Multiple Choice Questions Unit (1) Chem-100

1. The base unit for the length in metric system is

A. cm B. m C. in. D. yd

2. Express 0.000840 in scientific notation

A. 8.40 x 10-3 B. 8.40 x 104 C. 8.40 x 10-4 D. 8.4 x 104

3. In metric system the prefix nano- means

A. 10-9 B. 109 C. 1012 D. 10-12

4. Which of the following is an exact number?

A. 10.25 g B. 4.000 kg C. 7 chairs D. 60 seconds

5. When numbers are added, the limiting term is the one with the __________ number of __________.
A. largest, decimal B. smallest, decimal C. largest, significant D. smallest,
places places digits significant digits

6. The conversion factor to change kilograms to pounds is

A. 1 kg B. 2.20 lb C. 1 lb D. 454 kg
2.20 lb 1 kg 454 kg 1 lb

7. Convert 3.25 mi to kilometers.

A. 2.02 km B. 4.95 km C. 5.23 km D. 1.91 km

8. What is the mass of 20.0 mL solution if its density is 1.84 g/mL?

A. 10.8 g B. 21.8 g C. 10.9 g D. 36.8 g

9. 65.0ºC is equivalent to
A. -85.0ºF B. 85.0ºF C. 120.ºF D. 149ºF

10. When 20.0 g of titanium is heated from 10.0ºC to 20.0ºC, 25.0 cal of heat is absorbed. What is the
specific heat of titanium?
A. 0.125 cal /g·ºC B. 8.00 cal /g·ºC C. 0.800 cal /g·ºC D. 12.5 cal /g·ºC
Multiple Choice Questions Unit (1) Chem-100

Answers
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
B C A C B B C D D A
 Numeracy

Introduction to Units and Conversions

The metric system originates back to the 1700s in France. It is known as a decimal system because
conversions between units are based on powers of ten. This is quite different to the Imperial system of units
where every conversion has a unique value.

A physical quantity is an attribute or property of a substance that can be expressed in a mathematical

equation. A quantity, for example the amount of mass of a substance, is made up of a value and a unit. If a
person has a mass of 72kg: the quantity being measured is Mass, the value of the measurement is 72 and the
unit of measure is kilograms (kg). Another quantity is length (distance), for example the length of a piece of
timber is 3.15m: the quantity being measured is length, the value of the measurement is 3.15 and the unit of
measure is metres (m).

A unit of measurement refers to a particular physical quantity. A metre describes length, a kilogram
describes mass, a second describes time etc. A unit is defined and adopted by convention, in other words,
everyone agrees that the unit will be a particular quantity.

Historically, the metre was defined by the French Academy of Sciences as the length between two marks on
a platinum-iridium bar at 0°C, which was designed to represent one ten-millionth of the distance from the
Equator to the North Pole through Paris. In 1983, the metre was redefined as the distance travelled by light
1
in free space in of a second.
299 792 458

The kilogram was originally defined as the mass of 1 litre (known as 1 cubic decimetre at the time) of water
at 0°C. Now it is equal to the mass of international prototype kilogram made from platinum-iridium and
stored in an environmentally monitored safe located in the basement of the International Bureau of Weights
and Measures building in Sèvres on the outskirts of Paris.

The term SI is from “le Système international d'unités”, the International System of Units. There are 7 SI
base quantities. It is the world's most widely used system of measurement, both in everyday commerce and
in science. The system is nearly universally employed.

SI Base Units
Base quantity Name Symbol
Length metre m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Electric current ampere A
Thermodynamic temperature kelvin K
Amount of substance mole mol
Luminous intensity candela cd
For other quantities, units are defined from the SI base units. Examples are given below.

SI derived units (selected examples)

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 Quantity Name Symbol
Area square metre m 2

Volume cubic metre m3

Speed metre per second m/s
Acceleration metre per second squared m / sec 2

Some SI derived units have special names with SI base unit equivalents.

SI derived units (selected examples)

Quantity Name Symbol SI base unit
equivalent
Force Newton N m kg / sec 2
Pressure Pascal Pa N / m2
Work, Energy Joule J Nm
Power Watt W J /s
Electric Charge Coulomb C As
Electric Potential Volt V W/A
Difference
Celsius (temperature) degree Celsius °C K
Frequency Hertz Hz /s
Capacity litre L (or l) dm3

If units are named after a person, then a capital letter is used for the first letter. Often, litres is written with a
capital (L) because a lowercase (l) looks like a one(1).
An important feature of the metric system is the use of prefixes to express larger and smaller values of a
quantity. For example, a large number of grams can be expressed in kilograms, and a fraction of a gram
could be expressed in milligrams.
Commonly used prefixes are listed in the table below.

Multiplication Factor
Name Symbol Word form Standard form Power of 10
peta P Quadrillion 1 000 000 000 000 000 1015
tera T Trillion 1 000 000 000 000 1012
giga G Billion 1 000 000 000 109
mega M Million 1 000 000 106
kilo k Thousand 1 000 103
hecto h Hundred 100 102
deca da Ten 10 101
deci d Tenth 0.1 10-1
centi c Hundredth 0.01 10-2
milli m Thousandth 0.001 10-3
micro µ , mc Millionth 0.000 001 10-6
nano n Billionth 0.000 000 001 10-9
pico p Trillionth 0.000 000 000 001 10-12

The use of prefixes containing multiples of 3 are the most commonly used prefixes.

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Using prefixes, conversions between units can be devised.

For example:

1kg = 1000g On the left hand side the prefix is used. On the right hand side the prefix is
replaced with the multiplication factor.

1mg = 0.001g On the left hand side the prefix is used. On the right hand side the prefix is
replaced with the multiplication factor. To make the conversion friendlier to use,
multiply both sides by 1000 (Why 1000? Because milli means one thousandth and
one thousand thousandths make one whole), so 1000mg = 1g.

