Unit 1 Basic of Computer Graphics

What is graphics?
◼ The term graphic refers to a design or visual image displayed on a variety of surfaces, including
canvas, paper, a wall, a sign, or a computer monitor.

◼ They are created for the purposes of entertainment, branding or to inform.

◼ A graphic is an image or visual representation of an object. Therefore, computer graphics are

simply images displayed on a computer screen.

Computer graphics
◼ Computer graphics are picture and films created using computers.

◼ The term refers to computer generated image data created with help from specialized
graphical hardware and software.

◼ It is a vast and recent area in computer science

◼ Computer graphics is an art of drawing pictures on computer screens with the help of
programming. It involves computations, creation, and manipulation of data.

◼ In other words, we can say that computer graphics is a rendering tool for the generation and
manipulation of images.

Applications of Computer Graphics

1. GUI

◼ It is an interface which sits between the user and the graphics application program.

◼ It helps the graphics system to interact with the user both in terms of input and output

◼ Manu, icons, buttons, cursors, dialog boxes etc.. are example of GUI elements

◼ You need special facilities for 3D interface to handle or manipulate three dimensional objects.
The 3D interface is one of the hard topics of research in active areas and the part of the
Graphical User Interface.

2. CAD

◼ Used in design of buildings, automobiles, aircraft, watercraft, spacecraft, computers, textiles

& many other products

◼ Objects are displayed in wire frame outline form Software packages provide multi-window
environment

3. Presentation Graphics

◼ Used to summarize financial, statistical, mathematical, scientific, economic data for research
reports, managerial reports & customer information bulletins

◼ Examples : Bar charts, line graphs, pie charts, surface graphs, time chart

4. Computer Art
 Electronic painting: Picture painted electronically on a graphics tablet (digitizer) using a stylus
Cordless, pressure sensitive stylus

Morphing: A graphics method in which one object is transformed into another

5. Fine art & commercial art

▪ Includes artist’s paint brush programs, paint packages, CAD packages and animation
packages

▪ These packages provide facilities for designing object shapes & specifying object
motions.

▪ Examples : Cartoon drawing, paintings, product advertisements, logo design

6. Movie Industry

▪ Used in motion pictures, music videos, and television shows.

▪ Used in making of cartoon animation films

7. Computer Graphics is widely used in Game Industry and Image Processing.

Video Display Devices

◼ The primary output device in a graphical system is the video monitor.

And video monitors can be : (1) CRT monitors (2) flat panel devices (3) plasma devices (4) the
organic LEDs

The main element of a video monitor is the Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)

Types of CRT display

▪ Direct View Storage Tube or the DVST

▪ Random scan display system

▪ Refresh and raster scan display system

The concept of the cathode ray tube or CRT OR Working of the cathode ray tube or CRT
Heating filament

◼ On the left hand side of the CRT you have a heating filament which is responsible to heat up
the cathode element of the CRT and that is what generates the electrons.
◼ These e electron simply boils off from the cathode and it is guided by a set of devices which
are
◼ a control grid : The first stage controls the intensity
◼ a focusing anode : The second stage controls the focusing
◼ An accelerating anode: The third stage gives the speed or the acceleration.

1. Control grid
◼ When we observe a picture on a screen some part of the picture may be bright some pictures
may be dark. This brightness or darkness or illumination or the intensity on the screen is
basically controlled by the intensity of the beam which strikes a particular point on the screen.

◼ This intensity of the screen is controlled by controlling the intensity of the electron beam
which is coming out of the cathode. The electron beam consists of electrons which are
negatively charged. The control grid is a cylindrical device which is also negatively charged. It
is a high negative voltage which is applied to the control grid.

◼ So if you reduce the amount of voltage in the control grid it means the negative voltage is
reduced and you are allowing more electrons to pass through it where the intensity of the
beam will be higher and the amount of intensity on the screen will also be higher.

◼ Whereas if you increase the voltage of the control grid you are allowing fewer amounts of
electrons to pass through the intensity of the electron beam which is passing through the
control grid will now be less and you will have less brightness on the screen.

2. Focusing anode

◼ The focusing anode has positive voltage.

◼ The focusing anode is responsible to focus the beam on to a particular point on the screen.

◼ The focusing system concentrates the electron beam so it converges to small point when hits
the phosphor coating Accelerating anode

3. The accelerating anode

◼ The accelerating anode is necessary because we want the electrons to strike the screen at a
very high speed to emit light.

