomes to divide in either meiosis I or meiosis II otherwise called chromosomal
nondisjunction. For example, an egg or sperm cell might be either missing a chromosome (22
chromosomes), or have an extra one (24 chromosomes. At conception, the baby has either too few
(45) or too many (47) chromosomes. A well-known example of this type of genetic disorder is
Down syndrome, where a person has 47 chromosomes rather than 46.

 Changes in structure – occasionally, the information contains in a chromosome breaks up and

the pieces reform in different pattern. For example, a fragment of chromosome may break off and
be lost during the formation of either egg or sperm cell. A section of chromosome might also break
away and ‘stick’ to another chromosome. In other cases, fragment of chromosome may copy itself,
or the ends of the chromosome may join to form a ring. Some changes in structure are ‘balanced’
and unlikely to result in a genetic disorder. This may result to deletion, translocation, duplication,
and inversion.

 Uniparentaldisomy– this means the child inherited a particular gene pair from one parent only.
This can cause a disorder if it is necessary for the child to have inherited one such gene from one
parent.

 Mosaicism– normally, every cell in the body contains the same blueprint; for example, 44 XX or 44
XY. A person who is chromosomal mosaic has different numbers in chromosomes in different cells.

Mitochondrial Disorder
 Mitochondria are like little batteries that make energy within each cell. The energy source is a
chemical called ATP. If any of these genes are mutated, this can affect enzyme production and interfere
with the production of ATP. If one of the genes in the mitochondria is altered, then the condition is inherited
only from the mother. This is because the egg contains most of the mitochondrial cells.

Multifactorial Disorder

Multifactorial disorders, such as cancer, are thought to be caused by a combination of genetic

changes and environmental factors. A cancer cell is a cell that divides too often which is why it eventually
causes a large mass or tumor.

Structure of DNA

A DNA molecule is made up of nucleotides. Each DNA nucleotides is compose of deoxyribose, a

phosphate molecules and one of the four nitrogenous bases – adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine.

RNA - is made up of many RNA nucleotides. Each RNA nucleotides is composed of ribose, a
phosphate molecule and one of the four nitrogenous bases – adenine, uracil, cytosine, and guanine.

DNA Replication
DNA replication is a process where DNA is copied exactly to produce another DNA.

Steps in DNA Replication

a.Unzipping – the molecule of DNA is unzipped. The hydrogen bonds between the complementary
base pairs are broken. Helicase is the enzyme which causes the DNA molecule to unzip. The
DNA bases are exposed so complementary base pairing can occur.

b.Complementary base pairing – the nucleotide bases that make up the 2 strands of the DNA
molecule are exposed and nucleotides located in the nucleus move into the place by
complementary base pairing. The pairs of complementary nucleotides form the cross bridges
of the DNA molecule.

c. Joining of adjacent nucleotides – the vertical part (up and down) of the DNA molecule is formed
when the sugar part of one nucleotide bonds with the phosphate part) of an adjacent
nucleotide. These bonds produce the sizes of the ladder. The joining of the sugar/phosphate
parts of adjacent nucleotide molecules causes the length of the new DNA molecule to
increase. Two complete molecules of DNA are formed, identical to the original one.

Evolution

Evolution is any process of change through time. In biology, this is the gradual change of structure
and function of organisms due to the changes in the environment. The theory of organic evolution proposes
that the simple forms of organisms gave rise to the present forms of life. The biological diversity that is seen
on earth today is because of evolution.

There are four major patterns of change in nature

1. Genes are linked to how organisms look and behave.

Genetic variation – there is tremendous genetic diversity within almost all species including
humans. No two individuals have the same DNA sequence, with exception to the identical twins or
clones. This genetic variation contributes to phenotypic variation – that is diversity in the outward
appearance and behavior of individuals of the same species.

2. Organisms must adapt to their environment to survive.

Adaptation – living organisms have morphological, biochemical and behavioral features that makes
them well adapted for life in the environments in which they are usually found. Evolutionary biology
has demonstrated that adaptations arise though selection acting on genetic variation.

3. Species evolved along different paths from common ancestor.

Divergence – all living species differ from one another. In some cases, differences are subtle, while
in other cases the differences are dramatic. In the modern scheme of classification, similar species
are groups into genera, similar genera into families, and so on. This hierarchical pattern of
relationship produces a tree-like pattern, which implies a process of splitting and divergence from
common ancestors.

4. Fossils provide evidence of evolutionary changes.

Fossil species – fossils are the mineralized remnants or impressions of once-living organisms.

Mechanisms of Evolution

Biological evolution results from changes over time in the genetic constitution of species. Evolution
requires both the production of variation and the spread of some variants that replace others.

