Lower Secondary Sciences (Sec 1)

Chapter 1: The Scientific Endeavour..................................................................................... 2

Chapter 2: Classification of Materials ................................................................................... 9
Chapter 3: Length and Density ............................................................................................ 12
Chapter 4: Elements, Compounds and Mixtures ............................................................... 20
Chapter 5: Solutions and Suspensions ................................................................................. 27
Chapter 6: Separating Mixtures ........................................................................................... 32
Chapter 7: Cells ..................................................................................................................... 40
Chapter 8: The Particulate Model of Matter ...................................................................... 45
Chapter 9: Atoms, Ions and Molecules ................................................................................ 51
Chapter 10: Light and Colour .............................................................................................. 62

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Chapter 1: The Scientific Endeavour

1. Science
• Science is the systemic study of nature to discover facts about them and how they affect
living things and the physical environment.
• Scientists gain scientific knowledge by using the scientific method

A) Scientific Method
• The scientific method is a logical and rational order of steps which helps the scientists reach
the conclusions about the world around us.
• The summary of important steps in the scientific method:

Problem/Observation
Do extensive research
and data collection

Hypothesis

Determine Variables

Experimentation
Record and Re-establish
analyze results a new hypothesis

Conclusion

Hypothesis Hypothesis not

supported supported

Communication

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• The table below shows the important steps in the scientific method:

Step Description
• Identify the problem/observation.
Problem/ • List down the questions to the problem/observation
Observation • Do extensive research on the problem/observation.

• Predict the effect of changing one variable with another by testing

Hypothesis the effect experimentally.

• Helps to validate the hypothesis.

• Is a logical process to learn about the problem/observation.
Experimentation • Record and Analyse the results from the experiment.
• Inference is made to explain the result collected from the
experiment.

• A summary of the results from the experiment to validate the

Conclusion hypothesis of the problem/observation.

Communication • The sharing of results with other people.

• After the hypothesis is supported by several investigations, it becomes a theory.

• If the hypothesis is not supported by the investigations, a new hypothesis will be established
• A theory becomes a law of science when it is tested over and over again
• Some of the desirable attitudes of a person who study science.
- Curiosity
- Creativity
- Genuine interest
- Integrity
- Patience
- Perseverance
- Willing to accept critics or ideas from other people

Designing a fair experiment

• When designing an experiment, it is important to identify and to control the variables
• Variables are factors/conditions which have an effect on the experiment
• It is important to know the cause and effect relationships between the variable you change
and the variable you are measuring in the experiment.

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• There are three types of variables:
- Independent variables (what you change)
- Dependent variables (what you observe/measure)
- Controlled variable (something that is kept constant or the same)

Variables Description
Independent • A factor that is intentionally manipulated

Dependent • A change of factor which responds to the change of the

independent variable
• It provides the results for the experiment.

Controlled • The factors which are kept the same in all experimental design

For example
In an experiment, we would like to investigate how the amount of light affects the rate of
photosynthesis.

Hypothesis of the experiment

Increasing the light intensity will increase the rate of photosynthesis (and its products)
(Independent variable) (dependent variable)

The other factors which can affect the rate of photosynthesis must be kept constant, such
as number of leaves or amount of water.
(Controlled variables)

Example of Scientific Method:

Using the scientific method, let’s plan an investigation to show that cell wall is needed to
keep the cell’s regular shape.

1) Observation

Cell walls are only observed in plant cells which have a regular shape.

2) Hypothesis

Cell wall helps to keep the plant cells in its regular shape.

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 3) Experiment

Variables in this experimental design:

- Independent variable: The presence of cell wall.
- Dependent variable: The shape of the cell.
- Controlled variable: The type of cell

4) Procedure

Step 1: Prepare 2 identical plant cells.

Step 2: Remove the cell wall from one of the plant cells.
Step 3: Compare the shape of the plant cells.

5) Result

Only the plant cell with cell wall will have a regular shape.
The plant cell without cell wall will lose its regular shape.

6) Analysis and Conclusion

Cell wall helps to ensure that the plant cells have a regular shape.

B) Importance of Science
• Technology is the application of scientific knowledge in our world.
• Technology improves our quality of life in various fields such as communication,
agriculture, medicine, transportation and others.
• Science has limitations too:
- Science cannot stop or prevent the occurrence of natural disasters such as tsunamis or
earthquakes.
- Science cannot resolve ethical and moral issues such as abortions or human genetic
engineering.
- Scientific knowledge may change from time to time. Hence, the explanation for certain
observations may not be relevant in the future.

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2. Science Laboratory
Common Hazard Warning Symbols

General warning/Caution
Have to be careful when handling substance.
Use PPE when handling substance

Flammable
Substances which can burn easily.
E.g. Alcohol and hydrogen
Corrosive
Substances which can burn the skin or eyes upon contact.
E.g. Concentrated acids or alkalis
Toxic or Poisonous
Substances which can cause death or harm the body if swallowed, inhaled or
absorbed through the skin.
E.g. Mercury, lead and cyanide
Radioactive
Substances which can emit radiation.
E.g. Uranium and Plutonium

Biohazard
Biological substances
E.g. bodily fluids like blood, bacteria, and samples

Irritable
Substances which can irritate the eyes, throat and nose.
E.g. Ammonia, chloroform and bleach
Explosive
Substances which can explode easily when heated or mixed with other
substances.
E.g. Potassium and sodium

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Common Laboratory Apparatus
Crucible Filter funnel
• It is used for heating • It is used to separate an
substances directly insoluble solid from a
over a flame liquid or solution

Conical flask
Round-bottomed flask
• It is used to contain
• It is used to contain
chemicals for
certain chemicals for
preparing gases when
preparing gases when
no heating is
heating is required.
required.

Test tube
Boiling tube
• It is used to contain
• It is used to contain or
or heat small
heat small amounts of
amounts of
substances.
substances.

Beaker Measuring Cylinder

• It is used to contain • It is used to measure
or collect liquid / volume of liquid/
solution. solution or of small
• Least precise for irregular-shaped objects
measurement • Precision of ~ 1 ml

Pipette Burette

• It is used to measure • It is used to measure

precisely a specific volume of liquid/

volume of liquid solution to an precision

(15, 20 or 25 cm3) of 0.1 ml (e.g. 25.1 cm3)

Tripod stand Bunsen burner

• A three-legged • It is a gas burner used for
platform used to heating, sterilization or
support flasks and combustion in the
beakers. laboratory.

