Grade 4 Grammar Handbook

Contents
Sentences
Sentences and Sentence Fragments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
Sentence Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
Simple and Compound Sentences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
Complete Subjects and Complete Predicates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
Simple Subjects and Simple Predicates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
Compound Subjects and Compound Predicates . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
Complex Sentences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
Run-On Sentences. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .454
Nouns
Singular and Plural Nouns. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
More Plural Nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
Common and Proper Nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
Concrete and Abstract Nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
Collective Nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
Singular and Plural Possessive Nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
Combining Sentences: Nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
Verbs
Action Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
Verb Tenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .458
Subject-Verb Agreement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
Spelling Present- and Past-Tense Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
Main Verbs and Helping Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .460
Helping Verbs: has, have, had . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
Helping Verbs: can, may, must . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
Linking Verbs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
Irregular Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
Pronouns
Pronouns. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
Reflexive Pronouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
Pronoun-Verb Agreement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
Possessive Pronouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
Pronouns and Homophones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465

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 Table of Contents
Adjectives
Adjectives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
Articles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
This, That, These, and Those. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
Adjectives That Compare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
Comparing: More and Most, Good and Bad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .467
Adverbs
Adverbs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .468
Using Good and Well . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .468
Adverbs That Compare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
Comparing with Irregular Adverbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
Negatives
Negatives and Negative Contractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .470
Double Negatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .470
Prepositions
Prepositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
Prepositional Phrases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
Mechanics: Abbreviations
Titles and Names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
Days and Months . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
Addresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
Mechanics: Capitalization
First Words in Sentences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
Letter Greetings and Closings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .474
Proper Nouns: Names and Titles of People . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
Titles of Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
Other Proper Nouns and Adjectives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
Mechanics: Punctuation
End Punctuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
Periods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
Colons and Semicolons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .478
Apostrophes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .478
Parentheses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .478
Commas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
Quotation Marks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .480
Italics (Underlining) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480

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 Sentences
Sentences and Sentence Fragments
A sentence expresses a complete thought. A sentence
fragment does not express a complete thought.
Al writes about the storm. (complete sentence)
The heavy rains. (needs a predicate)
Your Turn Write each group of words. Write sentence or
fragment next to it to identify each item. Then rewrite each
fragment to make a complete sentence.
1. We listened to the news reports.
2. The strong winds.

Sentence Types
Each of the four types of sentences begins with a capital letter
and ends with an end mark.

A declarative sentence makes Scott rode a horse last week.

a statement. It ends with a
period.
An interrogative sentence Did you see him on the trail?
asks a question. It ends with a
question mark.
A imperative sentence tells or Take a picture of the group.
asks someone to do something.
It ends with a period.
An exclamatory sentence We had a great time riding!
shows strong feeling. It ends
with an exclamation mark.

Your Turn Write each sentence. Add the correct punctuation.

Then write what kind of sentence it is.
1. I had never been on a horse
2. Do you know how to ride a horse

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Sentences continued

Simple and Compound Sentences

A simple sentence has only one complete thought. A compound
sentence has two or more complete thoughts. The coordinating
conjunctions and, but, and or connect the complete thoughts in
a compound sentence.
My mother works in the city. (simple sentence)
My mother works in the city, but my father works at home.
(compound sentence)
Your Turn Write each sentence. Then tell whether the
sentence is simple or compound. If it is a compound sentence,
circle the coordinating conjunction.
1. My brother volunteers at the library.
2. He works on Saturdays, and Mom drives him there.
3. I would join him, but my team practices that day.
4. You can walk home, or Dad can pick you up.
5. Some days everyone is doing different things.

Complete Subjects and Complete Predicates

Every sentence has two important parts: the subject and the
predicate.
The subject tells whom or what the sentence is about. The
complete subject is all the words in the subject part.
The woman next door works in her garden.
The predicate tells what the subject does or is. The complete
predicate is all the words in the predicate.
The woman next door works in her garden.
Your Turn Write each sentence. Underline the complete
subject. Circle the complete predicate.
1. Our neighbor grows his own vegetables.
2. He plants three different gardens.
3. My sister and I help.
4. Will he invite us to dinner?
5. His recipe for tomato soup is the best!
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 Sentences continued

Simple Subjects and Simple Predicates

The simple subject is the main word in the complete subject.
Our vacation in Boston starts on Saturday.
The simple predicate is the main word in the complete
predicate.
Our vacation in Boston starts on Saturday.
Your Turn Write each sentence. Underline the simple subject.
Circle the simple predicate.
1. The dog charged after the rabbit.
2. The dog’s owner then chased after him.