 Genetic variation arises through two process, mutation and recombination. Mutation occurs when
DNA is imperfectly copied during replication, leading to a difference between a parent’s genes than
that of its offspring. Some mutations affect only one bit of the DNA; others produce rearrangements
of large blocks of DNA.
 Recombination occurs when genes from two parents are shuffled to produce an offspring, as
happens regularly in sexual reproduction. Usually the two parents belong to the same species, but
sometime distantly related organisms.
 The fate of any particular genetic variant depends on the two processes, drift and selection. Drift
refers to random fluctuations in gene frequency, and its effects are usually seen at the level of
DNA.
 The principle of natural selection was discovered by Charles Darwin (1809 – 1882), and it is the
process by which organisms become adapted to their environment.
Human Anatomy and Physiology

Part I – Content Update

Human Anatomy and physiology are related to each other even as they differ in the branch of
science. This relationship is supported by the fact that every part of the human anatomy corresponds to a
specific function and that the specific organs of the body has a physiological function within the body
system.

Levels of Organization

The levels of organization make up the entire human body. It has a lot of components
which starts from tiny particles known as atom, the basic component of matter. Atoms combine to make up
a molecule. Then molecules merge forming a complex structure which is the cell. Cell is the basic unit of
life since its structure and function depends on the chemical activities taking place for every organelle. The
cells of the same kind form together becoming a tissue. Tissues connect with the same kind and function
forming an organ. Combining different organs make up an organ system. Various organ systems
consolidate to accomplish a required task. Finally the highest level making up all different organ system is
the organism level.

This area will focus on the different body systems in relation to structure and function. The
various body organs are described and the processes involved in their specific functions woll also be
discussed.

I. The Integumentary System

The integumentary system protects us from harmful organs as it protects us from harmful
elements such as microorganisms that could cause diseases, prevents us from dehydration,
synthesizes Vitamin D and regulates body temperature. It has three components basically the
skin, hair and nails.

Skin
 The skin is known to be largest among the body organs as it protects us from harmful
elements such as pollutants, disease-causing agents, from ultraviolet rays
 This is possible due to the presence of a pigment called melanin which is produced by
melanocytes
 The skin also synthesizes vitamin D which could be activated in the presence of
sunlight.

The skin has two layers namely the epidermis and dermis. The hypodermis, which could be
considered as the third layer is composed mainly of fats.

Layers of the Skin

1. Epidermis is the outermost layer of the skin consists of five strata which are the following;
 Stratum corneum – the first layer of the epidermis is composed of dead cells. A
protein component which is keratin may also be found on this layer.
 Stratum lucidum – the second layer which is also made up of dead cells with
protein component called eleidin. This layer is mostly present on the palms and
soles of the feet and is noted to be a protective layer against ultraviolet rays.
 Stratum granulosum – this plays a big role in keratinization
 Stratum spinosum – this is where the process of cell division takes place to
replace the old cells over the surface of the skin.
 Stratum basale – this is the last layer where mitosis happens in order to replace
the old cells of the outermost layer of the skin.
 2. Dermis is the second layer of the skin which contains several accessory structure namely
glands, muscle, hair follicles, blood vessels, and nerves. The sebaceous gland, also
known as the sudoriferous gland, is one of the glands present under the dermis. This
gland is close to the hair follicle secretes an oily substance called sebum which prevents
our skin from getting dry. If this gland gets clogged with foreign bodies or bacteria, acne
or follicutilis develops. Another structure present in the dermal area is the arrectorpili
muscle. This is an involuntary muscle attached to the hair follicle and upon contraction; it
causes hair to rise which eventually give us “goose bumps.”

Sweat glands are also present in this layer. Three types of sweat gland can be found
here.
i. The eccrine gland which is present on the entire human body
ii. The apocrine weat glands which resides on the axillary area, aerola of the nipples
and anal region
iii. The merocrine sweat glands which could only be found on the palms and soles of
the feet.

3. Hypodermis is also known as the subcutaneous layer . The structure present here are the
adipose tissues, blood vessels, and nerves as well. this layer functions as an insulator as
well as cushioning to our body.

Diseases of the skin

Acne
This condition results when there is an inflammation of the hair follicles and sebaceous
glands. The common areas affected are the face, chest, back and sometimes the scalp.

Allergic Contact Dermatitis

A common skin disorder that occurs when our skin is exposed to substances present in
jewelries, soaps, cosmetics, lotion, deodorants and other materials that we come in contact
with an irritates the integument. Itchiness could be felt along with rashes on affected areas.

Hair

Hair is present all throughout the body. It is made up of the protein keratin and the outer
layer consists of dead cells.

There are three major parts of the hair and these are the following:
 The shaft – protrudes over the epidermis which is made up of dead cells.
 Hair follicle – found beneath the dermal area. This part is capable of mitosis.
 Hair bulb – an extension of the hair follicle. This part is located in the hypodermal area
where it is supplied by blood.