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3. Using a Bunsen Burner
• A Bunsen burner is used for heating in the laboratory

• The functions of each part of the Bunsen burner

Part Function
Barrel Used to raise the height of the flame for ease of use
Collar Turned to open or close the air hole to obtain the required flame type
Air hole Allow air to enter the burner
Metal base Wide and heavy to support the Bunsen burner
Gas hose To carry the gas from the gas tap to the Bunsen burner.

• Luminous and Non-luminous flames

Luminous Non-luminous
Air hole Closed (thus less oxygen) Open (more oxygen supply)
Colour Luminous yellow Non-luminous blue
Strength Weak and unsteady Strong and steady
Soot Produces soot No soot produced
Flame

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Chapter 2: Classification of Materials

1. Classification of Materials
• We can categorize objects into sets based on their common characteristics
• To classify objects, the steps are as follows:
- Look for similarities or differences
- Place object with similar characteristics in a group
- Name the group
• Advantages of classification
- To locate objects more easily
- To be more systematic and organised

A) Physical Properties of Materials

• Physical properties are quantities which can be measured by instruments
• We can also observe or sense these properties by our five senses.

Physical Description
properties
• Ability to support a heavy load without breaking or tearing
Strength
For example, metals can support heavy loads better than plastics
• Ability to withstand wear-and-tear and scratches
• An object with a higher value of hardness can scratch an object with a
Hardness lower hardness value.
For example, diamond is the hardest object, it can scratch other
objects
• Ability to bend without breaking and ability to return to its original
Flexibility shape.
For example, plastics can be bent but not glass
• A point of temperature at which a substance changes from a solid into a
Melting liquid
point
• For example, pure ice melts at 0 °C.

• A point of temperature at which a substance changes from a liquid into

a gas
Boiling point • A pure object has a fixed boiling point

• For example, pure water boils only at 100 °C.

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 • Ability to allow electricity to pass through it.
Electrical
• For example, metals are good conductors of electricity compared to
Conductivity
rubber

• Ability to allow heat to pass through it.

Heat
Conductivity • For example, metals are good conductors of heat compared to plastics

B) Types of Materials
• Materials are substances that can be used to make or create useful things
• Materials can exist naturally such as metals or man-made such as plastics
• The common materials can be classified into ceramics, plastics, fibres, metals and glass.

Materials Characteristics

• Strong but brittle

Ceramics • Usually opaque
• Can be made into different shapes

• Strong and durable

• Can be made into any shape
Plastics • Poor conductors of heat and electricity
• Can be transparent, translucent or opaque

• Can be stretched
• Can be spun into thread and woven into fabrics
Fibres • Flexible
• Poor conductors of heat and electricity

• Strong and hard

• Shiny
Metals • Malleable
• Ductile
• Good conductors of heat and electricity

• Brittle
Glass • Usually transparent
• Can be made into different shapes

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C) Application of Materials
• Materials can be used to make different objects
• The choice of material used to make objects must be based on their suitable physical
properties.

Example 1
Light Bulb

Material: Material:
Metal Glass

Reasons: Reasons:
Tungsten is a metal which has Glass is transparent. It
very high melting point, so it allows light to pass
does not melt at very high through and does not
temperatures. It is also a good conduct electricity.
conductor of electricity

Example 2
A cooking pan

Material: Material:
Metal Plastics

Reasons: Reasons:
Metal is a good conductor of Plastics are poor
heat. It conducts heat very fast conductors of heat. It
to cook the food. It also has a protects the user from
high melting point, so it does scalding when touching
not melt easily. it. It is also durable

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Chapter 3: Length and Density

1. Physical Quantities
• A physical quantity can be measured by an instrument.
• A non-physical quantity, on the other hand, refers to something we cannot develop an
instrument to measure it quantitatively. (e.g. emotions)
• The measurement consists of a numerical magnitude and a unit

• All the physical quantities have S.I. units. S.I. units stand for International Systems of Units
• S.I. units ensure that the measurements made in different parts of the world are standardised
and uniform.

Physical quantities S.I. units Unit Symbol

Mass Kilogram kg
Temperature Kelvin K
Length Metre m
Time Second s
Current Ampere A

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A) Length
• Length is the distance between two points
• S.I. unit for length is metre (m)
• Instruments to measure length
- Measuring tape (precision of 0.1 cm)
- Metre rule (precision of 0.1 cm)
- Vernier callipers (precision of 0.01 cm)
- Micrometre screw gauge (precision of 0.01 mm)

Metre Rule
• Measures lengths from several centimetres to one metre such as the width of a book or
the length of a shoe.
• It has an precision of 0.1 cm

Precautions when using the metre rule

• Make sure that there is no gap between the metre rule and the object to be measured.

• Avoid parallax error. Parallax error in measurement occurs when the eye of the observer
is not directly above the markings of the metre rule.

• Avoid end error (caused by the damage of both ends of the metre rule) and zero error
(when the object is not placed exactly on the zero mark of the scale)

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Vernier Callipers
• Measures lengths from 1 cm up to 10 cm
• Precision of the vernier callipers = 0.01 cm
• Can be used to measure the internal and outer diameter of a bottle using the internal
jaws and external jaws respectively
• Tail can be used to measure depth of an object

Reading from a vernier calliper

• Step 1: From the main scale (Use the ‘0’ mark of the vernier scale as a reference point)
• Step 2: From the vernier scale (Look for in line of both scales)

The measurement from the diagram shown:

Step 1: From the main scale = 2.1 cm

(value before the reference point)
Step 2: From the vernier scale = 0.05 cm
(Exactly in line of both scales)
The reading of this measurement
= 2.1 + 0.05 = 2.15 cm

Zero errors
• A zero error in vernier calliper occurs when the ‘0’ mark on the main scale is not in line
with the ‘0’’ mark on the vernier scale when the jaws are fully closed

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• There are two types of zero error: Positive zero error and Negative zero error:

Positive zero error Negative zero error

Positive zero error Negative zero error

The ‘0’ mark of the main scale The ‘0’ mark of the main scale
appears before the ‘0’ mark of appears after the ‘0’ mark of
the vernier scale. the vernier scale.
How it occurs

+x – (0.10 – y)
Error
Example shown = + 0.03 Example shown = – (0.10 – 0.08)

B) Volume
• Volume measures the space a matter occupies
• S.I. unit for volume: Cubic metre m3
• Instruments for measuring volume: Beaker, measuring cylinder, pipette and burette
• Only burette and pipette can measure the volume of a liquid/solution accurately
• To get an accurate reading, it must be read from the meniscus
• Meniscus is the surface of the liquid that curves at the side of the measuring instrument.