Compound Subjects and Compound Predicates

A compound subject contains two or more simple subjects that
have the same predicate.
The cat and dog ran outside.
A compound predicate contains two more simple predicates
that have the same subject.
The cat sat and meowed at the door.
Use the conjunction and or or to combine sentences and create
compound subjects or compound predicates. When you combine
three or more simple subjects or simple predicates, use commas
to separate them.
Jan stepped outside. Jan turned left. Jan headed home.
Jan stepped outside, turned left, and headed home.
(compound predicate)
Your Turn Combine the sentence pairs to form one sentence.
Then write whether the new sentence has a compound
subject or a compound predicate.
1. Dad raked the yard. Mom raked the yard.
2. Mom mowed the lawn. Mom washed the car.

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 Sentences continued

Complex Sentences
A complex sentence contains an independent clause and one
or more dependent clauses.
We pitched our tent where the ground was flat and dry.
An independent clause can stand alone as a sentence.
We pitched our tent.
A dependent clause cannot stand alone as a sentence and
begins with a subordinating conjunction. Some common
subordinating conjunctions are after, although, before, because,
during, if, since, until, when, where, and while.
where the ground was flat and dry
Use a comma after the dependent clause when it comes at the
beginning of a sentence.
After the sun went down, we heard an owl.
Your Turn Write each sentence. Underline the independent
clause. Circle the dependent clause.
1. We looked up at the sky after it got dark.
2. You might see a shooting star if you wait long enough.
3. While we were watching, the Moon rose above the trees.
4. When I grow up, I might become an astronaut.
5. We talked until our parents told us to go to sleep.

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 Sentences continued

Run-On Sentences
A run-on sentence contains two or more independent clauses
without the proper conjunctions or punctuation.
I dropped a book my cat got scared it ran away.
You can correct run-on sentences using one or more strategies.

Break the independent clauses I dropped a book. My cat got

into separate sentences. scared. It ran away.
Create a compound subject or I dropped a book. My cat got
compound predicate. scared and ran away.
Create a compound sentence I dropped a book, and my cat
using coordinating conjunctions. got scared and ran away.
Create a complex sentence using Because I dropped a book, my
subordinating conjunctions. cat got scared and ran away.

Your Turn Correct each run-on sentence using one or more of

the strategies described above.
1. My alarm didn’t go off I missed the bus.
2. Mom was already at work I had to walk.
3. The sun was out it was really chilly.
4. I got to school I raced up to the door.
5. I was so embarrassed it was closed it was Saturday!

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Nouns
Singular and Plural Nouns
A noun names a person, place, thing, or idea. It can be a single
word or a group of words used together. A singular noun names
one person, place, thing, or idea. A plural noun names more
than one. Add -s to form the plural of most nouns. Add -es to
form the plural of nouns ending in s, x, ch, or sh.
Singular nouns: boy school home run joy
Plural nouns: girls stores churches beliefs
Your Turn Write each sentence. Underline each noun and
write whether it is singular or plural.
1. The actor needed to learn his lines.
2. His friend read from the script.

More Plural Nouns

If a noun ends in a consonant ladies, berries, skies, libraries
+ y, change y to i and add -es.
If a noun ends in a vowel + y, boys, monkeys, days, essays
add -s.
If a noun ends in -f, you may need chefs, roofs, leaves, hooves,
to change f to v and add -es. knives
Some nouns have the same deer, sheep, moose, fish
singular and plural forms.
Some nouns have special men, women, children, teeth,
plural forms. feet

Your Turn Write each sentence. Change the singular noun in

parentheses ( ) into a plural noun.
1. The park is crowded on (holiday).
2. Many (child) visit with their parents.
3. If there are sunny (sky), they play outside.
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 Nouns continued

Common and Proper Nouns

A common noun names any person, place, or thing. A proper
noun names a particular person, place, or thing. A proper noun
always begins with a capital letter.
The student looked at the map. (common)
Brittany located Ohio. (proper)
Your Turn Write each sentence. Underline each noun and
write whether it is common or proper.
1. Anna has a map of the world on her wall.
2. There are pins placed in several countries.

Concrete and Abstract Nouns

A concrete noun names a person, place, or thing that physically
exists and can be perceived with the senses. An abstract noun
names a quality, concept, or idea that does not physically exist.
Many abstract nouns have no plural form.
Ellen set the sheet music on the piano. (concrete)
Music fills the soul with happiness. (abstract)

Collective Nouns
A collective noun names a group acting as a single unit.
Collective nouns can also have plural forms.
Our team plays three other teams next week.
Your Turn Write each sentence. Underline each noun
and write whether it is concrete or abstract. Circle any
collective nouns.
1. The road crew stopped traffic on our street.
2. My sisters wanted to go to the shopping mall.
3. Their car was stopped for a long time.