Nails

Nails are hard structure that are adaptations of the epidermis and made up of the protein
 keratin. These structures have several functions such as for protection, for helping us grasp
objects and for scratching

The Muscular System

Muscles give shape to the human body along with the skeleton. Relatively, there are 600
muscles present in the body. It also provides movement along with our bones in line with this; it
gives us postures and is capable of heat production.

Structural muscles are held I bundles or fascicles making up a connective tissue. These
connective tissues form a fascia that gives rise to a tendon. Tendons attached muscles to a bone.

Types of Muscles

There are three types of muscles constructing the human body. These are the skeletal,
cardiac, and smooth muscles. Each muscle type lays a big role in performing different tasks. Along
with the various body systems

Table 1 Muscle Types

Type of Muscle Description
Skeletal They are long and striated muscle fibers attached to the bones.
Another feature is that this type of muscle is multi-nucleated with long
cylindrical cells. It also provides voluntary movements, contributes to
posture and heat production.

Cardiac These are located in the walls of the heart. The fibers are noted to be
short, striated, branching and are uni-nucleated. Representing this
muscle type is a structure known as the intercalated disks which
serves as partition among cardiac muscle fibers. It also initiates a quick
response in delivering an impulse from one cell to the other.
Involuntary movement mimics this muscle type.

Smooth Spindle-shaped and non – striated. These are located in the

respiratory system, hollow visceral organs, and blood vessels,
excretory and reproductive systems. This type of muscle tends to be
involuntary.

The Neuromuscular System

Contraction of the muscles may come in contact to a muscle cell through a nerve fiber.
One of the neurotransmitters released by a neuron is acetylcholine which is essential to muscle
movements. The neuromuscular junction involves a synapse, which serves as a passageway
between a motor neuron and a muscle cell.

Muscle Contraction

There are two types of protein myofilaments that are involved in muscle contraction. These
are the actin where the filaments appear thin and light, and myosin comprising thick and dark
filaments. Each slide past to each other making muscle short hence, contracting the muscle. A
mineral known as calcium is also essential for muscle contraction to happen. It is in the
 endoplasmic reticulum where calcium is stored and released every time stimulation occurs.

Body movement involves the use of energy with the help of ATP. Production of ATP entails
oxygen, glucose and some nutrients. Oxygen is stored in muscle cells in the form of myoglobin and
glycogen which is stored in the liver and muscles is being converted to glucose during strenuous
activities.

Body exhaustion could lead to muscle fatigue in which oxygen is depleted leading to
anaerobic respiration. As a result, lactic acid is formed and accumulates in the affected muscle. In
the event that this is taking place, the person involved could experience cramps.

Diseases of the Muscular System

 Muscular dystrophy
An inherited disorder of unknown cause brought about by an advancing body
weakness leading to the deterioration of the muscles. This happens during early
childhood. Skeletal muscles are commonly affected but since this is known to be
progressive, cardiac muscles could be affected in the long run. There is integration and
degeneration of the muscle fibers and build up of connective tissues and fats.

 Myasthenia gravis
This is an autoimmune disease of unknown cause which there is too little
acetylcholine reaching the neuromuscular junction causing severe exhaustion and muscle
fatigue.

The skeletal System

Bones are essential to human life as it gives us framework and support to protect the vital
organs and other structure of the human body. The bones, cartilages, joints and connective
tissues merge to make up the whole skeletal system. The functions of the skeletal system are
the following: provides framework and support the whole body, allows us to move, protects the
vital organs, promotes the synthesis of Vitamin D, storage of calcium and other minerals, and
produces red blood cells.

The cartilage
The cartilage is made up of a solid and tough connective tissue but not as potent as the
bone. Blood vessels and nerves are not present in these structures. There are three types of
cartilage present in our body. These are the following: fibro-cartilage, hyaline, and elastic.

The bone
The long bone comprises the diaphysis or shaft and epiphysis located at the ends of the
shaft. The yellow marrow, which is made up of fats, is found in the central cavity of the shaft.
Spongy bone is present at the end of the long bones. This is the site where blood cells are
formed.

Development and Growth of the Bone

Bone formation, otherwise known as ossification begins during the first trimester of
 pregnancy. A number of cells are responsible for this process namely: the osteoblasts,
osteocytes, and osteoclasts.

Bone cells
1. Osteoblasts – are the bone-forming cells which build up the matrix of the bone.
2. Osteocytes – known to be the mature bone cell; these are developed when a bone matrix
has already been formed.
3. Steoclasts – responsible for the resorption of the bones.

Skeletal Division
The skeletal system is divided into two parts and is shown on the table below.