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Volume of regular shapes
• Volume of regular shapes can be found using the formulae:
Shape Name Formula

Cube l×w× ℎ

Cuboid l×w× ℎ

Cylinder 𝜋 × 𝑟! × 𝑙

"
Sphere #
× 𝜋 × 𝑟#

Volume of irregular shapes

• The methods to measure the volume of irregular objects are as follows:
- Measuring cylinder
- Displacement cans

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By using the measuring cylinder
• To measure the volume of a small heavy irregular-shaped object such as a small stone:

Procedures:
1) Record the initial volume of water
2) Submerge fully the small irregular-shaped object in water. Record the final volume.
3) The difference in these two volume readings is the volume for the small heavy irregular-
shaped object.

• To measure the volume of a small light irregular-shaped object that floats in water such as
a cork:

Procedures:
1) Tie the small heavy object such as a stone and submerge it fully in water.
Record the initial volume of water
2) Tie the cork together with the stone and submerge fully in water.
Record the final volume.
3) The difference in these two volume readings is the volume for the small light irregular-
shaped object.

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By using the displacement can
• To measure the volume of large heavy irregular-shaped objects.

• The displacement can is filled with water to the level of the overflow vessel.
• When the irregular-shaped object is submerged in water, the water will flow out to the
measuring cylinder through the overflow vessel.
• The volume of water collected in the measuring cylinder will be the volume for the large
irregular-shaped object.

C) Mass
• Mass is the total amount of substance in an object
• S.I. unit for mass: Kilogram (kg)
• Instruments: Beam balance and electronic balance
• Difference between mass and weight:

Mass Weight
• total amount of substance in an object • Due to gravitational force acting on
an object
• S.I. unit for mass: Kilogram (kg) • S.I. unit for weight: Newtons (N)
• Measured using beam/electronic • Measured using spring balance
balance

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D) Density
• Density is a measure of mass per unit volume of an object
• The formula to determine the density of an object:

• S.I. unit for density: Kilogram per cubic metre (kg/m3)

• Other unit: Gram per cubic centimetre (g/cm3)
• The density indicates how an object is being packed in a given volume. The higher the
density value, the greater the compactness of the object.

Floating and sinking

• Density of an object determines of it floats or sinks in a liquid.
- An object floats in a liquid if its density is lower than the liquid.
- An object sinks in a liquid if its density is higher than the liquid.

Measuring density of an object

• The following physical quantities are needed to measure the density of an objects:
- Mass of the object
- Volume of the object
• Every object has a fixed density value (E.g. Water has a density of 1 g/cm3 or 1000 kg/m3)

Hence, it is possible to identify an unknown substance by its density.

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Chapter 4: Elements, Compounds and Mixtures

1. Elements
• Elements are substances which cannot be broken down into simpler substances by
chemical reactions.
• Elements are the basic building block of all matter (living things and non-living things).
• There are more than 100 types of elements found naturally in this world.

A) Elements in the Periodic Table

• An element is represented by a chemical symbol which consists of one capitalised letter
or two-letter with the first letter capitalised
Examples:
Element Chemical symbol
Sodium Na
Carbon C
Silver Ag

• Elements are arranged in the Periodic Table in two ways: Group and Period

Group Period
• It is the vertical column of elements. • It is the horizontal row of elements.
• The elements in the same group have • Across a period from left to right,
similar chemical properties. elements change from metallic to non-
metallic.

B) Classification of Elements
• Elements can be classified into metals, non-metals and metalloids in the Periodic Table.
• The general physical properties for metals, non-metals and metalloids are:

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 Physical properties of
Metal Metalloids Non-metal
• High melting and • Elements that share • Low melting and
boiling points some of the properties boiling points
• Good conductors of of metals and some of • Good insulators of
electricity/heat the properties of non- electricity/heat
• Malleable and ductile metals. • Brittle in solid state
• Shiny appearance • Variety of colours

• The diagram below shows the arrangement of metals and non-metals in the Periodic Table

• Examples of applications of elements:

Metal Application Non-metal Application

Used in making Used in making
Aluminium Sulfur
aircraft body insecticides
Used in making
Copper Phosphorous Tip of a matchstick
electrical wire

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2. Compounds
• A compound is made up of two or more different types of elements chemically combined
together.
Examples:

NaCl is a compound which is made up of H2O is a compound which is made up of

two different elements, sodium and two different elements, hydrogen and
chlorine, chemically combined together oxygen, chemically combined together.

• A compound has different physical and chemical properties from its constituent elements
Example 1: The formation of sodium chloride from sodium and chlorine.

Substance Physical Properties Chemical properties

Soft metal with grey silvery Reacts vigorously with
Sodium
appearance water
Highly toxic greenish-yellow Reacts readily with
Chlorine
gas hydrogen under sunlight
Does not react with water
Sodium Chloride Non-poisonous white crystals
or hydrogen

Example 2: The formation of water from hydrogen and water.

Substance Physical Properties Chemical properties

Reacts vigorously with
Hydrogen Flammable gas
Oxygen
Support the burning of
Oxygen Odourless and Colourless
substances
Does not react with oxygen
Water Colourless liquid
or support burning

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A) Formation of Compounds
• The formation of compounds is a chemical change.
• A chemical change is brought about by combination of the followings:
1. Different elements chemically joined together
Example: Magnesium + oxygen à Magnesium oxide
(Element) (Element) (Compound)

2. Compound and element chemically combined together

Example: Hydrochloric acid + Magnesium à Magnesium chloride + hydrogen gas
(Compound) (Element) (Compound) (Element)

3. Different compounds chemically joined together

Example: Hydrochloric acid + Magnesium oxide à Magnesium chloride + water
(Compound) (Compound) (Compound)
(Compound)

B) The properties of a compound:

Properties
Formation It require chemical reactions (e.g. combustion, oxidation)
Separation It cannot be separated by physical methods.
Melting and boiling point The melting and boiling points are fixed.
Composition The proportion by mass for each component is fixed.

Chemical and physical A compound does not have the properties of its
properties constituent components.

• A compound can be separated by chemical methods such as:

1. Electrolysis
2. Thermal decomposition

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3. Mixtures
• A mixture consists of a few substances (elements and/or compounds) mixed together which
are not chemically combined (but are instead physically combined) together.
Example: A mixture of carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O).

