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 MODERN POWER
STATION PRACTICE
SECOND REVISED AND ENLARGED EDITION

VOLUME 6

INSTRUMENTATION, CONTROLS AND TESTING

Published for and on behalf of the

CENTRAL ELECTRICITY GENERATING BOARD
BY

PERGAMON PRESS
OXFORD. NEW YORK. TORONTO
SYDNEY . BRAUNSCHWEIG
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 CONTENTS

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xvii

:hapter 1. Boiler and Turbine Instrumentation
1.1. Introduction
1.2. Fuel Measurement 2
1.2.1. Weighbridges 2
1.2.2. Coal Weighing for Stations with 500 MW Units 2
1.2.2.1. Weighing Mechanism 3
1.2.2.2. Accuracy of Weighing 3
1.2.3. Mechanical-type Belt Weighers 3
1.204. Electromechanical-type Belt Weighers 7
1.2.5. Strain-gauge Load-cell Weighers 9
1.2.6. Calibration of Belt Weighers 9
1.3. General Scope of Instrumentation 12
1.3 .1. Positioning of Sensing Elements 12
1.3.2. Measurements on Boiler Plant 12
1.3.3. Measurements on Turbo-generator Plant 14
1.3A. Measurements on Nuclear Reactors 16
1.3.5. Signal Channels 18
104. Pressure Measurement 18
1.4.1. Basic Methods and Precautions 18
104.2. Manometers and Vacuum Gauges 20
104.3. Capsules, Bellows and Diaphragm Gauges 22
1.4.3.1. Capsule Gauges 24
1.4.3.2. Bellows Gauges 25
1.4.3.3. Diaphragm Gauges 26
10404. The Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge 27
1.4.5. Pressure Transducers 30
1.4.5.1. Diaphragm or Linear Motion Transducers 30
1.4.5.2. Strain Gauge Transducers 32
104.5.3. Variable Inductance Transducers 36
] 04.6. Accuracy and Calibration 36
1.4.6.1. Accuracy 36
104.6.2. Calibration 38
1.5. Temperature Measurement 38
1.5. I. Thermometers and Thermometer Pockets 38
1.5.1.1. Temperature Scales 38
1.5.1.2. Thermometer Pockets 38
1.5.1.3. Time Lags due to Thermometer Pockets 42
1.5.2. Glass Thermometers 43
1.5.3. Expansion Thermometers 47
1.5.3.1. Mercury-in-steel Thermometers 47
1.5.3.2. Vapour Pressure Thermometers 47
1.5.3.3. Gas Thermometers 49
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 CONTENTS vii

1.8.7. Hydrogen Measurement 129

1.8.8. Silicometer 129
1.8.9. Autoanalysers 129
1.8.10. Oil-in-water Contamination Meter 131
1.9. Generator Coolant Controls and Instruments 131
1.9.1. Coolant Requirements 131
1.9.2. Seal-oil System 133
1.9.3. Hydrogen Gas System 133
1.9.4. Hydrogen Purity Indicator 134
1.9.5. Stator Coolant Controls and Instruments 134
1.9.6. Generator Temperature Indicators 134
1.10. Instrument Maintenance 135
1.10.1. Effect on Plant Operation 135
1.10.2. Routine Maintenance 136
1.10.3. Instrument Maintenance Records 136
1.10.4. Workshop 137
1.10.5. Calibration Equipment 138
Bibliography 139
Exercises 139

Chapter 2. Electrical Instrumentation and Metering 141

2.1. General Introduction 141

2.1.1. Electrical Instruments Used by C.E.G.B. 141
2.1.2. Instruments and Meters Required 142
2.1.3. Units of Measurement 150
2.1.3.1. Absolute Measurement of Resistance 152
2.1.3.2. Absolute Measurement of Current 153
2.1.3.3. Measurement of Voltage 153
2.1.4. Laboratory Standards 155
2.1.4.1. Standard Cells 155
2.1.4.2. Standard Shunts 155
2.1.4.3. Voltage Divider Box 156
2.1.4.4. Suspended Coil Galvanometer 156
2.1.4.5. Vibration Galvanometer 158
2.1.4.6. D.C. Potentiometers 159
2.1.4.7. A.C. Potentiometers 161
2.1.5. Principles of Electrical Instrument Design 163
2.1.5.1. Moving-coil Instruments 165
2.1.5.2. Moving-iron Instruments 166
2.1.5.3. Dynamometer Ammeters and Voltmeters 168
2.1.5.4. Dynamometer Wattmeters 169
2.1.5.5. Induction Ammeter and Voltmeter 170
2.1.5.6. Induction Wattmeter 170
2.1.5.7. Thermal Instruments 172
2.1.5.8. Electrostatic Instruments 172
2.1.6. Constructional Features of Electrical Instruments 172
2.1.6.1. Damping 173
2.1.6.2. Restoring Torque 174
2.1.6.3. Balancing of Movement 174
2.1.6.4. Zero Adjustment 174
2.1.6.5. Instrument Pivots and Bearings 175
2.1.6.6. Taut Band and Pivotless Suspensions 175
2.1.6.7. Rotor Bearings of Integrating Meters 176
2.1.6.8. Magnetically Suspended Bearings (Integrating Meters) 178
2.1.6.9. Permanent Magnets 179
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 CONTENTS IX