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 Nouns continued

Singular and Plural Possessive Nouns

A possessive noun is a noun that shows who or what owns or
has something.
A singular possessive noun is formed by adding an apostrophe
(‘) + s to the end of a singular noun.
The car’s alarm made the boy’s ears hurt.
Most plural nouns ending in -s become possessive by adding an
apostrophe to the end. Irregular plural nouns that don’t end in
-s add an apostrophe + s.
The visitors’ center hosted a children’s reception.
Your Turn Write each sentence. Change the word in
parentheses into a possessive noun.
1. My (brother) band practices in the garage.
2. The (group) poster shows their lead singers.
3. The two (singers) voices sound alike.
4. They played at our (school) fall festival.
5. All of the (newspapers) reviews were good.

Combining Sentences: Nouns

You can combine nouns in the subject.
Sean went inside. Cora went inside.
Sean and Cora went inside.
You can combine nouns in the predicate.
Mom likes checkers. Mom likes chess.
Mom likes checkers and chess.
Your Turn Combine the nouns in the sentence pairs to form
one sentence.
1. Chet went to the shore. Emily went to the shore.
2. They saw sea gulls. They saw pelicans.
3. A boy swam nearby. An older woman swam nearby.
4. The snack bar sold juice. The snack bar sold fruit.
5. Were your friends there? Were your parents there?

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 Verbs
Action Verbs
An action verb is a word that expresses action. It tells what the
subject does or did.
The pitcher threw the ball over the plate.
Your Turn Write each sentence. Underline the action verb(s).
1. Volunteers gathered in the city park.
2. They painted the information booth.
3. One crew repaired all the picnic tables.

Verb Tenses
A present-tense verb shows action that happens now.
Today, the lifeguard watches the weather.
A past-tense verb shows action that has already happened.
Yesterday, the lifeguard listened for thunder.
A future-tense verb shows action that may or will happen.
At the first sign of lightning, he will close the pool.
A progressive tense shows action that continues over time.
Use the verb be with the -ing form of another verb to create the
present progressive, past progressive, or future progressive
tense.
I am watching you. (present progressive)
I was watching you. (past progressive)
I will be watching you. (future progressive)
Your Turn Write each sentence. Underline the verb and tell
what tense it is.
1. Next summer I will attend space camp.
2. I received a brochure in the mail last week.
3. My mother helps me with the registration process.
4. I will be checking the camp’s Web site every day now.
5. I am counting the days until the start of the program.

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Verbs continued

Subject-Verb Agreement
A present-tense verb must agree with the subject of the
sentence. Add -s to most verbs if the subject is singular. Add -es
to verbs that end in s, ch, sh, x, or z. Do not add -s or -es if the
subject is plural or I or you.
Cristen watches the race. Her friends cheer for her sister.
Your Turn Write each sentence. Use the correct form of the
verb(s) in parentheses.
1. The racers (crouch) at the starting line.
2. The clock (count) down the seconds.
3. Cristen’s sister (rush) off to a great start.
4. She (take) the lead right away.
5. Another runner (catch) up and (challenge) her.

Spelling Present- and Past-Tense Verbs

The spelling of some verbs changes when -es or -ed is added.
For verbs ending in a consonant + y, change the y to i before
adding -es or -ed. For verbs ending in one vowel and one
consonant, double the final consonant before adding -ed. For
verbs ending in e, drop the e before adding -ed.
Josh cried when the music stopped. He truly loved that song.
Your Turn Write each sentence. Use the correct form of the
verb in parentheses.
1. Now Josh (carry) his guitar upstairs.
2. He (try) to remember the song.
3. Yesterday he (practice) all day.
4. He (step) up to the challenge and worked hard.
5. Who (worry) that he may forget the words?

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 Verbs continued

Main Verbs and Helping Verbs

The main verb in a sentence tells what the subject does or is.
A helping verb helps the main verb show an action or make a
statement. The verb be is often used as a helping verb.
Carol is running for class president.
Use a contraction to combine a helping verb with the subject
or with the word not. An apostrophe (‘) takes the place of the
missing letters.
Carol’s feeling sad. Her friends aren’t helping much.
Your Turn Write each sentence. Underline the main verbs and
circle the helping verbs. If there is a contraction, tell which
two words have been combined.
1. Many students are making posters.
2. Carol is preparing a speech.
3. Her school is holding a debate tomorrow.
4. Reporters were writing about it last week.
5. Carol’s hoping that she will win the election.

Helping Verbs: has, have, had

The helping verbs has, have, and had can be used with the
past-tense form of a verb to show an action that has already
happened. When has or have is used, the entire verb forms the
present perfect tense. When had is used, the entire verb forms
the past perfect tense.
She has eaten all of the bread he had baked.
Your Turn Write each sentence. Choose the correct form of
has, have, or had to complete the sentence.
1. He (have, had) cooked every day last week.
2. Today she (has, had) watched him make dried fruit.
3. (Have, Has) you ever tasted anything so delicious?