• CO2 and H2O remain separated even when they are present in the same container, so it is
called a mixture. They are not chemically combined.
• A mixture can be one of the followings:
Type of mixture Example
Solid-solid Alloys (mixture of different metals)
Solid-liquid Sugar solution (a mixture of sugar crystals and water)
Liquid-liquid Alcoholic beverages (a mixture of ethanol and water)
Liquid-gas Fizzy drinks (a mixture of carbon dioxide and water)
Air (a mixture of oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, water vapour
Gas-gas
and other noble gases)

The properties of a mixture:

Properties
Formation It does not require chemical reactions.
Separation It can be separated by physical methods.
Melting and boiling point The melting and boiling points are variable (not fixed).
Composition The proportion by mass for each component may vary.

Chemical and physical A mixture has the properties of its constituent

properties components.

• The mixture can be separated by physical methods such as:

1. Filtration, evaporation and crystallisation
2. Simple distillation and Fractional distillation
3. Paper chromatography
4. Magnetic attraction

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• A mixture can consist of elements only, compounds only or both.

Nature of Mixture Example

Elements only

Oxygen and nitrogen OR

Alloys

Compounds only

Petrol

Both elements and compounds

Air

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4. Properties of Elements, Compounds & Mixtures (Summary)

Boiling and Chemical and Physical

Substance Definition Examples Separation Composition
melting point Properties

Substances that cannot be Oxygen,

Elements broken down into simpler Hydrogen, - Fixed - -
substances Sodium

Substances that can be Water,

Properties of compound is
separated into simpler Sodium Chemical
Compounds Fixed Fixed different from its
substances by chemical means chloride, Iron means
constituent components.
but not by physical means. oxide

Substances that can be Milo, Properties of a mixture is

Physical
Mixtures separated into its components Salt solution, Not fixed Not fixed the same as its constituent
means
by physical means. Sugar solution components.

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Chapter 5: Solutions and Suspensions

1. Solutions
• A solution is a homogeneous mixture of a solute and a solvent, that is, the solute and
solvent are mixed evenly in every part of the solution.
• Solvent is the substance that dissolves another substance, it forms the bulk of a solution
• Solute is the substance that is being dissolved by another substance.

In a salt solution shown above

- Salt particles and water particles are evenly mixed
- Water is the solvent because it forms the bulk of the solution
- Salt is a solute because it has lower amount and is being dissolved
• A solution can be a mixture of one of the followings

Nature of mixtures Example

• Two different solid substances mixed together such as sand
Solid-solid with salt or iron powder with sulfur.
• Alloys are also mixtures.
Solid-liquid • Salt solution, sugar solution (salt or sugar dissolved in water).
Liquid-liquid • Alcoholic solution (alcohol dissolve in water).
Gas-gas • Air.

C) Solution of a solid-liquid mixture

• The characteristics of a solution from a mixture of solid-liquid
- No residue on the filter paper after solution

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 - Clear and transparent which allows light to pass through
- No substance sinks at the bottom of a beaker after left standing for a while
• Types of solution:

Type of solution Example

• It contains a small amount of solute dissolved in a given amount
Dilute
of solvent.
• It contains a relatively large amount of solute dissolved in a given
Concentrated
amount of solvent.
• It contains the maximum amount of solute that can dissolve in a
given amount of solvent. Further additional of the solute will not
be able to dissolve anymore.
Saturated
• To dissolve more solutes in a saturated solution:
- Increase the temperature of the solvent
- Add more solvent

D) Solubility
• Solubility of a substance is the maximum amount of solute that can dissolve in 100 g water
at a fixed temperature.
• The solubility depends on the following factors:
1) Type of solvent
o The type of solvent can affect the solubility of the salt.

2) Type of solute
o The same solvent does not dissolve each solute to the same extent.

3) Temperature
o Temperature affects the ability of a solute to dissolve in a solvent. Higher
temperature = higher solubility

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 Solubility Curve
• A solubility curve is a graph showing the maximum amount of a substance that can dissolve
in 100 g water to form a saturated solution at certain temperatures.
• This type of graph is obtained by finding out the mass of solute needed to make a saturated
solution in 100 g water for a particular temperature.
Example:

1) To make a saturated potassium nitrate solution in 100 ml of water at 55°C, a

maximum amount of 60 g of potassium nitrate is needed.
2) If the temperature of 100 ml of water is increased to 70°C, then an additional
amount of 20 g of potassium nitrate is able to dissolve to form a saturated solution
again.
3) When a saturated potassium nitrate solution is cooled from 70°C to 55°C, 20 g of
potassium nitrate will crystallize out in the solution.

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E) Rate of dissolving
• Rate of dissolving refers to how fast a solute can dissolve in a fixed amount of solvent.
• The factors affecting the rate of dissolving are:
Effect on rate of
Factor Change Reason
dissolving
When the mixture is stirred, the
Increase Increase
dissolved solute particles are
moved away to allow the
Stirring effect
solvent particles come into
Decrease Decrease
contact with the undissolved
part.
Increase When temperature increases,
Increase (for solids and the speeds of the solute and
liquids generally) solvent particles increase, so
Temperature
Decrease they come into contact with
Decrease (for solids and each other faster. (Effective
liquids generally) collision increases)
When the size of the solute is
Increase Decrease
Particle size smaller, it has a larger surface
of solute area for more solvent particles
Decrease Increase
to come into contact with it

2. Suspension
• It is a heterogeneous mixture of a solid-liquid.
• The solute does not dissolve in the solvent. Examples are chalk powder mixes with water
or sand placed in water.
• The characteristics of a suspension from a mixture of solid-liquid are:
- There are particles settling at the bottom of the liquid after being left standing for a
while.
- It scatters light as it does not allow light to pass through it. This is because the solute
particles are large enough to scatter light or block the passage of light.

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 - There are particles remaining on filter paper as residue after filtration. This is because
the size of the solute particles are too large to pass through the filter paper.
- It appears cloudy because there are particles suspending in the solvent.

3. Comparison between Solutions and Suspensions

Properties Solution Suspension

Homogeneous or
Homogeneous Non-homogeneous
Non-homogeneous?

Can light pass through? Yes No

Any residue after filtering? No Yes

No Yes

Any particles at the bottom

when left to stand?

Salt solution, Milo, Muddy water,

Example
Sugar solution Blood

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Chapter 6: Separating Mixtures

1. Separation Mixtures
• There are physical methods which can be used to separate a mixture to obtain pure
substances again.
• The choice for selecting a suitable physical method is determined by the nature of the
mixture.