2.4.8. Electromagnetic Oscillograph 305

2.4.9. Ultraviolet Recording Oscillograph 306
2.4.10. Cathode Ray Oscilloscope 307
2.5. Data Logging and Analysis 308
2.5.1. Landis and Gyr Coder 310
2.5.2. Landis and Gyr Punched-tape Recorder 311
2.5.3. Ferranti Punched-tape Recorder 313
2.5.4. Magnetic Film Recording 318
2.5.5. Telemetering of Bulk Supply Data 318
Bibliography 321
Exercises 321

Chapter 3. Plant Testing 323

3.1. Measurements for Testing 323

3.1.1. The Necessity for Accurate Measurement 323
3.1.2. The Measuring Device 324
3.1.3. The Man-His Approach 324
3.1.4. The Method-Precision 325
3.2. Fuel Measurement 325
3.2.1. Coal Flow-Avery and Simon Weighers 325
3.2.2. Coal Stock Survey 326
3.2.3. Oil Flow-Volumetric 327
3.2.4. Oil Flow- Turbine-type Flow Meter 327
3.2.5. Calorific Value 329

3.3. Water Flow Measurement 329

3.3.1. Methods of Flow Measurement 331
3.3.2. Orifice Plates 331
3.3.3. Venturi Tubes 331
3.3.4. Manometers 333
3.3.5. Calibration of Condensate Flow Equipment 335
3.3.6. Measurement of Circulating Water Flow 336
3.3.6.1. The Condenser Heat Balance Method 337
3.3.6.2. The Pitot Tube 337
3.3.6.3. Current Meters 339
3.3.6.4. Radioactive Isotopes 340
3.3.6.5. Weirs and Venturi Flumes 343
3.3.6.6. Use of Pipe Bends 344
3.3.6.7. Other Possible Methods 344
3.3.7. Turbine-type Flow Meters 347
3.4. Pressure Measurement 349
3.4.1. Bourdon Tube Gauge 349
3.4.2. Pressure Transducers 350
3.4.3. Deadweight Gauges 352
3.4.4. Mercury Columns 353
3.4.5. Calibration 354
3.5. Temperature Measurement 355
3.5.1. Mercury-in-glass Thermometers 355
3.5.2. Thermocouples and Potentiometers 355
3.5.3. Resistance Thermometers and Bridges 357
3.5.4. Errors in Temperature Measurement 358
3.5.5. Small Temperature Differences 358
3.5.6. Calibration 361
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 CONTENTS Xl

3.12. Overall Station Performance 435

3.12.1. Main Plant Efficiency 435
3.12.2. Stray Losses in Auxiliary Plant 438
3.12.3. Routine Testing and Order of Merit 438
Bibliography 439
Exercises 439

Chapter 4. Control Systems 441

4.1. Introduction 441
4.2. Control Engineering and Terminology 442
4.2.1. Explanation of Terms 442
4.2.2. Process Control and Time Lags 442
4.2.2.1. Process and Measurement Lags 442
4.2.2.2. Time Lags in Transmitting the Signal 444
4.2.3. Open Loop and Closed Loop 445
4.2.4. Feedback and Gain 446
4.2.5. Control System and Transfer Function 448
4.2.6. Control Action and Modes of Control 451
4.3. Control System Characteristics 454
4.3.1. Stability of a Control System 454
4.3.2. Frequency Response Analysis 454
4.3.3. Nyquist Criterion of Stability 457
4.3.4. Performance of Plant Control Systems 459
4.4. Automatic Control Equipment 462
4.4.1. Methods of Actuation 462
4.4.2. Pneumatic Control Systems 462
4.4.2.1. Supply of Compressed Air 462
4.4.2.2. Basic Pneumatic Control Action 463
4.4.3. Pneumatic Control Theory 465
4.4.4. Pneumatic Controllers 467
4.4.4.1. Proportional Control 468
4.4.4.2. Proportional Plus Integral Control 469
4.4.4.3. Derivative Control 470
4.4.5. Pneumatic-Electronic Control Systems 471
4.4.6. Electrical Supply for Electronic Control Equipment 471
4.4.7. Electrical Signals and Interference 473
4.4.7.1. Types of Electrical Interference 473
4.4.7.2. Electrical Signal Lines 474
4.4.8. Electronic Systems of Automatic Control 475
4.4.8.1. Signal Amplifiers 475
4.4.8.2. Three-term Electronic Controllers 477
4.4.8.3. Electrical Signal Transmitters 481
4.4.9. Actuators and Positioners 485
4.5. Automatic Boiler Control 485
4.5.1. Combustion Efficiency 485
4.5.2. Excess Air 488
4.5.3. Firing Requirements Due to Load Change 490
4.5.4. Steam Flow-Air Flow Control 490
4.5.5. Fuel Flow-Air Flow Control 492
4.5.6. Pulverised Fuel Mill Control 492
4.5.6.1. Control Loop for Vertical Spindle-type Mill (Pressure) 493
4.5.6.2. Control Loop for Vertical Spindle-type Mill (Suction) 494
4.5.6.3. Control Loops for Horizontal-type Tube Ball Mills (Suction and
Pressure) 495
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!-