1Mm = 1 000 000m On the left hand side the prefix is used. On the right hand side the prefix is
replaced with the multiplication factor.

1 µ m = 0.000 001m On the left hand side the prefix is used. On the right hand side the prefix is
replaced with the multiplication factor. To make the conversion friendlier to use,
multiply both sides by 1 000 000 (Why 1 000 000? Because micro means one
millionth), so 1 000 000 µ m = 1 m

Video ‘Obtaining Conversions from Prefixes’

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 Numeracy

Module contents
Introduction
• Conversions – traditional method
• Conversions – dimensional analysis method
• Time
Answers to activity questions
Outcomes
• To understand the necessity for units.
• To understand the metric system and the prefixes used.
• To convert units accurately using one of the methods covered.
• To change decimal time into seconds, minutes as appropriate.
• To perform operations with time.

Check your skills

This module covers the following concepts, if you can successfully answer these questions, you do not need
to do this module. Check your answers from the answer section at the end of the module.

1. What are the SI units for length, mass and time?

What is difference between the prefix m and M?
What is the difference between volume and capacity?

2. Using the traditional method of unit conversions, perform the following:

(a) 495mm to m (b) 1.395kg to g (c) 58g to kg
2
(d) 0.06km to mm (e) 25 000m to ha (f) 3.5m3 to L

3. Using the dimensional analysis method of unit conversions, perform the following:
(a) 495mm to m (b) 1.395kg to g (c) 58g to kg
(d) 0.06km to mm (e) 25 000m2 to ha (f) 3.5m3 to L

4. (a) What is 1440 in am/pm time?

(b) If I leave at 2.47pm and travel for one and three quarter hours, what time do I arrive?
(c) Change 3.15hours into hours and minutes.

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 Numeracy

Topic 1: Conversions – traditional method

The base metric unit for mass is the gram. Mass is the correct term for what is commonly called weight. On
Earth, there is no difference in the value of mass and weight.

Unit conversions for mass units are in the table below.

Conversions based on Conversions derived from

prefixes those in the left column
1000 000 µ g = 1g 1000 µ g = 1mg In nursing, microg is used to
represent micrograms.
1000mg = 1g 1000mg = 1g
1000 g = 1kg 1000 g = 1kg
1000 000 g = 1Mg 1000=
kg 1=
Mg 1t A megagram is commonly
called a tonne (t)

Let’s consider the example, change 4500g to kg.

When changing from a smaller unit (g) to a larger unit (kg), a smaller value will be the result. The
conversion involves grams and kilograms, so the conversion required is 1000g = 1kg .
Look at this conversion, it is written with given units (grams) on the left and the new units (kilograms) on
the right. Given units on New units on
the left the right

1000 g = 1kg

The conversion went from 1000 on the left to 1 on the right. To go from 1000 to 1, dividing by 1000 is
required. In this question, dividing by 1000 must also take place. 4500 divided by 1000 requires the moving
of the decimal point by three places in a direction to make the number smaller, so the answer is 4.5
4500 g ÷ 1000 =
4.5kg

When all the conversions are considered, they can be summarised in the table below.

x 1000 x 1000 x 1000 x 1000

microgram milligram gram kilogram megagram (tonne)

÷ 1000 ÷ 1000 ÷ 1000 ÷ 1000

Change 3.25t to kg.

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When changing from a larger unit (g) to a smaller unit (kg), a larger value will be the result. The conversion
involves tonnes and kilograms, so the conversion required is 1000kg = 1t .

Look at this conversion, is it written with existing units (tonnes) on the left and new units (kilograms) on the
right? The answer to this is ‘no’ so change the order of the equation to be:

1t = 1000kg .

The conversion went from 1 on the left to 1000 on the right. To go from 1 to 1000 multiplying by 1000 is
required. In the question, multiplying by 1000 must also take place. 3.25 multiplied by 1000 requires the
moving of the decimal point by three places in a direction to make the number larger, so the answer is 3 250
3.25t × 1000 =3250kg

Change 1.42kg to mg.

There is no conversion to change from kg to mg. To achieve this, two conversions are required, they are, kg
to g and then g to mg.

1.42 kg to gram uses the conversion 1000 g = 1kg which has to be changed to 1kg = 1000 g . To change from
kg to grams, multiplying by 1000 is required.

1.42kg × 1000 =
1420 g

Changing 1420g to mg uses the conversion 1000mg = 1g which has to be changed to 1g = 1000mg . To
change from g to mg, multiplying by 1000 is required. 1420 g × 1000 =
1420000mg ;

overall 1.42kg = 1420000mg .

x 1000 x 1000 x 1000 x 1000

microgram milligram gram kilogram megagram (tonne)

÷ 1000 ÷ 1000 ÷ 1000 ÷ 1000

Change 455 μgrams (micrograms) to mg.

Using the table above, the conversion from micrograms to milligrams requires dividing by 1000.

455µ g ÷ 1000 =
0.455mg

Change 1.2g to mg.

Using the table above, the conversion from grams to milligrams requires multiplying by 1000.

1.2 g × 1000 = 1200mg

The base metric unit for length is the metre. Length is the same as distance. For most quantities,
conversions are usually based on 1000. Length is similar but the unit centimetre is included. Centimetres
are used because everyday measurements in centimetres are in the familiar number region 1- 100.

Unit conversions for length units are in the table below.

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 Conversions based on Conversions derived from
prefixes those in the left column
1000 000 µ m = 1m 1000 µ m = 1mm Microscope measurements
use micrometres (or
microns). Red blood cells
are about 8 microns in
diameter, a human hair
about 100 microns.
1000mm = 1m 1000mm = 1m
100cm = 1m 10mm = 1cm
100cm = 1m It is very unusual to use a
centi-unit.
1000m = 1km 1000m = 1km
1000 000m = 1Mm 1000km = 1Mm The unit megametres is not
generally used in everyday
use.