Table 2 Skeletal Division

Axial Appendicular
 Comprises of the skull, thorax, and the  Constitutes the shoulder girdle, upper
vertebral column extremities, pelvic girdle and the lower
 Skull includes the cranium, facial bones and extremities.
bones of the middle ear.  The shoulder girdle includes the clavicle and
 Thorax contains the ribs and sternum. the scapula.
 Vertebral covers the following structures:  The upper extremities make up the following
cervical, thoracic, lumbar sacral and coccygeal structures: humerus, radius, ulna, carpals,
bones. metacarpals and phalanges.
 The pelvic girdle comprises the ilium, ischium
and pubis.
 The lower extremities include the following
structure: femur, patella, tibia, fibula, tarsals,
metatarsals, and phalanges

Types of joints
The skeletal system is composed of jointed structures. There are three types of
joints and these are cartilaginous, fibrous, and synovial joints.

Table 3. Types of Joints

Cartilaginous Fibrous Synovial
 Slightly movable  Immovable joints which is  Freely movable since this has
 Attached to a cartilage present in the sutures of the a cavity lied by a membrane
 Found in the joints between skull. which produces the synovial
the vertebral column and fluid.
coastal cartilages which is  Fluid lubricates our joints
attached to the sternum hence making it freely
movable.
 Ligaments in which it is
attached by two bones play a
significant role in making the
joints freely movable.
 The tendons maintain the
structure of the synovial joints
  As the person ages, it could
result to a degenerative
disease of the bone.
Diseases of the Skeletal System
 Scoliosis
This is a bone disorder causing an abnormal lateral curvature of the spine which is
noted to be of unknown cause and hereditary at times.
 Osteoporosis
This is a condition where the bones of our body become brittle and porous due to a
decrease in calcium and phosphorous.

II. Nervous System

The nervous system takes charge of the nerve functions and impulses throughout the body. It
is divided into several divisions.

The Nerve Cell

The nerve cells or neurons are composed of the following: a cell body, a nucleus, an
axon, and a dendrite. These structures are responsible for passing out electrical signals upon
the presence of a stimulus in order to generate a response.

The Major Parts of a Neuron

1. Dendrites – move an impulse towards the cell body.
2. Axons – convey an impulse away from the cell body. A structure known as the myelin
sheath surrounds the axons that work like an insulator to speed up the conduction of
impulse received by the human body.

The Central Nervous System

The Central Nervous System gives rise to two major structures namely the brain and the
spinal cord. These two structures play a big role in coordinating an action or a response the
way we would want it to portray in accordance with a specific stimulus. The parts of the CNS
are as follows.

1. Brain
The brain is protected by the cranium and weighs about 1500 grams. It is highly
vascularized and contains billions of nerve cells. The brain is covered by meninges which
are of three types namely the dura mater, arachnoid and pia mater.

A fluid that flows throughout the brain is the cerebrospinal fluid. The fluid also transports
the inner spaces of the brain ventricles as well as the spinal cord. Its role is for cushioning
and protection. The brain has four principal parts namely the cerebrum, diencephalon,
brain stem, and the cerebellum.

Cerebrum
This is the largest part. The cerebrum is essential for human beings since it entails
awareness and consciousness. It is divided into two, basically, the left and the right
cerebral hemisphere which is known to be the diencephalon. Each of the hemispheres
has four lobes and has specific functions. These are the frontal for planning and
cognition, temporal for hearing and language, parietal for sensory input and occipital
lobes for visual perception.
 Diencephalon
Contains the left and the right hemisphere and has a structure which divides the
two. This is known as the corpus callosum. Two existing structures could be found in
here, the thalamus and the hypothalamus. The thalamus processes all sensory inputs
while the hypothalamus manage to control the body temperature, thirst, hunger, and even
sexual urges. Underneath the hypothalamus is a small gland known as pituitary gland
which is known as the master gland which plays a major role in homeostasis.

Brainstem
Includes three structures which are the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata.
The cerebrum, diencephalons, and the spinal cord link these structures together. The
midbrain which is beneath the thalamus and hypothalamus conveys auditory and visual
responses. The pons which is located between the midbrain and medulla is responsible
for respiration. Lastly, the medulla oblongata functions which lies before the spinal cord
carry out different functions such as breathing, heartbeat, regulation of blood flow and
blood pressure.

Cerebellum
Second largest part of the brain. This is also known to be the ‘little brain.’ This
regulates coordination of body movement, balance and positioning with the involvement
of muscle contractions.

2. Spinal Cord
This is the other part of the CNS, which extends from the brainstem up to the terminal
portion of the vertebral column. It contains 31 spinal nerves, which communicate between
the brain and the rest of the body in terms of eliciting a response.