CONTENTS xiii

4.9.7. Control Room and Panel Layout 555

4.9.7.1. Control Room 556
4.9.7.2. Vertical Panels 557
4.9.7.3. Central Control Desk 557
4.9.8. Control Rooms in Nuclear Stations 558
4.9.8.1. Control Scheme at Sizewell 558
4.9.8.2. Control Scheme at Oldbury 559
4.9.8.3. Control Scheme at Wylfa 560
4.9.9. Location of Control Rooms 562
4.9.10. Safety and Availability Criteria 565
Bibliography 565
Exercises 566

Chapter 5. Automation, Data Loggers and Computers 567

5.1. Introduction 567

5.1.1. Glossary of Terms 569
5.1.2. Automation 569

5.2. Plant Control Equipment 569

5.2.1. Boiler-Turbine Unit Start-up 569
5.2.2. Turbine Run-up Equipment 575
5.2.2.1. ACTRUS (A.E.!.) 575
5.2.2.2. CAPAC (C.A. Parsons) 580
5.2.2.3. Group Sequence (G.E.C.) 585
5.2.2.4. Auto-follow and Nozzle-pressure Schemes (E.E. Co.) 589
5.2.2.5. Relays and Logic Circuits 593
5.2.3. Sequence Control Schemes 594
5.2.3.1. Need for Sequence Control 594
5.2.3.2. Main Features of Sequence Control 594
5.2.3.3. The Long Sequence Control Scheme Used at Tilbury B 595
5.2.3.4. Short Sequence Control Scheme 598

5.3. Data Loggers 602

5.3.1. Input Scanner 605
5.3.1.1. Rotary Selector Switches 607
5.3.1.2. Relays 607
5.3.1.3. Transistor Switches 608
5.3.1.4. Scanner Drive Circuits 610
5.3.2. Input Signals 610
5.3.2.1. Electrical Interference 612
5.3.3. Signal Amplifier 613
5.3.3.1. Gain and Drift 613
5.3.3.2. Common Mode Rejection 616
5.3.4. Analogue-to-digital Converter 618
5.3.4.1. Stepping Analogue-to-digital Converter 618
5.3.4.2. Counting Analogue-to-digital Converter 619
5.3.5. Recorders 620
5.3.5.1. Output Printers 620
5.3.5.2. Tape Digital Recording 623
5.3.6. Programmer 627
5.3.7. Digital Voltmeters 629
5.3.8. Automatic Data Logging Installations 632
5.3.8.1. Data Loggers for Nos. 5 and 6 Units at Northfleet 633
5.3.8.2. Data Logging System at Cottam 636
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 CONTENTS xv

5.7.1.4. Control Switches 731

5.7.1.5. Changeover 732
5.7.1.6. Control Loops 735
5.7.2. Process Analysis 735
5.7.3. On-line Computer Control 737
5.7.3.1. Control Programs 738
5.7.3.2. Fault Programs 747
5.7.3.3. Cyclic Scanning Programs 749
5.7.3.4. Calculation Programs 749
5.7.4. Direct Digital Control 752

759
5.8. Special Equipment
5.8.1. South-Western Region Experiment in Automatic Load Dispatching 759
5.8.2. Further Work on Remote Station Control 760
761
5.9. Future Developments
Bibliography 761

Exercises 762

Contents of Volumes 1-8 763

 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

FIG. 1.2.2. Railborne coal automatic discharge and weighing area between 2/3
FIG. 1.2.2.lA. Lever system for a 60 ton weighbridge (Reproduced by kind permission
of W. & T. Avery Ltd.) 4
FIG. 1.2.2.lB. Line diagram of a 60 ton weighbridge 5
FIG. 1.2.2.lc. Verge and knife-edge assembly 5
FIG. 1.2.3A. Multiple idler weigh-length-type belt weigher (Reproduced by kind
permission of Ashworth Ross & Co. Ltd.) 6
FIG. 1.2.3B. Diagram of mechanism of Denison belt weigher 7
FIG. 1.2.4. Diagram of "electro-weigher" continuous weighing equipment 8
FIG. 1.2.5A. Section through a load cell (Reproduced by kind permission of
Ether Ltd.) 10
FIG. 1.2.5B. Application of load cells to belt weighers (Reproduced by kind per-
mission of Elliott Bros. (London) Ltd.) 11
FIG. 1.3.2. Location of measuring points for a 500 MW boiler plant 13
FIG. 1.3.3. Location of measuring points for a 500 MW turbo-generator plant 15
FIG. 1.3.4. Diagrammatic arrangement of the Magnox reactor to illustrate tem-
perature measurement 17
FIG. 1.4.2A. V-tube manometer 21
FIG. 1.4.2B. Scale for V-tube manometer 21
FIG. 1.4.2c. Illustrating parallax when reading meniscus 22
FIG. 1.4.2D. Single-column manometer 22
FIG. 1.4.2E. The inclined tube manometer 22
FIG. 1.4.2F. Absolute vacuum gauge 23
FIG. 1.4.2G. Ring balance gauge 23
FIG. 1.4.3.lA. Elementary capsule 25
FIG. 1.4.3.lB. Draught gauge using capsule stack 25
FIG. 1.4.3.2A. A bellows element 26
FIG. 1.4.3.2B. Bellows-operated differential pressure element 26
FIG. 1.4.3.3. Schaffer diaphragm gauges (Reproduced by kind permission of
Budenberg Gauge Co. Ltd.) 27
FIG. 1.4.4A. A typical arrangement of Bourdon tube (Reproduced by kind per-
mission of Budenberg Gauge Co. Ltd.) 28
FIG. 1.4.4B. Diagrammatic representation of Bourdon tube 29
FIG. 1.4.4c. Open and closed hysteresis loops of Bourdon tube 29
FIG. 1.4.5.lA. Transducer with d.c~ potentiometer 31
2 xvii
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 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS XIX