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 Verbs continued

Helping Verbs: can, may, must

The verbs can, may, and must can be used as helping verbs with
a main verb.
They may wait until someone can help them.
Your Turn Write each sentence. Underline each main verb
and circle each helping verb.
1. We may buy a gift for our parents.
2. What can we afford?
3. There must be something good here!
4. “Can I borrow some money?” I ask.
5. You reply, “We must stay within our budget.”

Linking Verbs
A linking verb links the subject to a noun or adjective in the
predicate. It must agree with the subject. A linking verb does not
express action. Some common present-tense linking verbs are
am, are, and is. Some common past-tense linking verbs are was
and were.
Carlos is an artist. His exhibits last year were beautiful.
Your Turn Write each sentence. Underline each linking verb.
1. This painting is my favorite.
2. The colors are bright and joyful.
3. Carlos is proud of his most recent work.
4. I am anxious to see it.
5. Was he happy with the review on the Web?

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 Verbs continued

Irregular Verbs
An irregular verb is a verb that does not end in -ed to form the
past tense. Some also have special spellings when used with the
helping verb have.

Present Past With Have

begin began begun
bring brought brought
come came come
do did done
draw drew drawn
eat ate eaten
give gave given
go went gone
grow grew grown
hide hid hidden
run ran run
say said said
see saw seen
sing sang sung
sit sat sat
take took taken
tell told told
think thought thought
write wrote written

Your Turn Write each sentence. Use the correct form of the
verb in parentheses.
1. Last night I (go) to a spelling bee. 
2. I (tell) my friend to meet me there. 
3. We have (see) several spelling bees together. 

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Pronouns
Pronouns
A pronoun is a word that takes the place of one or more nouns.
A subject pronoun is used as the subject of a verb. It tells who
or what does the action. The pronouns I, you, he, she, it, we, and
they can be used as subject pronouns.
An object pronoun is used as the object of a verb. It tells whom
or what received the action of the verb. The pronouns me, you,
him, her, it, us, and them can be used as object pronouns.
An object pronoun may come after prepositions such as for, at,
of, with, or to.
I gave him the hammer. He used it to build a shelf for her.
Your Turn Write each sentence. Underline each subject
pronoun. Circle each object pronoun.
1. She took the little statues out of the boxes.
2. Then she placed them on the new shelves.
3. They looked much better to her.
4. We went over to see what she had done.
5. You and he should invite her to dinner.

Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement
A pronoun must match its antecedent, the noun to which it
refers. The antecedent may or may not be in the same sentence.
Mom said she knew what to do. She called my brother and
gave him advice.
Your Turn Write each sentence. Underline each pronoun.
Circle each antecedent.
1. My brother asked Mom to drive him to work.
2. Dad printed the directions and gave them to Mom.
3. Dad was worried about my brother. He asked to go along.
4. Dad and Mom told my brother to expect them soon.

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 Pronouns continued

Reflexive Pronouns
A reflexive pronoun tells about an action that a subject does for
or to itself. A reflexive pronoun is based on an object pronoun
because it receives the action of the verb. The ending -self is
added for singular pronouns. The ending -selves is added for
plural pronouns.
The girl wrote herself a note. We drove ourselves to the city.
Your Turn Write each sentence. Underline only the reflexive
pronoun(s).
1. We got ourselves lost in the city.
2. I asked myself how it happened.
3. You never expect to find yourself in trouble.
4. Trouble can find you all by itself.
5. My sister cheered for herself when she found a map.

Pronoun-Verb Agreement
A present-tense verb must agree with its subject, even if the
subject is a pronoun.
I am thirsty. She is thirsty. We are thirsty.
Your Turn Write each sentence. Use the correct present-
tense form of the verb in parentheses.
1. He (look) for a water fountain. 
2. She (find) one over by the tennis courts. 
3. We (proceed) from there to the parking lot. 
4. Our parents beep the horn when they (see) us. 
5. She (climb) into the front seat and (say), “Let’s go!”

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 Pronouns continued

Possessive Pronouns
A possessive pronoun takes the place of a possessive noun. It
shows who or what owns something. My, your, her, his, its, our,
and their are possessive pronouns.
I gave my order to our waiter. He wrote it on his pad.
Some possessive pronouns can stand on their own. Mine, yours,
hers, his, its, ours, and theirs can be used alone.
We order lunch. I won’t eat mine until yours is here.
Your Turn Write each sentence. Replace the words in
parentheses with a possessive pronoun.
1. (My friend Lauren’s) sandwich looked very tasty.
2. Hers had more peppers than (the sandwich belonging
to me).
3. “Can I have a bite of (the sandwich belonging to you)?”
she asked.