Cranial Nerves
There are twelve pair of cranial nerves innervating our human body and each of these
nerves performs different tasks and functions. It serves as sensory to a certain body part, motor for some or
even accomplish both functions. for this reason, we are able to perform, interpret and perceive things within
our surroundings. Listed below are the different cranial nerves that give rise to a specific function for each
body organ

Table 4. Cranial Nerves

Central Nerve Function
Olfactory Smell
Optic Vision
Oculomotor Eye muscle movement
Trochlear Eye muscle movement
Trigeminal Sensory to the face, corneal reflex, chewing
Abducens Eye muscle movement
Facial Facial expression
Auditory Hearing and balance
Glossopharyngeal Taste, secretion of saliva, swallowing
Vagus Respiration and digestion
Accessory Shoulder shrugging
Hypoglossal Tongue movements

The Peripheral Nervous System

This is another division of the nervous system, which serves as a receiving site of nerve
impulse transmission coming to and from the brain and spinal cord. In fact, the cranial nerves provide
assistance to everything that we feel like doing and thinking. Moreover, it is also controls our involuntary
movements. There are two subdivisions under this system basically the somatic and autonomic nervous
system.

The somatic explains our voluntary movements perceived by our body, this pertains to
conscious actions taking part by the skeletal system. The autonomic nervous system deals with
unconscious actions, which connotes that this division maneuvers involuntary acts.

It has two types of activity, the parasympathetic and sympathetic. The parasympathetic
activity is involved in making our body calm and relax. However, if we encounter a stressful situation the
sympathetic activity takes its course by arousing the system and thereby making us move faster and
quicker.

Diseases of the Nervous System

Bell’s palsy
This condition is brought about by a damage of the facial nerve leading to a unilateral paralysis of
the facial muscles. Moreover, the person loses its ability to close the eye on the affected side along with the
muscle weakness, loss of taste and facial deformity.

Alzheimer’s disease
This a type of dementia causing progressive memory loss and deterioration of intellectual capacity.
Alzheimer’s is also known as neurodegenerative disease of the ol

The Circulatory System

There are four indispensible factors of circulation and they are the following: blood, heart,
blood vessel, and valves.

The Blood
The blood is known to be the river of life. It distributes oxygen and necessary nutrients
needed by the body. Along with this, it also carries substances in line with the immune system.

The blood is composed of fifty-five percent plasma, and the remaining forty-five percent is
composed of other elements. Plasma is composed of water, proteins, electrolytes, and other
substances. Proteins are made up of fibrinogen, albumin, and globulin while the rest is
composed of nutrients, waste products, gases, and hormones. The formed elements on the
other hand contain erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets. Erythrocytes transports oxygen and
carbon dioxide, while leukocytes function for defense and immunity. Lastly, platelets are
essential in blood clotting.

The Heart, Blood Vessels, and Valves

 The heart regulates the floe of blood to maintain proper circulation with the assistance
of the blood vessels namely the veins, arteries, and capillaries.
  Veins carry blood towards the heart except for the pulmonary vein. Veins are thin-
walled compared to arteries.
 Arteries carry blood away from the heart except pulmonary arteries.
 Blood vessels are like stack of wires that serves as a pathway for supplying nutrients,
oxygen and other substances needed by the body. This is a continuous cycle as long
as the person breathes.
 Blood flow starts with the deoxygenated blood coming from the different body systems
and terminates to the superior and inferior vena cava and fills the right atrium which
eventually contracts. This causes the tricuspid valve to open delivering blood to the
right ventricle. This valve closes when the blood is filled in the right ventricle. Pressure
increases in this area which leads to the opening of the pulmonary valves. This is the
onset of pulmonary circulation where deoxygenated blood becomes oxygenated as
blood diffuses in the lungs. Moreover, after the blood has become oxygenated, it
passes towards the pulmonary veins directing the blood in the left atrium. Once the left
atrium is filled with blood, pressure builds up causing the mitral or bicuspid valves to
open where blood is delivered to the left ventricle. Again, blood fills up this chamber
creating an increase pressure which initiates the aortic valve to open. Systemic
circulation begins when oxygenated blood is delivered from the aorta to the rest of the
body.

Diseases of the Circulatory System

Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever

This is a viral infection brought about by a day biting mosquito known as Aedesaegypti.
High grade fever associated with flu-like symptom is experienced by the person. As soon as the
virus invades the blood stream, there is a destruction of the platelets hampering the clotting
mechanism. As a result, internal hemorrhage may occur which is life threatening. Administration of
dextrose solution plus fluid intake and bed rest are the supportive measures commonly done to
treat the person having this condition. Sometimes, blood transfusion is also given

Hypertension
This occurs when there is sudden increase in the blood pressure. Usually the systolic and
diastolic pressures are elevated. The primary cause could be unknown but there are several
conditions that lead to this disease. The following are the possible conditions: hereditary,
sedentary, lifestyle, lack of exercise, smoking, drinking, unhealthy habits, and stress.