FIG. 1.6.2B. Net pressure loss for different flow sensing elements (Reproduced by
kind permission of the British Standards Institution) 72
FIG. 1.6.2.1A. Orifice plate with corner tapping (Reproduced by kind permission of
the British Standards Institution) 73
FIG. 1.6.2.1B. Orifice plate with D and D/2 tappings (Reproduced by kind permission
of the British Standards Institution) 73
FIG. 1.6.2.2A. Examples of constructional arrangement of a nozzle (Reproduced by
kind permission of the British Standards Institution) 75
FIG. 1.6.2.2B. Lagging for pressure tappings 75
FIG. 1.6.2.3. Venturi tube (Reproduced by kind permission of the British Standards
Institution) 76
FIG. 1.6.2.4A. Throat design of a Dall tube (Reproduced by kind permission of Kent
Instruments Ltd.) 77
FIG. 1.6.2.4B. Ratio between Dall tube and Venturi tube pressure differences 78
FIG. 1.6.3A. Coefficients and correction factors for Venturi tubes (Reproduced by
kind permission of the British Standards Institution) 79
FIG. 1.6.3B. Installation of pressure difference elements (Reproduced by kind per-
mission of the British Standards Institution) 82
FIG. 1.6.5A. Cross-section of bell chamber of mercury manometer 84
FIG. 1.6.5B. Electrical method of square-root extraction 85
FIG. 1.6.6.2A. Rotary shunt type of water flow meter (Reproduced by kind permission
of Kent Instruments Ltd.) 86
FIG. 1.6.6.2B. Rotating vortex flow meter (Reproduced by kind permission of Rontron
Controls Inc.) 87
FIG. 1.6.7.2. Diagram of typical flow meter calibration system 89
FIG. 1.7.1A. Instrument shapes and patterns 91
FIG. 1.7.1B. Turbine-generator control panel at West Burton power station 92
FIG. 1.7.2A. Circuit diagrams for recording instruments 94
FIG. 1.7.2B. Arrangement of a typical electronic recorder 95
FIG. 1.7.3A. Errors in boiler water-level gauge readings 96
FIG. 1.7.3B. Remote-indicating boiler water-level manometer 97
FIG.1.7.3c. Manometric water-level controls 98
FIG. 1.7.4. Closed-circuit television schemes for boiler water level 100
FIG. 1.7.5.3. Paramagnetic oxygen meter 103
FIG. 1.7.5.4. Chromatographic analyser 105
FIG. 1.7.6.1. Facsimile of Ringlemann chart 107
FIG. 1.7.6.2A. Effect of differing optical path lengths 108
FIG. 1.7.6.2B. Optical-type smoke meter 109
FIG. 1.7.6.3. Application of "everclean" window to optical-type smoke meter 110
FIG. 1.7.7.2. Three types of dust monitors (1966) 111
FIG. 1.7.7.3A. Simplified C.E.R.L. dust monitor 113
FIG. 1.7.7.3B. SEROP dust monitor 114
FIG. 1.7.7.3c. FORDUST reflected light dust monitor 115
FIG. 1.7.8A. Hopper-level detector using capacitance probe 116
2*
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 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS XXI

FIG. 2.1.7.7A. Cross-section showing platform scale 186

FIG.2.1.7.7B. Front appearance of typical ammeter (Reproduced by kind permission
of Ferranti Ltd.) 186
FIG.2.1.8.IA. Exploded view of parts of moving-coil ammeter (Reproduced by kind
permission of Nalder Bros. & Thompson Ltd.) 188
FIG.2.1.8.IB. Rectifier-operated moving-coil instrument (Reproduced by kind per-
mission of Nalder Bros. & Thompson Ltd.) 189
FIG. 2.1.8.2A. Repulsion-attraction-type moving-iron ammeter 190
FIG. 2.1.8.2B. Development of vanes 190
FIG. 2.1.8.3A. Exploded view of parts for ferro-dynamic wattmeter (Reproduced by
kind permission of Nalder Bros. & Thompson Ltd.) 191
FIG. 2.1.8.3B. Interior of iron-cored dynamometer wattmeter (Reproduced by kind
permission of Crompton Parkinson Ltd.) 192
FIG.2.1.8.3c. Switchboard-type induction wattmeter (Reproduced by kind permis-
sion of Crompton Parkinson Ltd.) 193
FIG.2.1.8.3D. Connection of wattmeter /varmeter 193
FIG. 2.1.8.4A. Front view of vector meter (Reproduced by kind permission of Nalder
Bros. & Thompson Ltd.) 195
FIG. 2.1.8.4B. Vector meter scale with stability curve 196
FIG. 2.1.8.4c. Vector meter-induction element 196
FIG.2.1.8.4D. Principle of straight-line movement 197
FIG. 2.1.8.4£. Vector meter scale and movement (Reproduced by kind permission
,j of Nalder Bros. & Thompson Ltd.) 197
j