◼ It has a positive voltage.

◼ It allows the electrons to accelerate then leaves it towards the screen.

4. Horizontal deflection and Vertical deflections

◼ You not only need the beam to go and hit the centre of the screen to create a point but you
also need the beam to move all around this image if you want to create a picture. So you need
 horizontal deflection as well as vertical deflections of this electron beam so that you can cover
the entire screen.
◼ Basically the electron beam will be focused properly only at the centre of the screen. As the
beam moves to the outer edges of the screen, displayed images become blurred.

◼ There are two types of deflection mechanisms

◼ capacitive electrostatic mechanism

◼ electromagnetic using magnetic coils

◼ And this magnetic deflection coil generates a magnetic field which helps to divert this
magnetic or this electron beam on to any portion on the screen, on the phosphors coated
screen.

◼ The horizontal deflection plate is essentially are vertical through which the electron beam is
passing, assume this to be horizontal deflection plates which is essentially vertical.

◼ The vertical deflection plates are physically horizontal but it generates an electrostatic field
which is vertically oriented and that is the reason why this is responsible for the vertical
deflection of the electron.

So these two together helps you to position or divert the beam at any point on the phosphor
coated screen as you can see on the right hand side

5. CRT Screen

◼ When the electrons in the beam is collides with phosphor coating screen, they stopped and
their kinetic energy is absorbed by the phosphor.

◼ Then a part of beam energy is converted into heat energy and the remainder part causes the
electrons in the phosphor atom to move up to higher energy levels.

◼ After a short time the excited electrons come back to their ground state.

◼ During this period, we see a glowing spot that quickly fades after all excited electrons are
returned to their ground state.

Details of the phosphor coated Screen of CRT

◼ When the electrons in the beam collide with the phosphor coating, they are stopped and their
kinetic energy is absorbed by the phosphor.

◼ After a short time, the "excited phosphor electrons begin dropping back to their stable ground
state

◼ The frequency (or colour) of the light emitted by the phosphor is proportional to the energy
difference between the excited quantum state and the ground state.

◼ Different Kinds of phosphors are available for use in a CRT.

◼ Besides colour, a major difference between phosphors is their persistence: how long they
continue to emit light (that is, have excited electrons returning to the ground state) after the
CRT beam is removed.
◼ Lower persistence phosphors require higher refresh rates to maintain a picture on the screen
without flicker.

◼ A phosphor with low persistence is useful for animation.

◼ A high-persistence phosphor is useful for displaying highly complex, static pictures.

◼ The maximum number of points that can be displayed without overlap on a CRT is referred to
as the resolution.

◼ A more precise definition of resolution is the number of points per centimetre that can be
plotted horizontally and vertically, although it is often simply stated as the total number of
points in each direction.

Persistence: Persistence is defined as the time it takes the emitted light from the screen to decay
to one tenth of its original intensity.

Aspect ratio : This number gives the ratio of vertical points to horizontal points necessary to
produce equal-length lines in both directions on the screen

Resolution: The maximum number of points that can be displayed without overlap on a CRT is
referred to as the resolution. The sharpness of the image on a display depends on
the resolution and the size of the monitor.

Properties of video monitors

◼ Resolution:

◼ The maximum number of points that can be displayed without overlap on a CRT is referred to
as the resolution.

1) Resolution of a CRT is dependent on

▪ the type of phosphor

▪ the intensity to be displayed

▪ the focusing and deflection systems

2) Another property of video monitors is aspect ratio

▪ This number gives the ratio of vertical points to horizontal points necessary to
produce equal-length lines in both directions on the screen

▪ An aspect ratio of 3/4 means

▪ That a vertical line plotted with three points has the same length as a horizontal line
plotted with four points

Input Devices
1. Keyboard
◼ Keyboard helps to input data to the computer.

◼ Keyboards are of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102

◼ Types of keys :
▪ Typing Keys : These keys include the letter keys (A-Z) and digit keys (09) which
generally give the same layout as that of typewriters

▪ Numeric Keypad: It is used to enter the numeric data . Generally, it consists of a set
of 17 keys

▪ Function Keys: Each function key has a unique meaning and is used for some specific
purpose.

▪ Control keys : Control keys also include Home, End, Insert, Delete, Page Up, Page
Down, Control(Ctrl), Alternate(Alt), Escape(Esc).

▪ Special Purpose Keys : Keyboard also contains some special purpose keys such as
Enter, Shift, Caps Lock, Num Lock, Space bar, Tab, and Print Screen.