III. The Respiratory System

Breathing is an involuntary process that occurs simultaneously with the circulation of the blood.
This action is essential since we are able to acquire oxygen from the environment, which
eventually is transported to the rest of the body with the involvement of the blood protein
hemoglobin. Like wise, waste products such as carbon dioxide are being excreted in the
process of exhalation.

Process of Ventilation
1. Gas exchange –takes place during the process of inhalation by a process called diffusion.
Oxygen enters the lungs while carbon dioxide exits.
2. Gas transport – oxygen is transported through the bloodstream by a protein known as
hemoglobin. This protein is present in the entire circulation supplying the entire body with
oxygen.
3. Regulation – the entire breathing mechanism is controlled by two specific structures in the
 brainstem namely the pons and the medulla oblongata.

The process of ventilation involves the intercostals muscles of the thorax and diaphragm. As
we inhale oxygen, our lungs expand as our intercostals muscle contract pulling the ribcage
upward and outward together with the downward movement of our diaphragmatic muscles.
Thereafter, exhalation follows where the opposite happens.

Diseases of the Respiratory System

Tuberculosis
This is a highly contagious disease which could be transmitted airborne. The name of the
bacteria responsible for this disease is known as Mycobacterium tuberculosis. This
communicable disease is found in countries with tropical climate. Aside form the lungs, several
organs may be affected namely the meninges of the brain, spine, and small intestine.

Pneumonia
This condition results when the lungs are inflamed associated with fluid blocking the
alveolar passages. The person may acquire this if the immune system is low. It could be
brought about by viruses, bacteria, fungi, cigarette smoking, or upon exposure to harmful
chemicals.

IV. The Lymphatic and Immune System

The lymphatic system is a series of an open structural network that circulate throughout the
body containing a clear fluid called lymph. It drains an ample amount of water and proteins
flowing to the entire body and restoring it to the blood thereby maintaining its fluid balance,
sieves out unwanted substances harmful to the body, drains the fat from the intestinal tissues
into the blood, protects the entire body from pathogens rendering a life-long immunity.

Compositions of the Lymphatic System

There are major components comprising the lymphatic system. Each structure is essential
from keeping the human body free from disease.

1. Lymphatic capillaries – gather intestinal fluid from the body tissues. These unite to form an
immense amount of vessels called lymphatics.
2. Lymphatics – form a cluster of vessels in order to transport lymph from the lymphatic
capillaries to the bloodstream via subclavian veins.
3. Lymph nodes – where the lymphatic vessel unites and filters substances reaching the
bloodstream.
4. Tonsils – located posterior to the tongue, which filter our foreign substances that may be
harmful to the body.
5. Thymus gland – present in newborn babies and manufactures antibodies. This gland
initiates the formation of the immune system.
6. Spleen – about the size of a clenched fist serves as a filtering organ for the blood to be
cleansed every 120 days, replaces old worn out blood cells and even stores blood. This is
laterally located at the left upper quadrant of the abdomen.
7. Peyer’s patches – an aggregate of lymph nodules in the small intestines protect the organ
from harmful agents by secreting antibodies.

Immunity
 We encounter diseases at some point in our life. It could be harmless or even bothersome.
That is why we have protective barriers which are part of the immune system. These are the ones
encountered by antigens to safeguard our state of health. These are the mechanical and cellular
defenses. For these reason, we produce antibodies to ward off foreign substances. The ability to
topple the effect is called immunity.

Types of Immunity

1. Inborn Immunity – is obtained through genetic predisposition, we receive this type of

immunity from our parents and our ancestors. Acquired immunity progresses the moment a
person is born.
2. Acquire Immunity – antibodies could be obtained when we are exposed to antigens. This
happens in a natural and artificial manner.
a. Naturally acquired immunity – happens in active or passive form.
1. Active – if a person comes in direct contact with a disease which provides a
permanent immunity.
2. Passive – obtained during the fetal development through the mother’s placenta and by
breastfeeding upon rearing the newborn. This may last for a short period of time.
b. Artificially acquired immunity – can also be in active and passive manner
1. Active – administering a prepared vaccine, whether weakened or dead antigens, to
stimulate the production of definite antibodies. In some instance, booster shoots are
needed. May require long lasting immunity.
2. Passive – this is given promptly when a person has been exposed to a precarious
disease which could be detrimental to one’s health. An immune serum preparation is
administered to the person; provides immunity for a short period of time.

Antibodies
Antibodies are protein produced from the circulating lymphocytes that have the capacity to
ward off foreign substances.

Disease of the Immune System

Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome

This is highly contagious illness brought by a viral infection known as the Human
Immunodefiency Virus (HIV). It could be acquired by an exchange of body fluids during sexual
intercourse from an infected individual, blood transfusion, sharing of needle, tattooing, body
piercing and even from mother to fetus.

Elephantiasis
This parasitic infection is also known as filariasis and is widely spread in tropical countries.
The parasitic worms could be passed on to humans by a mosquito bite. Once bitten, the worms
travel via the lymphatic ducts causing obstruction to the lymphatic drainage.