i FIG.2.1.8.5A. Frequency indicator resonant circuit 199

1 FIG. 2.1.8.5B. Honeywell frequency indicator scale (Reproduced by kind permission
of Honeywell Controls Ltd.) 199
FIG. 2.1.8.5c. Pulsing circuit for frequency indicator (Reproduced by kind permis-
sion of Honeywell Controls Ltd.) 200
FIG. 2.1.8.5D. Servo-balance circuit for frequency recorder (Reproduced by kind
permission of Honeywell Controls Ltd.) 200
FIG. 2.1.8.6A. Synchroscope movement 202
FIG. 2.1.8.6B. Front appearance of synchroscope (Reproduced by kind permission
of G.E.C. Measurements Ltd.) 202
FIG. 2.1.8.7. Recorder chart mechanism 203
FIG. 2.1.8.8A. Circuit of potentiometric recorder (Reproduced by kind permission
of Evershed & Vignoles) 204
FIG. 2.1.8.8B. Power amplifier and motor circuit 205
FIG. 2.1.8.8c. Potentiometric recorder (Honeywell) (Reproduced by kind permis-
sion of Honeywell Controls Ltd.) 206
FIG. 2.1.8.9A. Tap position indicator connections 207
FIG.2.1.8.9B. Typical tap position indicator scale 207
FIG.2.1.8.10A. Diagram of winding temperature indicator (Reproduced by kind
permission of Ward Brook & Co.) 209
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J
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS XXlll

FIG. 2.3.5.2c. Ferranti electronic summator circuit (Reproduced by kind permission

of Ferranti Ltd.) 245
FIG. 2.3.5.20. Operation of stepping motor (Reproduced by kind permission of A.E.!.) 247
FIG. 2.3.5.2E. Illustration of Ferranti electronic summator (Reproduced by kind per-
mission of Ferranti Ltd.) 247
FIG. 2.3.5.3A. Logic arrangement of two-channel summator 249
FIG. 2.3.5.3B. Logic arrangement of a single channel 249
FIG. 2.3.5.3c. Subtraction unit 250
FIG. 2.3.5.30. A.E.!. eight-channel summator 250
FIG. 2.3.5.3E. Contactless transmitter 251
FIG. 2.3.6A. Ferranti demand recorder (Reproduced by kind permission of Fer-
ranti Ltd.) 253
FIG. 2.3.6B. Maxiprint demand recorder (Reproduced by kind permission of
Landis & Gyr Ltd.) 254
FIG. 2.3.6c. Maxiprint mechanism (Reproduced by kind permission of Landis &
Gyr Ltd.) 255
FIG. 2.3.60. Operating circuit of Ferranti demand recorder 257
FIG. 2.3.7. Synchronome master clock mechanism (Reproduced by kind permis-
sion of Synchronome Ltd.) 258
FIG. 2.3.8. Differential timing device 259
FIG. 2.3.9A. Feeder flow meter (Reproduced by kind permission of Ferranti Ltd.) 261
FIG. 2.3.9B. Diagram of connections of combined feeder flow and inter-area meter-
ing (Reproduced by kind permission of Ferranti Ltd.) 262
FIG. 2.3.9.1. Principle of remote indicating telemeter 264
FIG. 2.3.9.4. Rotating frequency meter (Reproduced by kind permission of Elliott
Bros. (London) Ltd.) 266
FIG.2.3.lOA. Vector diagram of current transformer 267
FIG.2.3.lOB. Errors of a CT at various currents 268
FIG.2.3.lOc. Effect of variation in secondary burden (Reproduced by kind per-
mission of Elliott Bros. (London) Ltd.) 268
FIG. 2.3.100. Effect of variation in secondary power factor of a current transformer 269
FIG.2.3.lOE. Types of current transformer 270
FIG. 2.3.lOF. 15,000 amp current transformer (Reproduced by kind permission of
A.E.!.) 271
FIG.2.3.10G. Generator neutral end current transformers (Reproduced by kind
permission of A.E.!.) 272
FIG.2.3.lOH. Flux equalising winding in a current transformer 273
FIG.2.3.lOJ. Oil-insulated 400 kV current transformer (Reproduced by kind
permission of Reyrolle & Co. Ltd.) . 274
FIG. 2.3.10K. Gas-insulated 400 kV current transformer (Reproduced by kind per-
mission of Reyrolle & Co. Ltd.) 274
FIG.2.3.11A. Vector diagram for voltage transformer 276
FIG.2.3.11B. Effect of secondary burden on accuracy of voltage transformer 277
FIG.2.3.11c. Variation of accuracy with secondary p.f. of voltage transformer 277
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 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xxv