2. Mouse

◼ A mouse is small hand-held box used to position the screen cursor.

◼ Wheels or rollers on the bottom of the mouse can be used to record the amount and direction
of movement

◼ Generally, it has two buttons called the left and the right button and a wheel is present
between the buttons. A mouse can be used to control the position of the cursor on the screen,
but it cannot be used to enter text into the computer.

3. Joystick

◼ A joystick consists of a small, vertical stick mounted on a base that is used to control the screen
cursor around.

◼ Most joysticks select screen positions with actual stick movement; other respond to pressure
on the stick.

◼ Some joysticks are mounted on keyboard; others function as stand-alone units.

4. Data Glove

◼ Data glove that can be used to grasp a "virtual" object.

◼ The glove is constructed with a series of sensors that detect hand and finger motions

5. Digitizer

◼ Digitizer is an input device which converts analogy information into digital form.

◼ Digitizer can convert a signal from the television or camera into a series of numbers that could
be stored in a computer.

◼ They can be used by the computer to create a picture of whatever the camera had been
pointed at.
 6. Image Scanners

◼ Scanner is an input device, which works more like a photocopy machine.

◼ It is used when some information is available on paper and it is to be transferred to the hard
disk of the computer for further manipulation.

7. Touch Panels

◼ As the name implies, touch panels allow displayed objects or screen positions to be selected
with the touch of a finger

8. Light Pen

◼ Light pen is a pointing device similar to a pen.

◼ It is used to select a displayed menu item or draw pictures on the monitor screen.

Types of Displays in Computer Graphics

Raster-Scan Displays
◼ It based on television technology

◼ In a raster-scan system, the electron beam is swept across the screen, one row at a time from
top to bottom.

◼ As the electron beam moves across each row, the beam intensity is turned on and off to create
a pattern of illuminated spots.

◼ Picture definition is stored in a memory area called the refresh buffer or frame buffer. This
memory area holds the set of intensity values for all the screen points.

◼ Stored intensity values are then retrieved from the refresh buffer and "painted" on the screen
one row (scan line) at a time. Each screen point is referred to as a pixel or pel (picture
element).

◼ In a simple black-and-white system, each screen point is either on or off, so only one bit per
pixel is needed to control the intensity of screen positions. A bit value of 1 indicates that the
electron beam is to be turn on at that position, and a value of 0 indicates that the beam
intensity is to be off.

◼ Additional bits are needed when color and intensity variations can be displayed.

◼ Up to 24 bits per pixel are included in high-quality systems, which can require several
megabytes of storage for the frame buffer, depending on the resolution of the system

◼ A system with 24 bits per pixel and a screen resolution of 1024 by 1024 requires 3 megabytes
of storage for the frame buffer.

Bitmap and Pix map

◼ On a black-and-white system with one bit per pixel, the frame buffer is commonly called a
bitmap.

◼ For systems with multiple bits per pixel, the frame buffer is often referred to as a pixmap.
 ◼ Refreshing on raster-scan displays is carried out at the rate of 60 to 80 frames per second

◼ Sometimes, refresh rates are described in units of cycles per second, or Hertz (Hz). Using these
units, we would describe a refresh rate of 60 frames per second as simply 60 Hz.

◼ At the end of each scan line, the electron beam returns to the left side of the screen to begin
displaying the next scan line.

◼ The return to the left of the screen, after refreshing each scan line, is called the horizontal
retrace of the electron beam.

◼ And at the end of each frame (displayed in 1/80th to 1/60th of a second), the electron beam
returns to the top left comer of the screen to begin the next frame that is vertical retrace.

◼ On some raster-scan systems (and in TV sets), each frame is displayed in two passes using an
interlaced refresh procedure. (What is interlaced refresh?)

◼ In the first pass, the beam sweeps across every other scan line from top to bottom.

◼ Then after the vertical retrace, the beam sweeps out the remaining scan lines

Random-Scan Displays
◼ CRT has the electron beam directed only to the parts of the screen where a picture is to be
drawn in Random-Scan Displays vector displays (or stroke-writing or calligraphic displays)

◼ The component lines of a picture can be drawn and refreshed by a random-scan system in any
specified order
 ◼ Refresh rate on a random-scan system depends on the number of lines to be display

◼ Picture definition is now stored as a set of line drawing commands in an area of memory
referred as the refresh display file or display list or display program, or simply the refresh
buffer.