Let’s consider the example, change 7900m to km.

When changing from a smaller unit (g) to a larger unit (kg), a smaller value will be the result. The
conversion involves metres and kilometres, so the conversion required is 1000m = 1km .

Look at this conversion, is it written with existing units (metres) on the left and new units (kilometres) on
the right? The answer to this is ‘yes’ so no changing of the conversion is required.

The conversion went from 1000 on the left to 1 on the right. To go from 1000 to 1 dividing by 1000 took
place. In the question, dividing by 1000 must also take place. 7900 divided by 1000 requires the moving of
the decimal point by three places in a direction to make the number smaller, so the answer is 7.9
7900m ÷ 1000 = 7.9km

When all the conversions are considered, they can be summarised in the table below.

x 1000 x 1000 x 1000 x 1000

x 10 x 100
micrometre millimetre centimetre metre kilometre megametre
÷ 10 ÷ 100

÷ 1000 ÷ 1000 ÷ 1000

÷ 1000

Change 0.532km to cm

There is no conversion to change from km to cm. To achieve this, two conversions are required, they are,
km to m and then m to cm.

0.532 km to metres uses the conversion multiplying by 1000. (Based on the table above)

0.532km ×1000 =
532m

Changing 532m to cm uses the conversion multiplying by 100.(Based on the conversion above)

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 532m ×100 = 53200cm ,
overall 0.532km = 53200cm .

The base metric unit for capacity is Litres. Capacity is how much a container can hold or is holding with
particular reference to fluid. Closely related to this is the concept of volume which is the amount of space
within a container.

Unit conversions for capacity units are in the table below.

Conversions based on Conversions derived from

prefixes those in the left column
1000mL = 1L 1000mL = 1L
1000 L = 1kL 1000 L = 1kL
1000 000 L = 1ML 1000kL = 1ML The unit Megalitre is used to
describe the capacity of
dams or other water
storages.

Let’s consider the example, change 10350L to kL.

When changing from a smaller unit (L) to a larger unit (kL), a smaller value will be the result. The
conversion involves metres and kilometres, so the conversion required is 1000 L = 1kL .

Look at this conversion, is it written with existing units (L) on the left and new units (kL) on the right? The
answer to this is ‘yes’ so no changing of the conversion is required.

The conversion went from 1000 on the left to 1 on the right. To go from 1000 to 1 dividing by 1000 took
place. In the question, dividing by 1000 must also take place. 10350 divided by 1000 requires the moving of
the decimal point by three places in a direction to make the number smaller, so the answer is 10.35L
10350 L ÷ 1000 = 10.35kL

x 1000 x 1000 x 1000

millilitre litre kilolitre

megalitre ÷ 1000
÷ 1000 ÷ 1000

Consider 3kL to mL

There is no conversion to change from kL to mL. To achieve this, two conversions are required, they are, kL
to L and then L to kL.

3 kL to metres uses the conversion multiplying by 1000.

3kL × 1000 =
3000 L

Changing 3000L to mL uses the conversion multiplying by 1000.

3000 L ×1000 =
3000 000mL ,

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 overall 3kL = 3000 000mL .

The base unit for area is square metres m 2 . A square metre is a square with side length 1 metre. A square
centimetre is a square with side length 1 centimetre. Conversions are required the change between square
centimetres, square metres, hectares and square kilometres.

Area unit conversions can be derived from length unit conversions. Using the length conversion 100cm = 1m ,
the area unit conversions can be obtained by squaring everything in the conversion;
(100cm =
1m ) =
1002 cm 2 =→ 10 000 cm 2 =
2
12 m 2 1 m2

Similarly, using the length conversion 1000m = 1km , the area unit conversions can be obtained by squaring
everything in the conversion;
(1000m =
1km ) =
10002 m 2 =
12 km 2 → 1000 000 m 2 =
2
1 km 2

Hectares are a unit of area that is in between a square metre and a square kilometre.

Area = 100m  100m Hectares are just hectares, they

100 m A hectare is based on a square are not called square hectares,
= 10 000m
2
with side length 100m although technically a hectare
(hectometre). is another name for a square
hectometre!
100 m

Unit conversions for area units are in the diagram below.

x 10 000 x 10 000 x 100

Square centimetres square metres hectares square kilometres

÷ 10 000 ÷ 10 000 ÷ 100

2
Change 45000m to ha

The conversion involves square metres and hectares, so the conversion required is 10 000m 2 = 1ha

Look at this conversion, is it written with existing units (square metres) on the left and new units (ha) on the
right? The answer to this is ‘yes’ so no changing of the conversion is required.
The conversion went from 10 000 on the left to 1 on the right. To go from 10 000 to 1, dividing by 10 000
took place. In the question, dividing by 10 000 must also take place. 45 000 divided by 10 000 requires the
moving of the decimal point by four places in a direction to make the number smaller, so the answer is 4.5
ha.

45000m 2 ÷ 10000 =
4.5ha

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 Video ‘Obtaining Conversions involving Squares or Cubes’

3
The base unit for volume is cubic metres m . A cubic metre is a cube with side length 1 metre. A cubic
centimetre is a cube with side length 1 centimetre. Conversions are required the change between cubic
centimetres, cubic metres, and cubic kilometres.

Volume unit conversions can be derived from length unit conversions.

Using the length conversion 100cm = 1m , the volume units can be obtained by cubing everything in the
conversion, (100cm =
1m ) → 1003 cm3 =
13 m3 → 1000 000 cm3 =
3
1 m3

Using the length conversion 1000m = 1km , the volume units can be obtained by cubing everything in the
conversion, (1000m =
1km ) → 10003 m3 =
13 km3 → 1000 000 000 m3 =
3
1 km3

Unit conversions for volume units are in the table below.

x 1000 000 x 1000 000 000

000
Cubic centimetres cubic metres cubic kilometres
÷ 1000 000 ÷ 1000 000 000

3 3
Change 3.15m to cm

The conversion involves cubic metres and cubic centimetres, so the conversion required is
1000 000cm3 = 1 m3 which can also written as 1 m3 = 1000 000cm3

3.15m3 × 1000000 =
3 150 000cm3

Because the concepts of capacity and volume are essentially the same, their units can be related.