Nature of mixtures Examples

• Two different solid substances mixed together such as sand
Solid-solid
with salt or iron powder with sulfur.
Solid-liquid • Salt solution, sugar solution
Liquid-liquid • Alcoholic solution, crude oil
Quantity of • Sample containing minute amount of components such as
components food dyes, food colouring and inks

A) Separating Solid-Solid Mixtures

Magnetic Attraction
• This technique uses magnets to separate magnetic substances from a mixture.
Examples of magnetic substances are iron, steel, nickel and cobalt
For example:
A magnet can be used to separate iron from sulfur in a mixture of iron and sulfur

Sublimation*
• It is used when a mixture contains a solid substance which sublimes upon heating.
Examples of solid substances which undergo sublimation are iodine crystals, naphthalene
(moth balls) and dry ice.
For example:
Iodine crystals can be separated from salt crystals by heating the mixture until the iodine
crystals sublime.

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B) Separating Solid-Liquid Mixtures
Filtration
• It is suitable to separate a solid-solid mixture (such as sand with table salt) or solid-liquid
mixture (such as sand and water) which contains insoluble solids.
• The separation is first carried out by dissolving the mixture in water.
The insoluble solid will remain undissolved in water.

• A filter paper is used to separate the mixture because it has very tiny pores. Only the tiny
dissolved substances can pass through the pores. The insoluble solids are too large to
pass through them. Therefore, the large insoluble substances remain on the filter paper.
• The substance collected on the filter paper is called the residue.
• The solution collected in the flask after passing through the filter paper is called the filtrate.
• Applications of filtration:
- In humans, organs such as the nose and kidney remove unwanted substances so that the
human bodies are free from toxic substances which can affect the human health.
- In Singapore, reverse osmosis is involved in obtaining purified reclaimed water called
NEWater. In this process, a membrane is used to filter off unwanted substances from
used water so that pure water can be obtained again.
- Filtration is one of the steps to purify rainwater collected in the reservoir. It removes
unwanted particles present in rainwater.

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 Evaporation
• Evaporation is used to recover pure soluble solid from a solution which is heat-stable
• The solution is heated to dryness. The solid remains as crystallised residue after the solvent
has evaporated completely.

Example
Sodium chloride crystals are heat-stable which can be obtained by evaporation to dryness

Crystallisation
• These methods are used to recover pure soluble solid from a solution which is not heat-
stable.
(1) The solution is heated until it becomes saturated.
(2) It is allowed to cool slowly so that crystals can be formed easily.
• If a compound is not heat-stable, strong heating to dryness would decompose it.
Example
Sugar crystals are not heat-stable. They can only be obtained by crystallisation.
Evaporation to dryness will decompose the sugar crystals to carbon.

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 Simple distillation
• The liquid is heated until its boiling point and changes into a vapour
• The vapour is then cooled by a condenser and changes back into a liquid. It is collected in
the receiver as a distillate.
• The impurities which have much higher boiling points remain in the flask
• The bulb of the thermometer must be placed near the opening of the condenser so that it
can measure the boiling point of the substance accurately.
• During boiling of a substance, the temperature remains constant.
• The boiling chips are added for smooth boiling.
• Applications of distillation
- Obtain pure water from seawater by desalination. The process removes salt from
seawater to obtain pure water.
- Produce pure distilled water from normal water.

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 Chromatography
• It is used to separate a mixture which is based on the extent of solubility in a given solvent
• There are different techniques in chromatography. Paper chromatography is the common
technique used in the school laboratory
• The basic paper chromatography has the following features:

• The result of the separated components on the chromatography paper is called the
chromatogram:

• The more soluble the component in the solvent, the further the distance it travels in the
chromatography paper.
• The advantage of using chromatography:
- Gives quick and accurate analysis of sample
- Requires only a small amount of sample
- Able to separate complex mixtures such as food dyes or flavourings

• The identity of the components can be determined by comparing to the standard samples.

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 Example:

- Dye X is found to contain dye A and dye B

C) Separating Liquid-Liquid Mixtures

Fractional Distillation
• It is used to separate a liquid-liquid mixture which is miscible. Miscible liquids are two or
more liquids that dissolve well in each other to form a single continuous layer.
• It can only be used if the liquids have different boiling points.
• The substance with a lower boiling point is distilled first.
• A tall fractionating column filled with glass beads is used in the fractional distillation. It
allows the separation of different liquids more efficiently.

• Fractional distillation is used largely in the following industries:

- Separation of liquid air
- Separation of crude oil (petroleum)
- Separation of ethanol from sugar solution

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2. Separating Mixtures: Summary
Technique Nature of Principle Steps Examples
mixture
Magnetic Solid-solid Separating (1) Use magnet to attract Sulfur and
separation mixture magnetic solid magnetic solid particles. iron powder
from non- (2) Non-magnetic solid particles mixture
magnetic solid will be left behind
Filtration Solid-solid Separating one (1) Put the mixture into solvent Salt and
mixture insoluble from (water or alcohol) sand
soluble solid. (2) Stir to dissolve soluble solid Sugar and
(3) Filter to collect insoluble sand
solid as residue
(4) Filtrate collected is the
soluble solid solution
Solid-liquid Separating an (1) Filter to collect insoluble Water and
mixture insoluble solid solid as residue sand
from a liquid. (2) Filtrate collected is the
liquid
Evaporation Solid-liquid Collecting (1) Heat solution till dryness to Salt
mixture heat-stable collect solid solution*
soluble solid
from solution
Crystallisation Solid-liquid Collecting (1) Heat solution till saturation Sugar
mixture heat-unstable point solution
soluble solid (2) Cool solution to crystallize Salt solution
from solution
Simple Solid-liquid Collecting (1) Heat mixture with a simple Water from
Distillation mixture liquid from distillation set-up salt water
mixture. (2) Liquid will evaporate and go
through condenser
(3) As vapour passes through
condenser, it will turn back
into liquid state (condense).
(4) Liquid is collected as
distillate

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Technique Nature of Principle Steps Examples
mixture
Chromatography Liquid-liquid Extent of There are different types of Food dye
solubility. chromatography. Paper
Components chromatography is a common
travel at technique used in school
different laboratory.
rates up the
paper
Fractional Liquid-liquid Different (1) Heat liquid-liquid mixture Separation
distillation boiling with fractional column of liquid
points. (fractional distillation set-up) air
Liquid with (2) The liquid with lower boiling Separation
lower boiling point will evaporate and of crude oil
point will distillate first. Fractionating (petroleum)
distillate column helps to ensure so. Separation
first. (3) As the vapour passes through of ethanol
the condenser, it condenses from sugar
back into liquid state. solution
(4) Liquid with lower boiling
point will be collected as
distillate.