FIG. 3.3.5B. A diagram of timer switching at Hams Hall 336

FIG. 3.3.6.2. The pitometer used for fluid velocity traverse 338
FIG. 3.3.6.3. Application of current meters to measurement of water flow 339
FIG. 3.3.604A. Radio-isotope dilution method of flow measurement 340
FIG. 3.3.604B. Radio-isotope velocity method of flow measurement 341
FIG. 3.3.6.5A. Venturi flume method of flow measurement 343
FIG. 3.3.6.5B. Weir method of flow measurement 343
FIG. 3.3.6.6. Pipe-bend method of flow measurement 345
FIG. 3.3.7A. Turbine-type flow meter fitted with sealed ball-bearings 347
FIG.3.3.7B. Electrical connections for turbine-type flow meter 348
FIG. 304.2A. Internal construction of an unbonded strain gauge transducer 351
FIG. 3.4.2B. Calibration change of differential transducers 352
FIG. 304.3A. Dead weight type spinning gauge 352
FIG. 304.3B. Dead weight type spinning gauge for precision measurement 353
FIG. 30404. Precision mercury column 354
FIG. 3.5.2A. Portable d.c. potentiometer (Reproduced by kind permission of
Croydon Precision Instrument Co.) 356
FIG. 3.5.2B. Thermocouple selector switch (Reproduced by kind permission of
Croydon Precision Instrument Co.) 356
FIG. 3.5.5A. Electrical connections for differential resistance thermometer 359
FIG. 3.5.5B. Resistance thermometer bridge-detail of scale (Reproduced by kind
permission of Foster Instrument Co. Ltd.) 360
FIG. 3.5.5c. Multi-range thermistor bridge-electrical connections 361
FIG. 3.7.2A. Explanatory diagram of pulverised fuel sampler 372
FIG. 3.7.2B. Flow diagram and valve settings for pulverised fuel sampler 373
FIG. 3.7.3. Automatic dust sampler 375
FIG. 3.7.5. Suction pyrometer (Reproduced by kind permission of Foster
Instrument Co. Ltd.) 377
FIG. 3.8.2. Induced draught fan characteristics 379
FIG. 3.8.3A. A range of fineness of coal grinding 380
FIG. 3.8.3B. Typical variation in combustible in refuse with p.f. fineness 381
FIG. 3.9.2. Connection diagram for the two-wattmeter method of power measure-
ment 386
FIG. 3.9.3A. Isolation diagram for small non-reheat turbine 388
FIG. 3.9.3B. Isolation diagram for 120 MW unit reheat turbine 389
FIG. 3.9.5. Test measurement points for 500 MW turbo-generator 392
FIG. 3.9.6A. Turbine heat rate correction curves for 60 MW non-reheat turbo-
generator 394
FIG. 3.9.6B. Turbine heat rate correction curves for reheat 200 MW turbo-gene-
rator 395
FIG. 3.10.1. Part of Mollier chart for turbine cylinder efficiency determination 399
FIG.3.1004A. Vacuum grid for 120 MW machine 403
FIG. 3.1Oo4B. Vane-type tappings for condenser vacuum measurement 404
FIG.3.1004c. Condenser performance curves 406
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SNOUY~USflTII dO ~sn IAXX
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS XXVll

FIG. 4.3.2D. Low frequency transfer function analyser (Reproduced by kind per-
mission of Smiths Industries Ltd.) 457
FIG.4.3.3A. Nyquist diagram for a system specified by a second-order differential
equation, i.e. ()o/(ei- eo) = KG/(l +pT1) (1 + pT2) 458
FIG. 4.3.3B. Extraction of closed-loop data from a Nyquist diagram 458
FIG. 4.3.4A. Nyquist diagram specified by a third-order differential equation, i.e.
eO/(ei- eo) = KG/(l +pK1)(1 + pT2) pT3 459
FIG. 4.3.4B. Reaction curves 460
FIG. 4.4.2.2A. Basic pneumatic control relay 463
FIG. 4.4.2.2B. Pneumatic relay characteristic 464
FIG. 4.4.3A. Proportional control relay 465
FIG. 4.4.3B. Proportional + integral control relay 466
FIG. 4.4.3c. Proportional + derivative control relay 467
FIG. 4.4.4.1. Propo'rtional controller 468
FIG. 4.4.4.2. Proportional + integral controller 469
FIG. 4.4.4.3. Proportional + integral + derivative controller (three-term controller) 470
FIG. 4.4.6. Diagram of connections for electrical supply to instrument equip-
J ment 472
FIG. 4.4.7. Control system measuring unit 474
FIG. 4.4.8.lA. Chopper-type d.c. amplifier (Reproduced by kind permlSSlOn of
Kent Instruments Ltd.) 476
FIG.4.4.8.1B. Input chopper circuit (Reproduced by kind permission of Kent
Instruments Ltd.) 477
FIG. 4.4.8.2A. Electronic feedback control 478
FIG. 4.4.8.2B. Circuit diagram of three-term controller (Reproduced by kind per-
mission of Kent Instruments Ltd.) 480
FIG. 4.4.8.2c. Three-term controller unit-view of a typical module (Reproduced
by kind permission of Kent Instruments Ltd.) 480
FIG. 4.4.8.3A. Pneumatic to electric signal transmitter 481
FIG. 4.4.8.3B. Force balance capacitive sensing electrical transmitter 482
FIG. 4.4.8.3ca. Mechanical assembly of transmission unit (Reproduced by kind per-
mission of Kent Instruments Ltd.) 483
FIG. 4.4.8.3cb. Location of transmission unit in an instrument case (Reproduced by
kind permission of Kent Instruments Ltd.) 483
FIG. 4.4.8.3D. The "Smoot" control loop (Reproduced by kind permission of Elliott
Process Automation Ltd.) 484
FIG. 4.4.9. E.M.F./air converter serving pneumatic actuator 486
FIG. 4.5.1A. Heat loss variation with carbon dioxide 487
FIG. 4.5.1B. Factors influencing combustion 487
FIG. 4.5.2. Relationship between oxygen, carbon dioxide and excess air (Repro-
duced by kind permission of Kent Instruments Ltd.) 489
FIG. 4.5.4. Combustion air control system 491
FIG. 4.5.6.1. Pressure-type vertical mill control system (Reproduced by kind per-
mission of Electroflo Co.) 493
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r