The capacity unit mL is equivalent to the volume unit cm3 . 1mL = 1cm3

The capacity unit kL is equivalent to the volume unit m3 . 1kL = 1m3

Example: What is the capacity of the container below:

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 Volume =l × w × h
= 30 × 15 × 10
10 cm = 4500 cm3
As 1cm
3
= 1mL , the capacity of the
15 cm shape is 4500mL or 4.5 L .
30 cm

Video ‘Unit Conversions – Traditional Method’

Page 11
Activity
1. Choose a unit that would be suitable to measure
(a) The length of the Bruxner Highway
(b) The floor area of a house
(c) The mass of a newly born chicken
(d) The volume of water in a water storage dam supplying a city.
(e) The length of wood-screws

2. Change the following length measurements to the units shown in brackets

(a) 3.6m (cm) (b) 4500m (km)
(c) 55m (km) (d) 0.325km (mm)
(e) 4 550 000 mm (km) (f) 5.2 cm (km)

3. Change the following mass measurements to the units shown in brackets

(a) 8550 kg (t) (b) 0.52g (mg)
(c) 9.1mg (mcg or μg) (d) 1.25 g (kg)
(e) 2 905 mg (kg) (f) 35mg (g)

4. Change the following capacity measurements to the units shown in brackets

(a) 8500mL (L) (b) 0.451kL (L)
(c) 85.9L (kL) (d) 1.6 ML (L)
(e) 75L (kL) (f) 0.000 6kL (L)

5. Change the following area measurements to the units shown in brackets

(a) 25 000m2 (ha) (b) 0.595km2 (m2)
(c) 26cm2 (m2) (d) 31.8ha (km2)
(e) 450 000m2 (ha and km2) (f) 575 212cm2 (m2)

6. Change the following volume measurements to the units shown in brackets

(a) 356 000cm3 (m3) (b) 2.575 m3 (cm3)
(c) 0.000 4 km3 (m3) (d) 375 cm3 (m3)

7. Change the following volume units to the capacity units shown in brackets
(a) 345 cm3 (mL) (b) 0.072 m3 (L)
3
(c) 5.5m (L) (d) 67 500 cm3 (kL)

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 Numeracy

Topic 2: Conversions – dimensional analysis method

This method of converting units is used in science and engineering. This method is an effective way
converting units using the established conversions.

Example: 3.5m to mm.

The conversion 1m = 1000mm is changed into a fraction. There are two possibilities for the fraction, either
1000mm 1m
or . The correct choice is the fraction in which the existing unit will cancel out to
1m 1000mm
leave the new unit.

1000mm
The correct choice is 3.5m × because the existing unit (m) cancels out to leave the new unit mm.
1m
1000mm
3.5m ×
1m
1000mm
= 3.5 m ×
1m
= 3.5 × 1000 mm
= 3500mm

Example: 3.6m to km.

1km
The conversion 1000m = 1km is changed into a fraction. The fraction will be so the metres will
1000m
cancel out leaving just the units km.

1km
3.6 m ×
1000 m
3.6
= km
1000
= 0.0036km

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Example: 40500L to kL.
1kL
The conversion 1000 L = 1kL is changed into a fraction. The fraction well be so the litres will
1000 L
cancel out leaving just the units kL.

1kL
40500 L ×
1000 L
40500
= kL
1000
= 40.5kL

Example: 0.000856kg to mg.

This requires 2 conversions, 1000 g = 1kg and 1000mg = 1g . The conversion can be done in two stages or
combined into one,

1000 g 1000mg
0.000856 kg × 0.856 g ×
1 kg 1g
= 0.000856 ×1000 g then = 0.856 × 1000mg
= 0.856mg = 856mg

Alternatively, combined like below:

1000 g 1000mg
0.000856 kg × ×
1 kg g
= 0.000856 ×1000 × 1000mg
= 856mg

Example: 975cm to km.

Using the conversions 100cm = 1m and 1000m = 1km , the two conversions can be combined like below:

1m 1km
975 cm × ×
100 cm 1000 m
975
= km
100 × 1000
= 0.00975km

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Example: 2474m2 to ha.

Using the conversion 10000m = 1ha , the conversion can take place as;
2

1ha
2474 m 2 ×
10000 m 2
2474
= ha
10000
= 0.2474ha

Rate units can also be changed using this method.

Example: 60 km/hr to m/sec.

The conversions required are 1000m = 1km and 3600sec = 1hr . It is advisable to write
60km
60 km / hr as
1hr

60 km 1000m 1 hr
× ×
1 hr 1 km 3600sec
60 × 1000
= m / sec
3600
= 16.67 m / sec(to 2 d.p.)

Example: 30 L/hr to mL/min.

The conversions required are 1000mL = 1L and 60min = 1hr .

30 L 1000mL 1 hr
× ×
1 hr 1L 60min
30 × 1000
= mL / min
60
= 500 mL / min

Conversion between Imperial units and metric units can also be done this way if the conversion is known.

Page 15
Example: 3.75in to cm, using the conversion 1in = 2.54cm (the abbreviation in is an abbreviation for
inches)

The conversion required is 1in = 2.54cm .

2.54cm
3.75 in ×
1 in
= 3.75 × 2.54cm
= 9.525cm
Example: 200cm2 to in2.