◼ Random-scan systems are designed for in line drawing applications and cannot display
realistic shaded scenes.

◼ Since picture definition is stored as a set of Line drawing instructions and not as a set of
intensity values for all screen points, vector displays generally have higher resolution than
raster systems

Color CRT Monitors

◼ A CRT monitor displays colour pictures by using a combination of phosphors that emit
different-colored light.

◼ The two basic techniques for producing colour displays with a CRT

▪ beam-penetration method

▪ shadow-mask method

1. Beam-penetration

◼ A beam of slow electrons excites only the outer red layer. A beam of very fast electrons
penetrates through the red layer and excites the inner green layer.
◼ At intermediate beam speeds, combinations of red and green light are emitted to show
two additional colors, orange and yellow.
◼ The speed of the electrons, and hence the screen colour at any point, is controlled by
the beam-acceleration voltage
◼ The beam-penetration method for displaying colour pictures has been used with
random-scan monitors
◼ Two layers of phosphor, usually red and green, are coated onto the inside of the CRT
screen displayed color depends on how far the electron beam penetrates into the
phosphor layers
 ◼ Beam penetration has been an inexpensive way to produce colour in random-scan
monitors, but only four colours are possible, and the quality of pictures is not as good as
with other methods.
2. Shadow-mask
◼ Methods are commonly used in raster scan systems
◼ A shadow-mask CRT has three phosphor colour dots at each pixel position
◼ One phosphor dot emits a red light, another emits a green light, and the third emits a
blue light
◼ This type of CRT has three electron guns, one for each colour dot, and a shadow-mask
grid just behind the phosphor-coated screen
◼ The three electron beams are deflected and focused as a group onto the shadow mask,
which contains a series of holes aligned with the phosphor-dot patterns.
◼ When the three beams pass through a hole in the shadow mask, they activate a dot
triangle, which appears as a small colour spot on the screen.

◼ We obtain colour variations in a shadow-mask CRT by varying the intensity levels of the
three electron beams
◼ Our eyes tend to merge the three colours into one composite.
◼ The colour we see depends on the amount of excitation of the red, green, and blue
phosphors

Direct-View Storage Tubes

◼ An alternative method for maintaining a screen image is to store the picture information
inside the CRT instead of refreshing the screen.
◼ A direct-view storage tube (DVST) stores the picture information as a charge distribution
just behind the phosphor-coated screen.
◼ Two electron guns are used in a DVST. One, the primary gun, is used to store the picture
pattern;
◼ The second, the flood gun, maintains the picture display.
 ◼ A DVST monitor has both disadvantages and advantages compared to the refresh CRT.
Because no refreshing is needed, very complex pictures can be displayed at very high
resolutions without flicker
◼ To eliminate a picture section, the entire screen must be erased and the modified
picture redrawn. The erasing and redrawing process can take several seconds for a
complex picture.
◼ For these reasons, storage displays have been largely replaced by raster systems

Advantage of DVST

◼ Refreshing of CRT is not required.

◼ Very complex pictures can be displayed at very high resolution without flicker.
◼ Flat screen.

Disadvantage of DVST

◼ They do not display color

◼ Erasing selective part of the screen cannot be possible.
◼ Cannot used for dynamic graphics application as on erasing it produce unpleasant flash
over entire screen.
◼ It has poor contrast

Flat-Panel Displays

Flat-panel display refers to a class of video devices that have reduced volume, weight, and
power requirements compared to a CRT.

We can separate flat-panel displays into two categories

1. The emissive displays (or emitters)

▪ They are devices that convert electrical energy into light.

▪ Plasma panels, thin-film displays, and Light-emitting diodes are examples of

emissive displays.

2. Non emissive displays (or non-emitters) use optical effects to convert sunlight or light from
some other source into graphics patterns.

▪ The most important example of emissive flat-panel display is a liquid-crystal

device.

Plasma panels
◼ Plasma panels, also called gas-discharge displays, are constructed by filling the region
between two glass plates with a mixture of gases that usually include neon.
 ◼ A series of vertical conducting ribbons is placed on one glass panel and a set of horizontal
ribbons is built into the other glass panel

◼ Firing voltages applied to a pair of horizontal and vertical conductors cause the gas at the
intersection of the two conductors to break down into a glowing plasma of electrons and ions.

◼ Separation between pixels is provided by the electric field of the conductors

Light-emitting diode (LED)

◼ A third type of emissive device is the light-emitting diode (LED).