Pronouns and Homophones

Some possessive pronouns sound like pronoun-verb contractions
but are spelled differently. A possessive pronoun does not
contain an apostrophe because no letters are missing.
It’s time for the class to take its test. (It’s = It + is; its is a
possessive pronoun)
You’re proud of your grade. (You’re = You + are; your is a
possessive pronoun)
They’re not pleased with their grades. (They’re = They + are;
their is a possessive pronoun)
There’s no excuse for theirs. (There’s = There + is; theirs is a
possessive pronoun)
Your Turn Write each sentence. Choose the correct word in
parentheses to complete the sentence.
1. “You’re not going to believe (you’re, your) eyes,” I said.
2. “(Theirs, There’s) a B on my report card.”
3. “Is it moving (it’s, its) wings?” you asked.
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 Adjectives
Adjectives
An adjective describes a noun. Adjectives can tell what kind or
how many. Most adjectives come directly before the nouns they
describe. When an adjective comes after the noun it describes,
the noun and adjective are connected by a linking verb.
A proper adjective is formed from a proper noun.
My two favorite players on the team are Brazilian.
Your Turn Write each sentence. Circle each adjective and
underline the noun being described.
1. We can’t play on the wet fields.
2. The grass is slippery.

Articles
The words the, a, and an are special adjectives called articles.
Use a before words that begin with consonant sounds. Use an
before words that begin with vowel sounds.
A squirrel dropped the acorns from an oak tree.
Your Turn Write the sentence. Circle each article.
1. The acorns clattered on the tin roof of an old garage.

This, That, These and Those

This, that, these and those are special adjectives that tell how
many and how near or far away something or someone is. This
(near) and that (far) are used with singular nouns. These (near)
and those (far) are used with plural nouns.
These apples in my hand came from that tree by the fence.
Your Turn Write the sentence. Choose the correct word in
parentheses to complete the sentence.
1. We picked (that, these) apples from (this, those) tree.
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 Adjectives continued

Adjectives That Compare

Add -er to an adjective to compare two nouns. Add -est to
compare more than two nouns.
If an adjective ends in a consonant and y, then change the y to i
before adding -er or -est.
If an adjective ends in e, then drop the e before adding -er or -est.
If an adjective has a single vowel before a final consonant, then
double the final consonant before adding -er or -est.
I take the lighter, tinier box. The other box is the thinnest of all.
Your Turn Write each sentence. Use the correct form of the
adjective in parentheses.
1. My room is (big) than my sister’s room.
2. “It’s the (messy) room in the house!” Mom said.

Comparing: More and Most, Good and Bad

Use more, better, and worse to compare two people, places, or
things.
Use most, best, and worst to compare more than two people,
places, or things.
I have many coins. You have more coins than I do. He has the
most coins of all.
Eli is a good chef. Pam is a better chef than Eli. Chad is the
best chef of all.
She had a bad day. He had a worse day than she did. I had
the worst day of all.
Use more and most with longer adjectives instead of adding the
endings -er and -est.
Mom had a more pleasant trip than I did. Dad had the most
exciting trip of all.
Your Turn Write each sentence. Use the correct form of the
adjective in parentheses.
1. This restaurant has the (good) soup in town.
2. There were (many) choices today than yesterday.
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 Adverbs
Adverbs
An adverb is a word that tells more about a verb. Adverbs often
tell how, when, or where. Many adverbs end in -ly.
You nervously looked up. The storm would start soon.
Your Turn Write each sentence. Circle each adverb and draw
a line under the verb that each adverb describes.
1. Clouds gathered overhead.
2. Lightning flashed and thunder rumbled loudly.
3. We quickly raced inside.
4. “Is everyone here?” our father asked.
5. You quietly hoped the storm would go away.

Using Good and Well

Good is an adjective that tells more about a noun. Well is an
adverb that is tells more about a verb.
The good nurse treated us well.
Your Turn Write each sentence. Choose good or well to
complete the sentence. Underline the word that is being
described.
1. There is a (good, well) chance that we will miss the play.
2. My mother did not sleep (good, well).
3. When I am sick, I can’t perform (good, well).
4. Do you have any (good, well) suggestions?
5. A (good, well) actor might pretend to be healthy.

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 Adverbs continued

Adverbs That Compare

Adverbs can be used to compare two or more actions. Use more
before most adverbs to compare two actions. Use most before
most adverbs to compare more than two actions. Add the ending
-er or -est to shorter adverbs to compare actions.
Gil danced longer and more gracefully than Wendy.
Shawna danced longest and most gracefully of all.
Your Turn Write each sentence. Choose the correct form of
the adverb in parentheses.
1. Gil can move (swiftly) than Wendy. 
2. Shawna works (hard) than Wendy. 
3. Wendy learns new dances (fast) of all. 
4. Have you danced (recently) than Gil?
5. Shawna has performed (consistently) of all the dancers. 