The conversion 1in = 2.54cm is known, however the conversion required must be obtained by squaring the
conversion.
12 in 2 = 2.542 cm 2
1in 2 = 6.4516cm 2
The conversion is:
1in 2
200 cm 2 ×
6.4516 cm 2
200
= in 2
6.4516
≈ 31in 2
The conversion below is very unusual and requires careful thinking. In the imperial system, the fuel mileage
of cars was measured in miles per gallon (mpg). In the metric system, the emphasis is really on fuel
consumption so the units chosen were litres per 100km (L/100km).

Example: 35mpg to L/100km

Two conversions are required here: 1mile = 1.61 km and 1 imperial gallon = 4.55 litres (there are many
definitions of a gallon; we are using the imperial gallon which was used in Australia prior to changing to the
metric system)

Because the new rate is volume of fuel per distance, let’s think of 35mpg as being it takes 1 gallon to cover a
distance of 35 miles.
1 gallon 4.55litres 1 mile
× ×
35 miles 1 gallon 1.61km
= 4.55 ÷ (35 × 1.61)litre / km
= 0.08075litre / km
To make the unit user friendly, the answer is multiplied by 100 so the figure is per 100km.
0.08075litres / km
= 8.075litres / 100km

Video ‘Unit Conversions – Dimensional Analysis Method’

Page 16
Activity

1. Change the following measurements using the dimensional analysis method to the
units shown in brackets
(a) 3.55m (cm) (b) 6510g (kg)
(c) 55cm (m) (d) 1.36 kg (mg)
2 2
(e) 4 550 mm (cm ) (f) 5.2 L (mL)
(g) 11.4 mg (g) (h) 305 000cm3 (m3)
(i) 8 550 g (t) (j) 240 000m2 (ha)
(k) 9.352L (mL) (l) 21.8ha (m2)
(m) 2 905 μg (g) (n) 15 305mg (kg)

2. Change the following metric rates to the rate shown in brackets

(a) 850mL/hr (L/hr) (b) 4.51L/min (L/hr)
(c) 85.9km/hr (m/min) (d) 1.6 m2/hr (cm2/sec)
(e) 75 mg/min (g/hr) (f) 0.000 6 cm3/sec (L/hr)

3. Change the following metric and imperial units to the units shown, given the
conversion.
(a) Change 25 ha to acres given that 1 hectare is 2.48 acres
(b) Change 100 cm to inches given that 1 inch is 2.54 cm
(c) Change 50 lbs (pounds weight) to kg given that 1 kg is 2.2 lbs
(d) Change 100 miles to km given that 1 mile is 1.61 km
(e) Change 36.5 oz (ounces weight) to g given that 1 oz is 28.35g
(f) Change 100 metres to yards (yd) given that 1 m is 1.09yd
(g) Change 308cubic inches (in3) to cm3 given that 1 in is 2.54 cm

4. Change the following rates to the new rate using both imperial and metric units,
given the conversion.
(a) Change 3.45 mi/hr to km/hr given that 1 mile is 1.61 km
(b) Change 50.9 m2/hr to yd2/hr given that 1 m is 1.09yd
(c) Change 6.45 gal/hr to L/min given that 1 imp. gallon is 4.55 litres
(d) Change 3.45 ft2/hr to cm2/sec given that 1 ft (foot) is 30.48 cm

Page 17
 Numeracy

Topic 3: Time
Time units cause problems because conversions are not based on powers of tens, or in other words, time is
not a decimal system.

Units of time include secs, min, hours, days, weeks, etc. Stopwatches will work in smaller units, usually
mins, secs and hundredths of seconds (or centiseconds). A stopwatch reading of 20:31:90 means 20 minutes,
31seconds and 90 hundredths of a second. Notice that a colon (:) is used to separate the different units to
avoid confusion with decimal points.

Metric prefixes can be used with seconds. The most common prefixes are milliseconds, microseconds,
nanoseconds and possibly picoseconds, the prefixes having the same meaning as in the introduction
material.

1 millisecond = 10−3second
1 microsecond = 10−6second
1 nanosecond = 10−9second
1 picosecond = 10−12second

The unit conversions for time are:

60 seconds = 1 minute
60 minutes = 1 hour
24 hours = 1 day
7 days = 1 week

There are other generalisations that have limited or no use as conversions for the purposes of calculations.

In a non-leap year this is true, but a leap year is 366 days. The
generalisation that a leap year is every fourth year, the year
365 days = 1 year
being a multiple of 4, this is not quite true, the year 2100,
2200, 2300 will not be a leap year!

This is incorrect as there is 52 weeks and 1 or 2 days in a year

52 weeks = 1 year (depending on if it is a leap year), however, this conversion is
used to approximate figures.

Page 18
Student Learning Zone +61 2 6626 9262 | [email protected] | www.scu.edu.au/learning-zone [last edited June 2023]
 This is very incorrect as there is usually 4 weeks and 2 or 3
days in a month. If you want to convert a weekly figure to a
monthly figure, it is more correct to multiply by 52 weeks and
4 weeks = 1 month then divide by 12.
For example:
A weekly repayment of $128 is equivalent to a monthly
repayment of $128 x 52 ÷ 12 = $554.67

While this is true, the length of the months is uneven, so

February is 3 days shorter than January. However, monthly
12 months = 1year
loan repayments are usually the same regardless of the length
of the month.

Unit conversions involving time

Example: Change 180 minutes to hours.

The conversion to be used is 60 minutes = 1 hour.

In the traditional method, the conversion is In the dimensional analysis method,

the right way round so to go from mins to 1 hour
hours, dividing by 60 must occur. 180 mins ×
60 mins
180
180mins ÷ 60 = 3 hours = hours
60
= 3 hours

Example: Change 252 minutes to hours (and hours and mins)

The conversion to be used is 60 minutes = 1 hour.