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Chapter 7: Cells

1. Cells
• Cells are the basic building blocks of life.
- They take in nutrients from food and convert them into energy.
- They can also carry out specialised functions and reproduce.
• Living organisms can be classified into unicellular (with only one cell) and multicellular
(with many cells).

Unicellular Multicellular
Amoeba, Protozoa, Algae and Yeast Animals, Fungi and Plants

• The size of animal cells and plant cells is very small, in the range of 1 to 100 micrometres
(𝜇m). They can only be visible with the help of a microscope.

A) Understanding Animal Cells and Plant Cells

• All animal cells do not have a cell wall.
• The basic structure of a typical animal cell and a plant cell:

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• The table below shows the function for each organelle:

Organelle Function
• A semi-permeable structure which controls the movement of
Cell membrane
materials in and out of the cell
• Controls all the activities of a cell
• Contains chromosomes which store heredity materials which
Nucleus
pass from parents to offspring
• Chromosomes contain many genes. which are made up of DNA.
• Contains a membrane-enclosed fluid which stores food, water
Vacuole
and nutrients needed by the cell.
• Made up of jelly-like material which allows various chemical
Cytoplasm
reactions to take place.
• Made up of cellulose which provides support and maintains
Cell Wall*
regular shape of the cell
Chloroplast* • Contains chlorophyll to absorb light energy for photosynthesis

*only present in plant cells

• In animal cells and plant cells, protoplasm (cytoplasm and nucleus) refers to the ‘living
part of the cell’ that is surrounded by the cell membrane.

B) Differences between an animal cell and a plant cell

Organelle/Characteristics Animal cell Plant cell

Cell wall Absent Present
Big but one
Vacuole Small but many
(central vacuole)
Chloroplast Absent Present
Shape Irregular Regular

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2. Differentiation of Cells
• In multicellular organisms, cells are specialized in performing different functions in order
for organisms to coordinate and survival better.

In animals
Specialised cell Specialised feature and function

• Contain haemoglobin to transport

oxygen.
• No nucleus (to make more room for
Red Blood Cell haemoglobin).
• Biconcave shape to maximize surface
area to volume ratio for oxygen
diffusion.

• Striated appearance.
Muscle Cell
• Enable the movement of body.

Sperm
• Contain genetic materials (DNA) for
hereditary.
• Considered as haploid cells.
Egg

• Consist of basic cell body with thread-

like structures.
Nerve cell
• Carry electrical messages around the
body for action and reaction responses.

• Maintains the bone tissue so that the

Bone cell
bones can support the body.

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 In plants
Specialised cell Specialised feature and function
• Elongated structure to increase the
surface area of the cell for absorbing
Root hair cell water effectively
• Does not contain chloroplasts as it does
not carry out photosynthesis.

• Controls the pores of stomata for

Guard cells
gaseous exchange

• Non-living structure that contains

Xylem vessel lumen for transporting water and
mineral salts.

3. Division of labour
• Division of labour refers to refers to the specialised functions of cells where cells have a
particular function. This ensures the efficient and smooth functioning of the
multicellular organisms so that they can survive.
• The levels of organisation of cells can be summarized in the following sequence:

Level Description

Cell • Each cell has a specific function in the body of an organism.

• A group of cells performing similar function.
Tissue
• Examples: Blood, muscle and skin tissue.
• A group of tissues performing similar functions.
Organ
• Examples: Heart, liver, stomach, lungs.
• A group of organs linked together to perform a particular
function(s).
Organ system
• Examples: Digestive system, Circulatory system, Respiratory
system,
• A group of systems working in a systematic and coordinated
Organism way to allow the organism to survive.
• Examples: Animals and plants

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4. Using a Microscope*
• The light microscope makes an object appear bigger by magnifying it. It is useful to see
objects which are not visible to the naked eye.
• The eye piece of a microscope contains the ocular lens which has a 10 times (10×)
magnification and the objective lens – 3 magnifications: scanning, low and high.
• Total magnification = 𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑠 × 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑠

Magnification
Total magnification
Ocular Objective lens

Scanning 10× 4× 40×

Low power 10× 10× 100×
High power 10× 40× 400×

• The table below shows the important parts and their functions:

Part Function
Coarse focus knob • Focus the specimen.
Fine focus knob • Fine tune the focus to give a clear image of the specimen.
Eye piece • Allow the user to look through. It magnifies the specimen 10×.
Objective lens • Allow the users to magnify the specimen to the greatest power.
Stage • A flat platform where the slide of the specimen is placed.
• Acts as light source to reflect light shining through the
Mirror
specimen.

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Chapter 8: The Particulate Model of Matter

1. Matter
• Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass.
• All living things and non-living things are matter.

Living things Non-living things

Animals Air
Plants Water
Fungi Rock
Protists Soil

A) Physical state of matter

• Matter can exist either as a solid, a liquid or a gas at room temperature.
• The physical state of matter at room temperature depends on its melting and boiling point.
• Melting point is the point of temperature at which a substance changes from solid into a
liquid.
• Boiling point is the point of temperature at which substance changes from a liquid into a
gas.
The physical state of a substance at room temperature:
- A solid if its melting point is higher than the room temperature.
- A liquid if its melting point is lower than the room temperature.
- A gas if its boiling point is lower than the room temperature.

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• The physical state properties of solids, liquids and gases are as follows:

Physical Property Solid Liquid Gas

Volume Definite Definite Indefinite
Takes the shape of
Shape Definite Indefinite
the container
Compressibility Incompressible Incompressible Compressible

• The mass of a substance is conserved when it undergoes changes in its physical state.

B) Change in physical state

• A change in physical state does not produce a new substance. It is called a physical change.
• Heat is taken in from the surroundings when substance undergo melting and
boiling/evaporation.
o Breaking bond = need energy from surroundings
• Heat is given out to the surroundings when substance undergo freezing and condensation.
o Forming bond = release energy to the surroundings

Solid (ice) Liquid (water) Gas (steam)

heat is taken in from the surroundings

melting boiling
Solid Liquid Gas
freezing condensation

heat is given out to the surroundings

• During a change in state for pure substances, the temperature remains constant, until all
of the substance is changed from one state to another.

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• Take the melting of ice for example.
o During melting of pure ice, the temperature remains constant, as the heat gained is used
to separate the particles in the solid further apart, to form the liquid. It is only when all
the pure ice has melted does temperature then start to increase.

2. Particles in Matter
• Matter is made up of tiny discreet particles.
• These tiny discreet particles are in constant and random motion.
• Diffusion of substance is a common evidence to demonstrate that matter is made up of
particles which have a constant and random motion.