Comparing with Irregular Adverbs

With the adverb well, use better to compare two actions. Use
best to compare more than two actions.
With the adverb badly, use worse to compare two actions. Use
worst to compare more than two actions.
He and I played worse than yesterday, but you played best of all.
Your Turn Write each sentence. Choose the correct form of
the adverb in parentheses.
1. I ran (well) at this race than the last one. 
2. You had prepared (well) of all. 
3. He reacted (badly) to the score than I did. 
4. Their coach behaved (badly) of all. 
5. Our coach understands the game (well) than any
other coach.

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 Negatives
Negatives and Negative Contractions
A negative is a word that means no. Many negatives contain
the word no within them. Some negatives use the contraction
n’t, which is short for not.
Nobody wants to go first. I can’t understand why.
Your Turn Write each sentence. Underline the negative word
in each one.
1. We could not see anything inside the room.
2. There was no light switch on the wall.
3. I don’t like going into a dark room.
4. I never enter a room that isn’t lit brightly.
5. The lamps were nowhere to be found.

Double Negatives
Do not use two negatives in one sentence.
Don’t you (ever, never) talk to me like that!
I don’t think (no one, anyone) should behave that way.
Your Turn Write each sentence. Choose the correct word
in parentheses to complete the sentence.
1. No one has (never, ever) won an argument with
my mother.
2. We didn’t have (no, any) idea what to say to her.
3. She won’t take (any, none) of our advice.
4. Nothing (will, won’t) make her change her mind.
5. Won’t she trust (no one, anyone) other than herself?

470
Prepositions
Prepositions
A preposition comes before a noun or a pronoun. A preposition
shows how the noun or pronoun is linked to another word in the
sentence. Some common prepositions are in, at, of, from, with,
to, and by.
The conductor on the train waved at the boy.
Your Turn Write each sentence. Circle each preposition.
1. He gave his ticket to the conductor.
2. The train left from the station at noon.
3. He sat by the window with his mother.
4. The motion of the train shook his belongings.
5. The book with the blue cover fell from his backpack.

Prepositional Phrases
A prepositional phrase is a group of words that begins with
a preposition and ends with a noun or pronoun. The noun or
pronoun is the object of the preposition. A prepositional phrase
can be used as an adjective or an adverb in a sentence.
The girl in the park (adjective) hit the ball over the net (adverb).
Your Turn Write each sentence. Underline each prepositional
phrase and circle each preposition. Then place an “O” above
the object of the preposition.
1. The ball bounced at her feet.
2. The girl with the long hair kept score.
3. They played for three hours.
4. My friend and I cheered from the bleachers.
5. My favorite one of the players scored the last point.

471
 Mechanics: Abbreviations
Titles and Names
Some titles are abbreviations, or shortened forms of words.
Other titles, like Ms. and Mrs., don’t have longer forms. An initial
is the first letter of a name. Titles and initials are capitalized
and are followed by a period. When abbreviations are used
at the end of an Internet address, they are not capitalized or
followed by a period.
Dr. A. J. Moreno will post Sen. Paulsen’s speech on our
state’s .gov Web site.
Your Turn Write each sentence. Change the word(s) in
parentheses into an abbreviation or initial.
1. I sent an e-mail to (Mister) Elish.
2. (Governor) Slater also wrote a response.
3. Ms. (Carol Jane) Stein will speak to our class next week.
4. I posted the news at www.ourschool.(educational) today.
5. Let’s give a warm welcome to (Doctor) and (his wife) Yee.

Time
Use abbreviations to indicate time before noon (A.M. for “ante
meridiem”) and after noon (P.M. for “post meridiem”). These
abbreviations are capitalized with periods after each letter.
Our car wash will go from 10 A.M. to 2 P.M. on Saturday.
Your Turn Write each sentence. Use the correct abbreviation
to replace the words in parentheses.
1. We will take a break for lunch at 12:30 (after noon).
2. I don’t have to be there until 11:00 (before noon).
3. The dog usually waits until 7:30 (in the morning) to wake
me up.
4. Mom will pick us up at 2:30 (in the afternoon).
5. I’ll be able to walk the dog at 8:00 (in the evening).

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Mechanics: Abbreviations continued

Days and Months

When you abbreviate the days of the week or the months of
the year, begin with a capital letter and end with a period. Do
not abbreviate May, June, or July.
Sun. Mon. Tues. Wed. Thurs. Fri. Sat.
Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.
Your Turn Write each sentence. Use the correct
abbreviation(s) to replace the word(s) in parentheses.
1. I have a piano lesson each (Tuesday) in July.
2. Soccer practice only goes until (November) this year.
3. The drama club uses the theater each (Monday) in (March)
for rehearsals.
4. The final production begins in (April) and runs until (June).
5. I’ve blocked out (Wednesday) through (Friday) for vacation.