In the traditional method, the conversion is In the dimensional analysis method,

the right way round so to go from mins to 1 hour
hours, dividing by 60 must occur. 252 mins ×
60 mins
252
252 mins ÷ 60 = 4.2 hours = hours
60
To change this to hours and minutes, the
= 4.2 hours
decimal part of the hour is multiplied by 60.
0.2 x 60 = 12 To change this to hours and minutes, the
decimal part of the hour is multiplied by 60.
0.2 x 60 = 12
252 minutes = 4.2 hours = 4 hours 12
minutes
252 minutes = 4.2 hours = 4 hours 12
minutes

Page 19
Example: Change 2 mins 41 seconds to seconds.

The conversion to be used is 60 seconds = 1 minute. Note: 2 mins 41 seconds cannot be written as 2.41
mins. As part of the question already contains seconds, only the 2 minutes needs changing to seconds. The
best method is to convert 2 mins to seconds and then add on the 41 seconds. 2 mins is 2 x 60 seconds + 41
seconds gives 161 seconds.

Example: Change 2.45 hours into minutes.

Because this time is just hours, the normal conversion strategies can be used.

The conversion to be used is 60 minutes = 1 hour which is changed around to be 1 hour = 60 minutes.

In the traditional method, to go from mins to In the dimensional analysis method,

hours, multiplying by 60 must occur.
60 mins
2.45 hours ×
1 hour
2.45 hours x 60 = 147 minutes
= 2.45 × 60 mins
= 147 mins

Example: If a car is moving at a speed of 60km/hr, how long will it take (in hours and mins) to cover 75
km?

distance
speed=
time
75km
60km/hr=
t hrs
60km/hr × t hrs=75km
75km
t=
60km/hr
t = 1.25hr
This means 1 hour and 0.25 of an hour. It is not 25 mins. To change this into hours and minutes,

Think
0.25 of an hour
= 0.25 of 60 minutes
= 15 minutes

The car will take 1 hour and 15 mins to cover 75 km.

Video ‘Time Calculations’

Page 20
24 hour time
Twenty four hour time is commonly used around the world in situations where confusion could arise due to
omitting am or pm from a time. Some countries have adopted 24 hour time as the standard way to express
time. The time using 24 hour time is the elapsed time from the beginning of the day, that is, midnight. At
7.30am, the elapsed time from the beginning of the day is 7 hours 30 mins, so in 24 hour time the time is
written as 0730. It is conventional to write 24 hour time using 4 digits.

The 24 hour time at midnight is 0000 as no time has elapsed since the beginning of the day.

The 24 hour time at midday is 1200 as 12 hours has elapsed since the beginning of the day.

The 24 hour time at 3:21pm is 1521 as 15hrs and 21 minutes has elapsed since the beginning of the day.

Operations with time

The examples below demonstrate how operations involving time can occur.

Example: John travelled for 3hrs 41 mins before lunch and another 2 hours 27 mins after lunch, how long
did he travel for?

This requires addition of the time periods.

Hours Mins
3 41
+ 2 27
5 68

As 68 minutes exceeds 60, it can be changed to 1 hour

8 mins giving the answer
6hrs 8 mins

Example: A nurse commenced an IV at 7:58pm. It should take 4 hrs 20 mins for the medication to be
infused. At what time will it be finished?
Hours Mins
7 58
+ 4 20
11 78

As 78 minutes exceeds 60, it can be changed to 1 hour

18 mins giving the answer 12:18am the next day

Page 21
Example: A nurse gives a patient a painkiller at 8:32am. At 2.12pm the patient complains that the pain has
returned and the nurse administers another painkiller to the patient. How long did the original painkiller
last?

This calculation is made easier if both times are expressed in 24 hr time. The two times become 0832 and
1412.
Hours Mins
14 12 12 minutes take 32 minutes cannot be done, so
borrow an hour and payback as 60 minutes
- 8 32
The question becomes
13 72
- 8 32
5 40

Example: Seven painters complete a job in 4 hrs 16 minutes, how long was spent completing the job?
Hours Mins
4 16
x 7
28 112

As 112 minutes exceeds 60, it can be changed to 1 hour

52 mins giving a total of 29 hrs 52 mins.

Example: A teacher takes lessons of 2 hour duration. There are 17 students in the group. How much time
(on average) does the teacher spend with each student?

The first step is to change the large unit of time, hours, into a smaller unit, minutes, to make the division
easier to perform. Changing 2 hours to minutes gives 2 x 60 = 120 minutes. The time per student is then 120
÷ 17 = 7.058823529 minutes using a calculator.

This answer would be best expressed in minutes and seconds. The 0.058823529 of a minute becomes
0.058823529 of 60 seconds which is 3.5294… which rounds to 4 seconds. The answer is each student will
receive approximately 7 minutes 4 seconds of time from the teacher.

Video ‘Operations with Time’

Page 22
Activity

1. (a) Change 420 minutes to hours

(b) Change 330 minutes to hours and minutes.
(c) Change 215 minutes to hours and minutes.
(d) Change 191 seconds to minutes (as a decimal).
(e) Change 54 hours to days and hours.
(f) Change 324 mins to hrs (as a decimal)

2. (a) Change 2 hours 12 minutes to minutes.

(b) Change 4.3 hours to hours and minutes.
(c) Change 4.3 hours to minutes.
(d) Change 5 hours 38 minutes to hours.
(e) Change 3 hours 47 minutes to minutes.
(f) Change 2.68 hours to hours and minutes.

3. Change these am/pm times to 24 hour times

(a) Midnight (b) 7:31am
(c) Midday (d) 7.31pm

4. Change these 24 hour times to am/pm times

(a) 0047 (b) 0931
(c) 1550 (d) 2300

5. A train leaves at 1227 and arrives at its destination at 2309. How long did the
journey take?

6. Three drivers recorded their times to travel to the same holiday destination. The
times were 5 hrs 11 mins, 5 hrs 52 mins and 6 hrs 9 mins. What was the average
driving time?