A) Diffusion in liquid
Diffusion of copper(II) sulphate crystals in water.
• In an experiment, some blue copper(II) sulfate crystals are added to the water in the beaker.
• After a period of time, copper(II) sulfate crystals start to diffuse which can be observed by
the spreading of blue colour in water.

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B) Diffusion in gas
Diffusion of bromine gas.
• The diagrams below shows the set-up of this experiment to illustrate the diffusion process
in gas: Brownish bromine gas can be used to demonstrate the constant and random motion
of particles in gas.

• In the end of the experiment, both jars are filled with bromine gas.

3. The Particulate Model of Matter

• Since matter is made up of particles, it is important to know how these particles are arranged
and behave in it.
• At room temperature, matter exist as a solid, a liquid or a gas.
• The particles in a matter are arranged and behave differently in different physical states.

Physical State Solid Liquid Gas

Diagram

Vibrate about fixed Slide over one Move freely in all

Motion
positions only another directions at high speed
Attractive force Very strong Strong Very weak
Arrangement Regular and fixed Irregular and random Irregular and random
Distance Very close together Quite close Very far apart

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A) Using the Particulate Model of Matter to explain Physical Properties of Matter
• The physical properties of matter can be explained by using one of the factors in the
particulate model of matter.
- Motion of the particles.
- Attractive force between the particles.
- Arrangement of the particles.
- Distance (or space) between the particles.

Physical property Explanation

Solids and liquids have [Note: Use motion of particles to explain]

fixed volume but not Solid particles and liquid particles are not free to move
gases randomly in all directions but gas particles are able to do so.

[Note: Use arrangement of particles and attractive forces to

explain]
Solids have fixed shape
Solid particles have very strong forces of attraction between
but not liquids and gases
particles and arranged in fixed and regular positions but the
particles in liquids and gases are able to move.

[Note: Use motion of particles to explain]

Diffusion is faster in
Gas particles are free to move in all directions at high speed,
gases than in liquid and
so the movement of the particles is faster in gases than those
in solid
in liquids and in solids.

[Note: Use distance between particles to explain]

Gases can be compressed
The distance between gas particles is wider than those in
easily but not liquids and
solids and liquids, so the gases are easier to be compressed
solids.
than solids and liquids.

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B) Spaces between particles in matter.
• When a substance made up of smaller particles is mixed with another substance with larger
particles, the smaller particles will occupy the spaces between the larger particles.

Example:
An experiment to demonstrate the existing of spaces between particles in matter

Observation
When 50.0 ml liquid A is mixed with 50.0 ml liquid B, the total volume of the mixture is
less than 100.0 ml.
Inference
1. The size of the particles in liquid A and liquid B are different
2. The particles with smaller size fill in the spaces between larger particles. As a result,
the total volume of the mixture is less than the expected volume.

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Chapter 9: Atoms, Ions and Molecules

1. Atoms
• There are more than 100 types of elements existing naturally in this world
• An element is a substance consisting of one type of atom only. It cannot be broken down
chemically into simpler substances.
Examples

• Atoms of different elements are different in size.

• An atom is the smallest particle of a substance.
• It has a nucleus which contains protons and neutrons.
• Electrons move around the nucleus in the electron shell or orbit.

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• The characteristics of the three sub-particles of an atom:

Electron Proton Neutron

1
Relative mass 1 1
1840
Relative charge –1 +1 0 (neutral)

Location Electron Shell Nucleus Nucleus

• An atom has equal numbers of protons and electrons. The total number of positively
charged protons is neutralised by an equal number of negatively charged electrons. So, an
atom is electrically neutral because there is no net charge.

C) Proton Number and Mass Number

• Proton number (or atomic number), Z, is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.
• Nucleon number (or mass number), A, is the total number of protons and neutrons in the
nucleus of an atom.

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• Proton number also indicates the number of electrons in an atom (note that an atom has
equal number of protons and electrons).
Example
The number of protons, electrons and neutrons of fluorine atoms can be determined from
the mass number and proton number given in the Periodic Table.

D) Isotopes
• Isotopes are atoms that have the same number of protons but different number of neutrons.
• Due to the difference in the number of neutrons, isotopes have different mass number
Example
Isotopes of chlorine atoms

𝟏𝟕 𝟏𝟕
𝟑𝟓𝑪𝒍 𝟑𝟕𝑪𝒍

Number of protons 17 17 (same)

Number of 18 20 (different)
neutrons
Number of 17 17
electrons
Mass Number 35 37 (different)

Example
Isotopes of hydrogen atoms
𝟏 𝟏
𝟏𝑯 𝟐𝑯

Number of protons 1 1 (same)

Number of 0 1 (different)
neutrons
Number of 1 1
electrons
Mass Number 1 2 (different)

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2. Molecules
• Molecules are two or more atoms chemically joined together.
• A molecule can be made up of atoms of the same element or different elements.
• A molecule which contains two atoms of the same or different type chemically joined
together is called a diatomic molecule.
Examples

A) Molecule of an element
• A molecule of an element is a substance containing two or more of the same type of atom
chemically joined together
Examples

B) Molecule of a compound
• A molecule of a compound is a substance containing two or more of the different types
of atoms chemically joined together
Examples

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3. Ions*
• All atoms are electrically neutral. They have equal number of protons and electrons
• When an atom loses or gains electrons, the number of protons is not equal to the number
of electrons anymore. Therefore, the atom will not be electrically neutral.
• When an atom is not electrically neutral, it is called an ion.
• There are two types of ions:
- If an atom loses electron(s), it becomes a positive ion.

Example

- If an atom gains electron(s), it becomes a negative ion.

Example

• In the formation of ions, the process only involves the gaining or losing of electrons.
Therefore, electrons are responsible for the chemical properties of an atom.
• The number of protons and neutrons remains the same. Therefore, the proton number and
mass number are not affected.

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• In the formation of ions:
- Metals lose electrons to form positive ions
- Non-metals gain electrons to form negative ions

A) Formation of positive ions

• The symbol for a positive ion contains the following:
- A positive sign indicating the loss of electron(s)
- A numerical number indicating the number of electrons lost.

Example I
A sodium atom loses one electron to form a sodium ion.

Example II
A calcium atom loses two electrons to form a calcium ion.

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B) Formation of negative ions
• The symbol for a negative ion contains the following:
- A negative sign indicating the loss of electron(s)
- A numerical number indicating the number of electrons gained.

Example I
A bromine atom gains one electron to form a bromide ion.

Example II
A sulfur atom gains two electrons to form a sulfide ion.