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS XXIX

FIG. 4.8.1.5. Differential expansion detector (Reproduced by kind permission of
A.E.I. Ltd.) 539
FIG. 4.8.2A. Position of strain gauges and thermocouples for high-pressure cylin-
der (Reproduced by kind permission of A.E.I. Engineering) 540
FIG. 4.8.2B. Graphs of steam temperature, load and speed for typical hot start
(Reproduced by kind permission of A.E.I. Engineering) 541
FIG. 4.8.2e. Temperature differences in the high pressure inlet belt during a cold
start (Reproduced by kind permission of A.E.I. Engineering) 542
FIG. 4.8.4. Diagrammatic arrangement of governor gear with vacuum and boiler
pressure load-limiting devices (Reproduced by kind permission of
Askania-Reavell) 543
FIG. 4.8.7. Overspeed trip mechanism (Reproduced by kind permission of A.E.I.
Ltd.) 546
FIG. 4.9.1. Willington A power station plant control room 548
FIG. 4.9.2A. Layout of control room for 4 X 500 MW units 550
FIG. 4.9.2B. Control panels at Ferrybridge C 551
FIG. 4.9.2e. Proposed arrangement for unit control desks and panel at Fawley
power station 551
FIG. 4.9.5. Typical i.d. fan sequence (start) 554
FIG. 4.9.6A. Critical path diagram of hot start-up between 554/555
FIG. 4.9.6B. Mock control desk for 500 MW unit 555
FIG. 4.9.7.1. Control room layout with sequence control 556
FIG. 4.9.8.1. Sizewell A power station control room 559
FIG. 4.9.8.3A. Wylfa control desk mock-up 560
FIG. 4.9.8.3B. Alpha numeric display 561
FIG. 4.9.8.3e. Display of control rod position 561
FIG. 4.9.9A. Arrangement of control room for 2 X 500 MW station extensions 563
FIG. 4.9.9B. Model of control room layout for 6 X 660 MW units 564
FIG. 5.1.2. Four steps towards automation (Reproduced by kind permission of
Elliott Process Automation Ltd.) 570
FIG. 5.2.lA. Boiler-turbine start-up curves after 6 h shut-down on 120 MW unit
(Reproduced by kind permission of the Institute of Mechanical Engi-
neers) 571
FIG. 5.2.lB. Temperatures and stresses in rotor of 120 MW h.p. turbine (hot start)
(Reproduced by kind permission of the Institute of Mechanical
Engineers) 572
FIG. 5.2.le. Temperatures and stresses in rotor of i.p. turbine (hot start) (Repro-
duced by kind permission of the Institute of Mechanical Engineers) 573
FIG. 5.2.lD. Simplified diagram of turbine run-up equipment 574
FIG. 5.2.2.lA. Speed-time curves for turbine start-up 576
FIG. 5.2.2.lB. Measurement and control points diagram for turbine run-up 577
FIG. 5.2.2.le. Basic block diagram for ACTRUS 578
FIG. 5.2.2.lD. Demonstration of hold during turbine starting between 580/581
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 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS XXXI

FIG. 5.3.5.1e. The I.B.M. "golfball" typewriter (Reproduced by kind permission of