7. A car travelling at an average speed of 85 km/hr takes how long to cover

400km?

8. Students at a local school attend six, fifty minute lessons each day. How long
have they spent in class over a 5 day school week.

9. A family needs to travel 575 km to reach their holiday destination. If they leave
at 6.45am and travel at an average speed of 85 km/hr, what time will they arrive
at their destination?

10. A cyclist left home at 5.45 am and arrived at her destination 42 km away at 7:12
am. What was her average speed?

Page 23
 Numeracy

Answers to activity questions

Check your skills

1. (a) The SI unit for length is metres, for mass; kilograms and for time; seconds.
(b) m is for milli – one thousandth and M is for Mega – one million (Quite
different!)

Traditional Method Dimensional Analysis Method

2,3 (a) 1000 mm = 1 m (a) 1m
means ÷ 1000
495 mm ×
1000 mm
495 mm ÷ 1000 = 0.495 m = 0.495m
(b) 1 kg = 1000 g (b) 1000 g
means x 1000 1.395 kg ×
1.395 kg x 1000 = 1 395 g 1 kg
= 1395g

(c) 1000 g = 1 kg (c) 1kg

means ÷ 1000 58 g ×
58 g ÷ 1000 = 0.058 kg 1000 g
= 0.058kg

(d) 1 km = 1 000 m (d) 1000 m 1000mm

means x 1000 0.06 km × ×
1m = 1 000mm 1 km 1m
means x 1000 = 60000mm
0.06 km x 1000000 = 60 000mm

(e) 10 000 m2 = 1 ha (e) 1ha

means ÷ 10 000 25000 m 2 ×
25 000 m2 ÷ 10 000 = 2.5 ha 10000 m 2
= 2.5ha
(f) 1 m3 = 1 kL (f) 1 kL 1000 L
3.5 m3= 3.5 kL 3.5 m3 × ×
1 kL = 1000 L 1 m3 1 kL
means x 1000 = 3500L
3.5 kL x 1000 = 3 500 L

4. (a) 1440 in 24 hour time is 2.40pm

(b) 2:47pm + 1 hr 45mins = 3hrs 92mins or 4:32pm
(c) 3.15 hours: 0.15 hr = 0.15 x 60mins = 9 mins: 3 hours 9 mins

Page 24
Student Learning Zone +61 2 6626 9262 | [email protected] | www.scu.edu.au/learning-zone [last edited June 2023]
Conversions – traditional method
1. Suitable Unit
(a) The length of the Bruxner Highway km
(b) The floor area of a house m2
(c) The mass of a newly born chicken g
(d) The volume of water in a water storage dam supplying ML possibly GL
a city.
(e) The length of wood-screws mm

2. Change the following length measurements to the units shown in brackets

(a) 3.6m (cm) 1m = 100 cm
means x 100
3.6 m x 100 = 360 cm
(b) 4500m (km) 1000m = 1 km
means ÷ 1000
4500m ÷ 1000 = 4.5km
(c) 55m (km) 1000m = 1 km
means ÷ 1000
55m ÷ 1000 =0.055km
(d) 0.325km (mm) 1km = 1000m
means x 1000
1 m =1000mm
means x 1000
0.325km x 1000000= 325000mm
(e) 4 550 000mm (km) 1000 mm = 1 m
means ÷ 1000
1000m = 1 km
means ÷ 1000
4 550 000mm÷1 000 000= 4.55km
(f) 5.2 cm (km) 100cm = 1 m
means ÷ 100
1000m = 1 km
means ÷ 1000
5.2cm ÷ 100 000= 0.000052km

3. Change the following mass measurements to the units shown in brackets

(a) 8550 kg (t) 1000kg=1t
means ÷ 1000
8550kg ÷ 1000 = 8.55t

Page 25
 (b) 0.52g (mg) 1 g = 1000 mg
means x 1000
0.52g x 1000 = 520mg
(c) 9.1mg (mcg or μg) 1mg = 1000mcg
means x 1000
9.1mg x 1000 = 9100mcg
(d) 1.25 g (kg) 1000g = 1kg
means ÷ 1000
1.25g ÷ 1000 = 0.00125kg
(e) 2 905 mg (kg) 1000mg = 1g
means ÷ 1000
1000g = 1kg
means ÷ 1000
2905mg ÷ 1000000 = 0.002905 kg
(f) 35mg (g) 1000mg = 1g
means ÷ 1000
35mg ÷ 1000 = 0.035g

4. Change the following capacity measurements to the units shown in brackets

(a) 8500mL (L) 1000 mL = 1L
means ÷ 1000
8500mL ÷ 1000 = 8.5L
(b) 0.451kL (L) 1 kL = 1000 L
means x 1000
0.451kL x 1000 = 451 L
(c) 85.9L (kL) 1000 L = 1 kL
means ÷ 1000
85.9 L ÷ 1000 = 0.0859 kL
(d) 1.6 ML (L) 1 ML = 1 000 000 L
means x 1 000 000
1.6 ML x 1 000 000 = 1 600 000L
(e) 75L (kL) 1000 L = 1 kL
means ÷ 1000
75L ÷ 1000 = 0.075kL
(f) 0.000 6kL (L) 1kL = 1000L
means x 1000
0.000 6 kL x 1000 = 0.6 kL

5. Change the following area measurements to the units shown in brackets

(a) 25 000m2 (ha) 10 000m2 = 1 ha
means ÷ 10 000
25 000m2÷ 10 000 = 2.5 ha
(b) 0.595km2 (m2) 1 km2= 1 000 000 m2
means x 1 000 000

Page 26
 0.595km2 x 1 000 000 = 595 000 m2
(c) 26cm2 (m2) 10 000 cm2 = 1 m2
means ÷ 10 000
26cm ÷ 10 000 = 0.0026 m2
2