Example III
A nitrogen atom gains three electrons to form a nitride ion.

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4. Ionic and Covalent Compounds*

Ionic Compound/Bond Covalent Compound/Bond

Bond type
(Between non-metals? Between metal and non-metal Between non-metals
Or metal & non-metal?)
Electrons Transferred Shared
(Shared or transferred?)
Conducts electricity in Does not conduct electricity
Electricity
conductivity molten/aqueous state (except water)
High (due to strong attractive
Boiling/ Low
Melting point forces in the lattice form)
Sodium chloride, Acids, Water, Carbon
Example(s)
Iron (III) Oxide dioxide, Oxygen gas

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5. Chemical Formula
• A chemical formula of a substance indicates two important information about the
substance:
- Type of element
- Total number of each type of atom

Example I

Example II

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 A) How are chemical formulas devised?

Example on Sodium and Chlorine reaction forming Sodium Chloride

1) Forming the sodium ion

Ion formed: Na+

2) Forming the Chlorine ion

Ion formed: Cl-

3) Writing/devising the chemical formula

Na1+ Cl1-

Na1 Cl1
(Metal) (Non-Metal)

Formula: NaCl

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 4) Forming the ionic bond (by transferring electrons)

Na Cl

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Chapter 10: Light and Colour

1. Properties of light
• Light travels in straight lines
• It is a form of energy
• It travels at a speed of 3 × 10& m/s in vacuum
• When light hits an object, it can be reflected or refracted

• Light is reflected when it hits an opaque object

• Light is refracted when it enters a transparent medium

of different density

A) Ray and beam of light

• A ray of light is indicated by a single straight line.
• A collective light rays is called a beam of light.

• A beam of light can be one of the followings:

2. Reflection of light
• Reflection is light being bounced off after hitting an opaque surface.
• Reflection allows us to see objects in our surroundings
• In reflection of light, there are:
- Incident ray: Light ray coming towards the surface
- Reflected ray: Light ray bouncing off the surface

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• The type of reflection, regular or diffused, is affected by the type of surface.

Type of reflection Type of surface

• When light rays are incident on a smooth surface,
they are reflected in a regular manner.

• When light rays are incident on a rough/uneven

surface, they are reflected in a diffused or
scattered manner.

A) The laws of reflection

• The two laws of reflection are:
- Angle of incidence (i) is equal to angle of reflection (r).
- In a reflection diagram, the incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal must lie in
the same plane.

B) Images formed in a plane mirror

• The formation of an image in a plane mirror is due to the reflection of light.
• When the light rays from an object are reflected by a mirror and enter our eyes, our brain
‘perceives’ that light travels in a straight lines from the image in the mirror instead.
• The characteristics of an image formed in a plane mirror:

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• A virtual image is an image that cannot be captured on a screen.

C) Constructing plane mirror image

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D) Applications of different types of mirrors
Type of mirror Plane mirror Convex mirror Concave mirror

Diagram

- Blind corner
- Dentist mirror
- Rear mirror mirror
Application - Microscope
- Periscope - Side mirror
- Cosmetic mirror
- Security camera
- See wider area - To magnify

Function

3. Refraction of light
• Refraction is the bending of light rays when they travel from one transparent medium
to another transparent medium.
• The refraction is caused by a change in speed of the light rays when they travel in the media
of different densities.

• Refraction of light can only take place in transparent media such as air, water, vacuum (in
space), glass and diamond.
• Light travels at different speeds, in different media
- In a less dense medium, the speed of light is faster
- In a denser medium, the speed of light is slower

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• How a light ray travel between the boundary of two media affects its refraction.

How a light ray travels Observation

From an optically less dense

medium to an optically more
dense medium.
Light ray bends towards the normal
Angle of incidence (i) > angle of refraction (r)

From an optically more dense

medium to an optically less
dense medium.
Light ray bends away from the normal
Angle of incidence (i) < angle of refraction (r)

A) Refractive index
• Refractive index is a measure of the bending of a light ray when travelling from one
medium into another.
• The formula to calculate the refractive index, n, is as follows.
sin 𝑖
𝑛=
sin 𝑟

• There will be no refraction in the following conditions:

- Light travelling perpendicular to the boundary of the media, even if they have different
densities.
- Light passes through two media of the same densities.

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B) Effect of Refraction – Apparent depth and Real depth
• Due to refraction of light, an object under the water appears to be nearer to the surface than
it really is.
- Real depth is the actual depth or position of the object under the water.
- Apparent depth is the depth or position perceived by an observer due to the refraction
of light.
• The apparent depth is less than the real depth in the effect of refraction.
Examples
Scenario Description

Due to the real depth and the apparent depth

caused by the refraction of light, the stick
appears ‘broken’ to the observer.

A fish appears to be closer to the observer.

4. Colour
A) Dispersion of white light
• White light is composed of seven colour components.
• Each colour component refracts at different angle when passing through a glass prism
• Therefore, white light will be dispersed by a prism and displays a spectrum of seven colour
components.

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• The splitting of white light into its component colours is called the dispersion of light. The
band colours displayed is known as a spectrum.
• A spectrum of colours can be recombined to from a white light by placing two prisms with
their vertices and bases in opposite directions.
- The first prism disperses the white light into a spectrum of colours.
- The second prism recombines the spectrum of colours into white light.

B) Primary colours
• White light consists of an entire of colour components
• However, white light can also be produced by mixing three distinct colour components
called the primary colours of light. They are red, blue and green.

Red + Blue + Green = White

• The primary colours are colours that cannot be reproduced by mixing other colours.

C) Secondary colours
• Secondary colours can be produced by mixing two of the three primary colours of light.

Mixture of two primary colours Secondary colour produced

Red + Green Yellow
Red + Blue Magenta
Green + Blue Cyan

• Besides the secondary colours, mixing any of the three primary colours of light with
different intensities can produce a wide range of other colours.

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D) Seeing coloured objects
• The colour of an object depends on the colour of light being reflected to the observer.
For example.
A leaf appears green to an observer.

When white light strikes the leaf, all colors

of light will be absorbed by the leaf except
for the green light. Thus, the leaf appears
green to the observer.

• An object appears black if it absorbs all the colour components of the white light.
• An object appears white if it reflects all the colour components of the white light

E) Coloured filter
• The coloured filter is a type of plastic sheet or
glass that only allows its own colour component
of light to pass through.

For example
• When a yellow light passes through cyan filter, the filter appears green.

- Cyan filter consists of green and blue while yellow light consists of green and red.
- Thus, only green light can pass through.
• A filter appears black when no light can pass through it.

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