◼ A matrix of diodes is arranged to form the pixel positions in the display, and picture definition
is stored in a refresh buffer.

◼ As a scan line refreshing of a CRT, information is read from the refresh buffer and converted
to voltage levels that are applied to the diodes to produce the light patterns in the display

Liquid crystal Display (LCDS)

◼ They are commonly used in small systems, such as calculators and portable laptops

◼ These non-emissive devices produce a picture by passing polarized light from the
surroundings or from an internal light source through a liquid-crystal material that can be used
to either block or transmit the light.

◼ The term liquid crystal refers to the fact that these compounds have a crystalline arrangement
of molecules, yet they flow like a liquid

◼ Two glass plates, each containing a light polarizer at right angles to the-other plate sandwich
the liquid-crystal material.

◼ Rows of horizontal transparent conductors are built into one glass plate, and columns of
vertical conductors are put into the other plate.

◼ The intersection of two conductors defines a pixel position.

◼ Polarized light passing through the material and the light is then back to the viewer

Advantages of LCD display

 ◼ Low cost.

◼ Low weight.

◼ Small size

◼ Low power consumption.

Three dimensional viewing devices

◼ The graphics monitor which are display three dimensional scenes are devised using a
technique that reflects a CRT image from a vibrating flexible mirror.

◼ Vibrating mirror changes its focal length due to vibration which is synchronized with the
display of an object on CRT.

◼ The each point on the object is reflected from the mirror into spatial position corresponding
to distance of that point from a viewing position.

◼ Very good example of this system is GENISCO SPACE GRAPH system, which use vibrating
mirror to project 3D objects into a 25 cm by 25 cm by 25 cm volume. This system is also
capable to show 2D cross section at different depth.

Application of 3D viewing devices

◼ In medical to analyze data from ultra-sonography.

◼ In geological to analyze topological and seismic data.

In designing like solid objects viewing and 3D viewing of objects

Picture definition: It holds the set of intensity values for all the screen points.

Bitmap: On a black-and-white system with one bit per pixel, the frame buffer is commonly called a bitmap.

Pix map: For systems with multiple bits per pixel, the frame buffer is often referred to as a pix map.

Horizontal retrace: At the end of each scan line, the electron beam returns to the left side of the screen to
begin displaying the next scan line. The return to the left of the screen is called the horizontal retrace of the
electron beam.
Vertical retrace: And at the end of each frame (displayed in 1/80th to 1/60th of a second), the electron beam
returns to the top left comer of the screen to begin the next frame that is vertical retrace.

Raster Scan and Random Scan System

Raster-Scan Systems

◼ The video controller or display controller, is used to control the operation of the display device

◼ The frame buffer can be anywhere in the system memory, and the video controller accesses
the frame buffer to refresh the screen.

◼ A fixed area of the system memory is reserved for the frame buffer, and the video controller
is given direct access to the frame-buffer memory.

◼ More sophisticated raster systems employ other processors as coprocessors and accelerators
to implement various graphics operations

◼ Frame buffer locations, and the corresponding screen positions, are referenced in Cartesian
coordinates

◼ For many graphics monitors, the coordinate origin is defined at the lower left screen corner.

Basic refresh operation of video controller

 ◼ The screen surface is then represented as a two-dimensional system, with positive x values
increasing to the right and positive y values increasing from bottom to top.

◼ Two registers are used to store the coordinates of the screen pixels.

◼ Initially, the x register is set to 0 and the y register is set to y max

◼ The value stored in the frame buffer for this pixel position is then retrieved and used to set
the intensity of the CRT beam

◼ Then the x register is incremented by 1, and the process repeated for the next pixel on the
top scan line.

◼ This procedure is repeated for each pixel along the scan line.

◼ After the last pixel on the top scan line has been processed, the x register is reset to 0 and the
y register is decremented by 1.

◼ A number of other operations can be performed by the video controller, besides the basic
refreshing operations.

◼ In high quality systems, for example, two frame buffers are often provided so that one buffer
can be used for refreshing while the other is being filled with intensity values.

◼ To speed up pixel processing, video controllers can retrieve multiple pixel values from the
refresh buffer on each pass.

◼ In addition, the video controller often contains a lookup table, so that pixel values in the frame
buffer are used to access the lookup table instead of controlling the CRT beam intensity
directly

Raster-Scan Display Processor

◼ The purpose of the display processor is to free the CPU from the graphics activates.