I.B.M. United Kingdom Ltd.) 623
FIG. 5.3.5.1D. Strip printers «a) Reproduced by kind permission of Addo Ltd.
(b) Reproduced by kind permission of Hewlett-Packard Ltd.) 624
FIG. 5.3.6. Programmer sequence 628
FIG. 5.3.7A. Potentiometric circuit using decade resistance 630
FIG. 5.3.7B. Automatic digital voltmeter 631
FIG. 5.3.7c. Explanation of integrating voltmeter 632
FIG. 5.3.8.1A. Block diagram of a 200 point data logger for Nos. 5 and 6 units
at Northfleet (Reproduced by kind permission of W. E. Willison,
reprinted from The Radio and Electronic Engineer, 25, 559-571
(1963)) 634
FIG. 5.3.8.1B. Alarm limit pegboard (Reproduced by kind permission ofW. E. Wil-
lison, reprinted from The Radio and Electronic Engineer, 25,559-571
(1963)) 635
FIG. 5.3.8.2A. Block diagram of data logging system for 4 X 500 MW units at Cot-
tam (Reproduced by kind permission of Serck Controls Ltd.) 631
FIG. 5.3.8.2B. Typical log sheet for Cottam 500 MW units (Reproduced by kind
permission of Serck Controls Ltd.) between 638/639
.! FIG. 5.3.8.2c. Logger desk at Cottam (Reproduced by kind permission of Serck
Controls Ltd.) 638
I FIG. 5.4. Simple analogue computing set-up 640
FIG. 5.4.1.1. Computing amplifier 641
I
, FIG. 5.4.1.2. Summing amplifier 642
iI FIG. 5.4.1.3. Integrating amplifier 642
f FIG. 5.4.1.4. Differentiating amplifier 643
J FIG. 5.4.1.5A. Potentiometric multiplier 644
FIG. 5.4.1.5B. Electromechanical multiplier 644
FIG. 5.4.1.5c. Quarter-squares multiplier 645
FIG. 5.4.1.6. Divider 647
FIG.5.4.1.7A. Function synthesis 647
FIG. 5.4.1. 7B. Diode function generator 648
FIG. 5.4.1.8A. Moving-coil pen recorder 649
FIG. 5.4.1.8B. XY plotter (Reproduced by kind permission of Bryans Ltd.) 650
FIG. 5.4.1.8c. Operation of an XY plotter 651
FIG. 5.4.2.1A. Diagram to illustrate scaling of computer amplifier 653
FIG. 5.4.2.2A. Simple analogue computer set-up 654
FIG. 5.4.2.2B. Analogue computing set-up for solving mg-Kv = m(dvfdt) 655
FIG. 5.4.2.3A. Symbols used in analogue computer diagrams 656
FIG. 5.4.2.3B. Elliott G-PAC analogue 20 amplifier computer (Reproduced by kind
permission of Elliott Process Automation Ltd.) 651
FIG. 5.4.2.3c. Heat flow diagram for Tilbury B showing data required to compute
heat rate 659
FIG. 5.4.2.3D. Computation of turbo-generator heat rate (diagram) 660

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 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xxxiii

FIG. 5.6.1.5. Trend curves 707

FIG. 5.6.1.6A. Alarm list between 708/709
FIG. 5.6.1.6B. Prime cause alarms between 708/709
FIG. 5.6.2.1A. Plant schematic 709
FIG. 5.6.2.1B. Simple alarm tree 710
FIG. 5.6.2.1c. Modifications to simple alarm tree (pump failure) 711
FIG. 5.6.2.1D. Modifications to simple alarm tree (temperatures) 712
FIG. 5.6.3.2A. A unit control desk data display selection 716
FIG. 5.6.3.2B. A unit control desk alarm display selection 717
FIG. 5.6.3.2c. Supervisor's desk display selection 718
FIG. 5.6.4. Diagram of Pembroke computer system 720
FIG. 5.6.5.1A. Two-computer system for a two-unit station 722
FIG. 5.6.5.1B. Three-computer system for a two-unit station 723
FIG. 5.6.5.1c. Failure rates for digital computers 724
FIG. 5.7. Fawley computer system 727
FIG. 5.7.1.1. Interconnections of computer system (Fawley) 730
FIG.5.7.1.4A. Control switch arrangement A (Reproduced by kind permission of
Elliott Process Automation Ltd.) 732
FIG.5.7.1.4B. Control switch arrangement B (Reproduced by kind permission of
Elliott Process Automation Ltd.) 733
FIG.5.7.1.5A. Change-over scheme pre-selection for reed relay matrix (Reproduced
by kind permission of Elliott Process Automation Ltd.) between 734/735
FIG.5.7.1.5B. Computer change-over scheme (Reproduced by kind permission of
Elliott Process Automation Ltd.) between 734/735
FIG. 5.7.2. Schematic layout of boiler circulating pumps (Reproduced by kind
permission of John Thompson Water Tube Boilers Ltd.) 736
FIG. 5.7.3.1A. One sheet of flow chart start-up 739
FIG.5.7.3.1B. Standard flow chart symbols (Reproduced by kind permission of John
Thompson Water Tube Boilers Ltd.) 740
FIG.5.7.3.1c. Detailed plant flow chart for boiler circulating pumps (Fawley)
(Reproduced by kind permission of English Electric Co. Ltd.) 741
FIG.5.7.3.1D. Standard sub-routine A 743
FIG. 5.7.3.1£. Standard sub-routine B 744
FIG.5.7.3.1F. Standard sub-routine C 745
FIG.5.7.3.1G. Computer flow chart for boiler circulating pumps 746
FIG. 5.7.3.2. Boiler circulating pumps remedial action (Fawley) 748
FIG. 5.7.3.4. Measurement transducers for 500 MW boiler and turbo-generator
performance between 748/749
FIG. 5.7.4A. Terminating points of Fa wley auxiliary boiler computer system contract 754
FIG.5.7.4B. General appearance of central processor (Fawley) (Reproduced by
kind permission of Elliott Process Automation Ltd.) 755
FIG. 5.7.4c. Reliability of on-line digital computer (Reproduced by kind permis-
sion of I.C.!. Ltd.) 756
FIG. 5.8.1. Essentials of automatic load/frequency control 760