V. The Endocrine System

The nervous and endocrine system corresponds with each other. This serves as a check and
balance by how the body reacts with the outside world.

Function of different hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary gland

1. Growth hormone (GH) – carries out the effect on body tissues and also triggers the
development of muscles and lengthening of the bones.
 2. Thyroid stimulating hormones (TSH) – is responsible for the body’s metabolic needs.
There are three types of hormones under this. The first two which are the triiodothyronine
(T3) and thyroxin (T4) is for the development and growth of the body tissues. The third
type is the calcitonin which plays an important role in lowering down the calcium level in
the blood.
3. Parathyroid hormone – raises the calcium level in the blood.
4. Prolactin – responsible for the production of milk by nursing mother.
5. Cortisol – which plays an important role in regulating the blood sugar level and protein
breakdown.
6. Aldosterone – regulates the sodium and potassium content in the kidneys.
7. Sex hormones – act on the reproductive organs and sex characteristics.
8. Epinephrine and non epinephrine – alerts the body during a stressful events.
9. Testosterone – regulates the male reproductive system and activates the male secondary
sexual characteristics.
10. Estrogen and Progesterone – regulates the female reproductive system and activates the
female secondary sexual characteristics

Function of the hormones secreted by the posterior pituitary gland

1. Oxytocin – targets the uterus which brings about uterine contraction during child birth,
and regulates the mammary glands for milk ejection.
2. Antidiurectic hormone (ADH) – maintains the water balance in the body during the
process or reabsorption from the kidneys.

Diseases of the Endocrine System

Diabetes Mellitus
An endocrine disorder brought about by insufficient production of insulin. This
could be hereditary or acquired. A person with this condition has difficulty in dissolving the
excess sugar in the blood which could possibly damage other organs.

Diabetes Insipidus
This happens when the body releases insufficient amount of anti-diurectic
hormone (ADH) resulting to an excessive release of diluted urine.

VI. The Digestive System

The digestive system is essential in procuring foods. It breaks down the food into tiny pieces to
be able to distribute nutrients to the specific parts of the body to sustain energy.

The process of digestion starts from the mouth. When food is chewed or masticated,
mechanical and chemical digestion happens. Mechanical digestion breaks down the food in
smaller pieces with the help of the teeth and tongue. While chemical digestion happens
simultaneously with the aid of the saliva since it contains enzymes that converts the food into
starch. The food, transformed into bolus passes through the pharynx while being swallowed.
The esophagus receives the bolus by peristalsis as it goes to the stomach in the event that it
becomes a chime. Then it goes to the small intestine for absorption. The rest of the undigested
food is carried to the large intestine to be further excreted through defecation.
Along with the entire process, there are three accessory organs involved in digestion. The liver,
this produces bile to emulsify the fats contained in the foods that we eat. The gall bladder,
located within the lobes of the liver, stores the bile. Lastly, the pancreas regulates the blood
sugar by secreting the hormones insulin and glucago
 Diseases of the Digestive System

Hepatitis
This is a contagious viral infection resulting to an inflammation of the liver. The duration
may be acute or chronic and the mode of transmitting the disease varies according to the type
of hepatitis.

Cholelithiasis
This is a disease of the gall bladder causing an unusual build up of cholesterol coming
from the bile substance. For this reason, formation of stones takes place causing obstruction in
the bile ducts. Likewise, inflammation of the gall bladder occurs accompanied by a severe
abdominal pain.

VII. Excretory System

Every time we take in something whether it be eating or drinking, our body is capable of
absorbing and filtering the substances that are essential to for body. Just the way we also
eliminate substances unnecessary for the body’s need.

Components
1. Kidneys – are pair of bean-shaped organs situated posterior to the abdominal cavity. It
contains the nephron which serves as the functional unit of the kidneys. An enzyme called
rennin is also present which plays a role in the regulation of blood pressure.
2. Ureters – these are tubes which transport urine from the renal pelvis to the urinary bladder.
3. Urinary bladder – a hallow muscular organ capable of storing the urine temporarily.
4. Urethra – a tiny tube where it moves out urine from the urinary bladder. In males, this also
serves as a passageway of sperms during ejaculation. Females have shorter urethra
which is why they are mire susceptible to urinary tract infection.

The kidney filter out unwanted substances. This is one way of maintain homeostasis
throughout the body. And to be able to attain this process, urine formation comes in three ways
namely glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption and tubular secretion.

Process of Urine Formation

1. Glomerular filtration - the nutrients and waste products enter the glomeruli via the afferent
and efferent arterioles. In turn, the waste products are further eliminated in the form of
glomerular filtrate which enters the Bowman’s capsule.
2. Tubular reabsorption – happens in the renal tubules and allows necessary nutrients and
substances to be absorbed by the blood while eliminating ammonia, urea and other waste
products.
3. Tubular secretion – urine is already formed in this final process and allows further
elimination of waste products including excess potassium. All of which takes place in the
distal convoluted and collecting duct.