◼ In addition to the system memory, a separate display processor memory area can also be
provided.

◼ A major task of the display processor is digitizing a picture definition given in an application
program into a set of pixel-intensity values for storage in the frame buffer.

◼ This digitization process is called scan conversion.

 ◼ Scan converting a straight-line segment, for example, means that we have to locate the pixel
positions closest to the line path positions and store the intensity for each position in the
frame buffer

◼ A character grid is displayed by rectangular grid pattern into the frame buffer at a specified
coordinate position.

◼ Character shapes are scan converted into the frame buffer

◼ Display processors are also designed to perform a number of additional operations.

◼ These functions include

◼ Generating various line styles (dashed, dotted or solid),

◼ Displaying color areas

◼ Performing certain transformations

◼ Manipulations on displayed objects

◼ Reduce memory requirements in raster systems, methods have been devised for organizing
the frame buffer as a linked list and encoding the intensity information.

◼ One way to do this is to store each scan line as a set of integer pairs.

◼ One number of each pair indicates an intensity value, and the second number specifies the
number of adjacent pixels on the scan line that are to have that intensity .This technique,
called run-length encoding

Random-Scan Systems

◼ An application program is input and stored in the system memory along with a graphics
package.

◼ Graphics commands in the application program are translated by the graphics package into a
display file stored in the system memory.

◼ This display file is then accessed by the display processor to refresh the screen.
 ◼ Sometimes the display processor in a random-scan system is referred to as a display
processing unit or a graphics controller.

◼ Graphics patterns are drawn on a random-scan system by directing the electron beam along
the component lines of the picture.

◼ Lines are defined by the values for their coordinate endpoints, and these input coordinate
values are converted to x and y deflection voltages.

◼ A scene is then drawn one line at a time by positioning the beam to fill in the line between
specified endpoints.

Raster Scan System Random Scan System

Resolution It has poor or less Resolution because It has High Resolution because it stores
picture definition is stored as an intensity picture definition as a set of line commands.
value.

Electron- Electron Beam is directed from top to Electron Beam is directed to only that part of
Beam bottom and one row at a time on screen, screen where picture is required to be drawn,
but electron beam is directed to whole one line at a time so also called Vector
screen. Display.

Cost It is less expensive than Random Scan It is Costlier than Raster Scan System.
System.

Refresh Refresh rate is 60 to 80 frames per Refresh Rate depends on the number of lines
Rate second. to be displayed i.e 30 to 60 times per second.

Picture It Stores picture definition in Refresh It Stores picture definition as a set of line
Definition Buffer also called Frame Buffer. commands called Refresh Display File.

Line Zig – Zag line is produced because plotted Smooth line is produced because directly the
Drawing value is discrete. line path is followed by electron beam.

Realism in It contains shadow, advance shading and It does not contain shadow and hidden
display hidden surface technique so gives surface technique so it cannot give realistic
the realistic display of scenes. display of scenes.
 Image It uses Pixels along scan lines for drawing It is designed for line drawing applications and
Drawing an image. uses various mathematical functions to draw.

Computer Graphics packages and standards

◼ A programmer needs a certain set of rules, constraints, procedures, syntax and function cause
within his programming environment to build a graphic system.

◼ If every person comes up with his own different type of syntax, formats and function, then
when you design a system nobody else will be able to use your system and build another
system on top of it so we need to talk of standards.

◼ ISO(International Standards Organization) and ANSI (American National Standards Institute

)came up with the first standard of the Graphic Kernel System and it was very popular till it
was probably replaced for a very short while by SRGP or Simple Raster Graphics Package as it
is called.

◼ SRGP (Simple Raster Graphics Package) was very simple but was soon replaced by the
standard called PHIGS Programmers Hierarchical Interactive Graphics Standard

◼ The next was OpenGL

◼ OpenGL graphics available on almost all system of Windows and Linux which are the most
popular system used all over the world in industry as well as in educational institutions

List of Computer Graphics packages and standards

◼ Core

◼ GKS (Graphic kernel System)

◼ GKS 3d

◼ PHIGS

◼ CGM Computer Graphic Metafile

◼ OpenGL

So most compilers starting from the current visual CC plus plus visual basic, turbo C Pascal, even
new CC in Linux and java provide their own graphics libraries, API or Application programming
environment to support and help for programming for both 2D as well as in 3D graphics.

You have to ensure that the proper operating systems, the proper compilers and the proper
libraries and APIs are all installed for your use to help you to design the computer graphic system.