Addresses
Address abbreviations are capitalized and followed by a period.
Some common address abbreviations are St. (Street), Rd. (Road),
Ave. (Avenue), Dr. (Drive), Blvd. (Boulevard), Ln. (Lane), Apt.
(Apartment), and P. O. (Post Office), When you write an address,
you may use United States Postal Service abbreviations for the
names of states. All of these abbreviations are two capital letters
with no period at the end. When using these state abbreviations,
no comma is needed after the name of the city or town.
She mailed the postcard to 28 Irving Dr., Apt. 4B, Canton OH.
Your Turn Write each address. Use the correct abbreviation(s)
whenever possible.
1. 6 Main Street
2. Post Office Box 1023
3. Providence, Rhode Island
4. 532 Jefferson Street, Los Angeles, California
5. 104 7th Avenue, Apartment 8C, New York, New York

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 Mechanics: Capitalization
First Words in Sentences
Capitalize the first word of a sentence. Capitalize the first word
of a direct quotation. Do not capitalize the second part of an
interrupted quotation. When the second part of a quotation is
a new sentence, put a period after the interrupting expression
and capitalize the first word of the new sentence.
“Finish your homework,” my mother said, “and come down for
supper.”
Dinner smelled great. “I’ll be right there,” I replied. “I’m
almost done.”
Your Turn Write each sentence. Use capital letters correctly.
1. the final problem was taking a long time to answer.
2. “did you hear what I said?” asked my mother.
3. without looking up, I replied, “yes, I did.”
4. “don’t wait too long,” Mom said, “or it will get cold.”
5. “this is too hard,” I said. “maybe I can finish it later.”

Letter Greetings and Closings

All of the words in a letter’s greeting begin with a capital letter.
Only the first word in the closing of a letter begins with a capital
letter.
Dear Dr. Watkins, Sincerely yours,
Your Turn Write each part of a letter with the correct
capitalization.
1. dear uncle floyd,
2. best wishes
3. with all my love,
4. dear ladies and gentlemen,
5. to whom it may concern:

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 Mechanics: Capitalization continued

Proper Nouns: Names and Titles of People

Capitalize the names of people and the initials that stand for
their names. Capitalize titles or abbreviations of titles when they
come before or after the names of people. Capitalize words that
show family relationships when used as titles or as substitutes
for a person’s name. Do not capitalize words that show family
relationships when they are preceded by a possessive noun or
pronoun. Capitalize the pronoun I.
Dean’s father and I talked to Mom about his visit to
Dr. T. J. Hunter, Jr.
Your Turn Write each sentence. Use capital letters correctly.
1. mr. weston worried about Dean’s swollen knee.
2. “I’ll ask dad what to do about it,” Dean had told me.
3. “What did dr. hunter tell him?” i asked my mother.
4. “He was sent to another doctor,” mom explained.

Titles of Works
Capitalize the first, last, and all important words in the title
of a book, play, short story, poem, movie, article, newspaper,
magazine, TV series, chapter of a book, or song.
My father sang “Moon River” while I watched “Alice in
Wonderland” again.
The book Give Us a Chance was reviewed in today’s
Tarrytown Tribune.
Your Turn Write each sentence. Use capital letters correctly.
1. We sang “america the beautiful” at the start of the game.
2. A reporter from the hometown herald wrote about it.
3. He compared the victory to the movie “the miracle team.”
4. I wrote a poem about it called “winning by the book.”

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 Mechanics: Capitalization continued

Other Proper Nouns and Adjectives

Capitalize the names of cities, states, countries, and continents.
Do not capitalize articles or prepositions that are part of the
names. Capitalize the names of bodies of water and geographical
features. Capitalize the names of sections of the country. Do not
capitalize compass points when they just show direction.
Portland, Oregon California is south of the Pacific Northwest.
Capitalize the names of streets and highways. Capitalize the
names of buildings, bridges, and monuments.
Mackinaw Bridge Empire State Building
Capitalize the names of stars and planets. Capitalize Earth
when it refers to the planet. Do not capitalize earth when it is
preceded by the article the. Do not capitalize sun or moon.
The planet next closest to the sun from the earth is Venus.
Capitalize the names of schools, clubs, teams, businesses, and
products.
Junior Debate Club at Westwood Senior High School
Capitalize the names of historic events, periods of time, and
documents.
the Battle of Bunker Hill the Declaration of Independence
Capitalize the days of the week, months of the year, and holidays.
Labor Day is the first Monday in September.
Capitalize the names of ethnic groups, nationalities, and
languages. Capitalize proper adjectives that are formed from
the names of ethnic groups and nationalities.
The official languages of the Swiss include German and French.
Capitalize the first word of each main topic and subtopic in an
outline.
1. Products and exports
A. Natural resources

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Mechanics: Punctuation
End Punctuation
A declarative sentence makes a statement. It ends with
a period (.).
An interrogative sentence asks a question. It ends with a
question mark (?).
An imperative sentence makes a command or a request. It ends
with a period (.) or an exclamation mark (!).
An exclamatory sentence expresses strong emotion. It ends
with an exclamation mark (!).
Do you like trapeze artists? Watch how daring they are! I’m
afraid of heights like that.
Your Turn Write each sentence. Use the correct capitalization
and end punctuation.
1. When is the next performance
2. Get tickets now before they sell out
3. I can’t wait to see the fire-breathing acrobats
4. Her plane flies east from chicago on valentine’s day.