Diseases of the Human Excretory System

Urinary Tract Infection

An inflammation to any of the parts of the urinary tract could lead to infection. This is
brought about by a bacterial infection which commonly occurs in females due to its close
 proximity of the vagina from the anus.
Moreover, females have shorter urethra compared to males thereby making it more
susceptible to infection.

Pyelonephritis
This condition is caused by an ascending bacterial infection of the kidney resulting to
inflammation. The renal pelvis is the most common site of infection. People who are sexually
active are at risk of having this disease.
VIII. The Reproductive System
The reproductive system is essential for the perpetuation of species. This is also responsible in
making up the sexual characteristic of an individual. It is made up of a series of structures
known as the gonads. There are two kinds of gonads that fall under this system, the testes and
the ovaries.

The Male Reproductive System

Parts:
1. Scrotum – sac-like structure enclosing the testes
2. Testes – suspended outside the body by a loose protective skin known as the scrotum.
These almond-shaped structures secrete the hormone testosterone that is mainly
responsible for keeping the male reproductive organ intact; likewise give rise to male
secondary sexual characteristics.
3. Seminiferous tubules – coiled structure inside the testes where sperms are produced.
4. Epididymis – further houses the sperm for maturation.
5. Vas deferens – duct where the sperm pass through.
6. Seminal vesicles – links to the vas deferens and attached posterior to the urinary bladder.
It secretes sugar, protein, and other substances that nourish the sperm.
7. Ejaculatory duct – results from the fusion of the seminal vesicle and the vas deferens.
8. Prostate gland – located beneath the urinary bladder having a size of walnut. This gland
also secretes an alkaline fluid neutralizing the vagina from its acidic condition.
9. Bulbourethral glands - pea-sized structure situated below the prostate gland and helps
lubricate the penis during intercourse.

The Penis
This is also known, as the shaft is an organ for coitus. Lying within this organ is the
urethra. Aside from being part of the urinary system, the urethra is where the semen and sperm
passes through during ejaculation. Along with the blood vessels and nerves, the penis has two
kinds of erectile tissues. A pair of spongy tissue located dorsolaterally within the shaft called the
corpora cavernosa and single tissue that resides ventrally known as the corpus spongiosum. This
single tissue surrounds the urethra.

Components of the Sperm Cell

a. Head – the anterior portion of the sperm that contains the acrosome that has the
enzymes capable of penetrating the egg cell. Likewise, the nucleus, chromosomes and
genetic materials are confined in this area.
b. Body or mid-piece – is equipped with mitochondria to supply energy for the moving cell.
c. Tail or flagellum – allows motility for the sperm.

Female Reproductive System

Parts:
1. Ovaries – are the male counterparts of the testes. It secretes the following hormones
namely the estrogen and the progesterone. These two main hormones contribute to the
maintenance of the female reproductive system and giving its female secondary sexual
characteristics. Bothe are regulated by the follicle stimulating hormones (FSH) and the
luteinizing hormone (LH) secreted by the anterior pituitary gland. Also, both of these
hormones are beneficial in the ovulation process.
2. Fallopian tubes – are paired oviducts that extend from the ovaries towards the entrance of
the uterus. It serves as a passageway for both egg and sperm cell for fertilization to occur.
3. Uterus – a pear-shaped muscular organ where it accommodates the fetus for growth and
development.
4. Vagina – receives the erected penis in preparation for coitus. It also provides a passageway
for the fetus to be delivered during the process of giving birth.
5. Bartholin’s gland – these are pairs of gland situated at the posterior aspect of the vaginal
opening that contributes to the secretions of the vagina during sexual intercourse.
6. Vulva – part of the vagina located externally. Incorporated in this area are pairs of lip-like
structures known as labia. The outer portion is the labia majora and the inner is the labia
minora.
7. Mammary glands – also part of the female reproductive system. During pregnancy, these
are enhanced by the hormones estrogen and progesterone to produce milk under the
hormone prolactin;oxytocin is also released during the suckling reflex of the baby thus,
causing the milk to eject from the breast.

Diseases of the Reproductive System

Gonorrhea
This is a common sexually transmitted infection of both the male and female. The
causative agent is the bacterium known as Neisseria gonrrhoeae. The signs and symptoms
include an unusual yellowish discharge accompanied by an inflammation of the urethra,
difficulty and pain while urinating, pelvic pain, and fever,

Syphilis
This sexually transmitted infection penetrates the mucousal linings of the reproductive
tracts causing ulcerations. The bacterium is known as Treponemapallidum having a cork screw
shape in appearance making it mobile.