Periods
Use a period at the end of an abbreviation. Use a period in
abbreviations for time. Use a period after initials. Use a period
after numbers and letters in an outline.
Dr. E. J. Simmons will see us at 4:45 P.M. on Feb. 23.
Your Turn Write each sentence. Insert periods where needed.
1. I would prefer an appointment at 10:00 AM.
2. Ms Etchells has scheduled the test for Oct 5.
3. My best friend, B D Shea, will park at Elm St and wait.
4. Is 7:30 PM too late for Dr West to see you?

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 Mechanics: Punctuation continued

Colons and Semicolons

Use a colon to separate the hour and minute when you write the
time of day. Use a colon after the greeting of a business letter.
Use a semicolon to combine two related independent clauses
that are not connected by a conjunction such as or, and, or but.
Dear Professor Cooper:
I cannot make your 10:30 class today; our cat is sick.
Your Turn Write each sentence. Insert the proper punctuation
where it is needed.
1. Dear Mr. Kirov
2. I tried to call you this morning no one answered the phone.

Apostrophes
Use an apostrophe (‘) and an s to form the possessive of a
singular noun. Use an apostrophe and an s to form the possessive
of a plural noun that does not end in s. Use an apostrophe alone
to form the possessive of a plural noun that ends in s. Do not use
an apostrophe in a possessive pronoun. Use an apostrophe in a
contraction to show where a letter or letters are missing.
My friend’s family didn’t borrow a car because theirs was fixed.

Parentheses
Use parentheses to set off information that is not essential in a
sentence, such as unnecessary details, clarifications, or examples.
Jim (winner of last year’s contest) didn’t register for this year.
Your Turn Write each sentence. Insert apostrophes and
parentheses where needed.
1. This years entry fee $25 last year shouldnt increase.
2. Our familys car over 10 years old is very reliable.

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Mechanics: Punctuation continued

Commas
Use a comma (,) between the name of a city and the complete
name of a state. Use a comma after the name of a state or a
country when it is used with the name of a city in a sentence.
Do not use a comma between the name of a city and the postal
service abbreviation for a state.
We drove from Houston, Texas, to Toronto, Canada, in one week.
Use a comma between the day and the year in a date. Use a
comma before and after the year when it is used with both the
month and the day in a sentence. Do not use a comma if only the
month and the year are given.
We gathered on August 5, 1987, for our last reunion.
Use a comma after the greeting in a friendly letter and after the
closing in all letters.
Dear Aunt Jo, Very truly yours,
Use a comma before and, but, or or when it joins simple sentences
to form a compound sentence. Use a comma to separate two or
more subjects in a compound subject. Use a comma to separate two
or more predicates in a compound predicate and after a dependent
clause at the start of a sentence.
After the bell rang, Liz, Jack, and Chris left, but I remained.
Use a comma to set off a direct quotation.
“When you heard the bell,” she asked, “had you finished the test?”
Use commas to separate three or more items in a series.
She photographed the roses, lilies, and orchids on display.
Use a comma after the words yes or no or other introductory
words at the beginning of a sentence. Use a comma with nouns in
a direct address.
Yes, I know Brady. By the way, Donna, have you talked to him?
Your Turn Write each sentence. Add commas where needed.
1. The residents of Smith South Carolina wanted a town flag.
2. I submitted six drawings but none of them were chosen.

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 Mechanics: Punctuation continued

Quotation Marks
Use quotation marks before and after the exact words that a
speaker says or writes. Use a comma or commas to separate
a clause, such as he said, from the quotation itself. Place the
comma outside the opening quotation marks but inside the
closing quotation marks. Place a period inside closing quotation
marks. Place a question mark or exclamation mark inside the
quotation marks when it is part of the quotation.
“Did you finish your assignment?” my mother asked.
“I started it,” I replied, “but my baby brother interrupted me.”
Use quotation marks around the title of a short story, song,
short poem, print or online article, or chapter of a book.
I wrote a poem called “My Bratty Baby Brother.”
Your Turn Write each sentence. Add quotation marks
where needed.
1. Our school journal published My Bratty Baby Brother.
2. What gave you the idea for that poem? my teacher asked.
3. It can be so frustrating at home sometimes! I said.

Italics (Underlining)
Use italics or underlining for the title of a book, movie, television
series, play, stage production, magazine, or newspaper.
We had tickets to see The Lion King in August.
Your Turn Write each sentence. Underline titles where needed.
1. I borrowed The Big Book of Ballet from the library.
2. We had just watched The Company on television.

480