(d) 31.8ha (km2) 100 ha = 1km2

means ÷ 100
31.8 ha ÷ 100 = 0.318 km2
(e) 450 000m2 (ha and 10 000 m2 = 1 ha 1000 000 m2 = 1 km2
km2) means ÷ 10 000 means ÷1000 000
450 000m2 ÷ 10 000 = 45 ha 450 000 m2 ÷ 1000 000 = 0.45 km2
(f) 575 212cm2 (m2) 10 000 cm2 = 1 m2
means ÷ 10 000
575 212cm2 ÷ 10 000 = 57.5212 m2

6. Change the following volume measurements to the units shown in brackets

(a) 356 000cm3 (m3) 1 000 000 cm3 = 1m3
means ÷ 1 000 000
356 000cm3 = 0.356 m3
(b) 2.575 m3 (cm3) 1m3 =1 000 000 cm3
means x 1 000 000
2.575 m3 = 2 575 000 cm3
(c) 0.000 4 km3 (m3) 1km3 =1 000 000 000 m3
means x 1 000 000 000
0.000 4 km3 x 1 000 000 000 = 400 000 m3
(d) 375 cm3 (m3) 1 000 000 cm3 = 1m3
means ÷ 1 000 000
375 cm3 = 0.000 375 m3

7. Change the following volume units to the capacity units shown in brackets
(a) 345 cm3 (mL) 1 cm3 = 1 mL
345 cm3 = 345 mL
(b) 0.072 m3 (L) 1 m3= 1 kL = 1000 L
means x 1000
0.072 m3 x 1000 = 72 L
(c) 5.5m3 (L) 1 m3= 1 kL = 1000 L
means x 1000
5.5m3 = 5500 L
(d) 67 500 cm3 (kL) 1 cm3 = 1 mL
1000 mL= 1 L
means ÷ 1 000
1000 L = 1 kL
means ÷ 1 000
3
67 500 cm ÷ 1 000 000 = 0.0675 (kL)

Page 27
Conversions – dimensional analysis
1. Change the following measurements using the dimensional analysis method to the
units shown in brackets
(a) 3.55m (cm) 100cm
3.55 m ×
1m
= 355cm
(b) 6510g (kg) 1kg
6510 g ×
1000 g
= 6.51kg
(c) 55cm (m) 1m
55 cm ×
100 cm
= 0.55m
(d) 1.36 kg (mg) 1000 g 1000mg
1.36 kg × ×
1 kg 1g
= 1360 000mg
(e) 4 550 mm2 (cm2) 1cm 2
4550 mm × 2

100 mm 2
= 45.5cm 2
(f) 5.2 L (mL) 1000mL
5.2 L ×
1L
= 5200mL
(g) 11.4 mg (g) 1g
11.4 mg ×
1000 mg
= 0.0114g
(h) 305 000cm3 (m3) 1m3
305000 cm3 ×
1000 000 cm3
= 0.305m 3

(i) 8 550 g (t) 1 kg 1t

8550 g × ×
1000 g 1000 kg
= 0.00855t
(j) 240 000m2 (ha) 1ha
240000m 2 ×
10000m 2
= 24ha
(k) 9.352L (mL) 1000mL
9.352 L ×
1L
= 9352mL
(l) 21.8ha (m2) 10000m 2
21.8 ha ×
1 ha
= 218000m 2

(m) 2 905 μg (g) 1g

2905 µ g ×
1000 000 µ g
= 0.002905g

Page 28
 (n) 15 305mg (kg) 1g 1kg
15305 mg × ×
1000 mg 1000 g
= 0.015305kg

2. Change the following metric rates to the rate shown in brackets

(a) 850mL/hr (L/hr) 850 mL 1L
×
1hr 1000 mL
= 0.85 L / hr
(b) 4.51L/min (L/hr) 4.51L 60 min
×
1 min 1hr
= 270.6 L / hr
(c) 85.9km/hr (m/min) 85.9 km 1000m 1 hr
× ×
1 hr 1 km 60 min
= 1431m / min
(d) 1.6 m2/hr (cm2/sec) 1.6 m 2 10 000cm 2 1 hr 1 min
× × ×
1 hr 1 m2 60 min 60sec
= 4.44 cm / sec
2

(e) 75 mg/min (g/hr) 75 mg 1g 60 min

× ×
1 min 1000 mg 1hr
= 4.5 g / hr
(f) 0.000 6 cm3/sec (L/hr) 0.000 6 cm3 1L 60 sec 60 min
× 3
× ×
1sec 1000 cm 1 min 1hr
= 0.00216 L / hr

3. Change the following metric and imperial units to the units shown, given the
conversion.
(a) Change 25 ha to acres given that 1 hectare is 2.48 acres
2.48acres
25 ha ×
1 ha
= 62acres
(b) Change 100 cm to inches given that 1 inch is 2.54 cm
1in
100 cm ×
2.54 cm
= 39.37in
(c) Change 50 lbs (pounds weight) to kg given that 1 kg is 2.2 lbs
1kg
50 lbs ×
2.2 lbs
= 22.73kg
(d) Change 100 miles to km given that 1 mile is 1.61 km

Page 29
 1.61km
100 miles ×
1 mile
= 161km
(e) Change 36.5 oz (ounces weight) to g given that 1 oz is 28.35g
28.35 g
36.5 oz ×
1 oz
= 1034.775g
(f) Change 100 metres to yards (yd) given that 1 m is 1.09yd
1.09 yd
100 m ×
1m
= 109 yd
(g) Change 308cubic inches (in3) to cm3 given that 1 in is 2.54 cm
3
 2.54cm 
308in3 ×  
 1in 
= 3.08 ×16.387
= 5047cm3

4. Change the following rates to the new rate using both imperial and metric units, given
the conversion.
(a) Change 3.45 mi/hr to km/hr given that 1 mile is 1.61 km
3.45 mi 1.61km
×
1hr 1 mi
= 5.5545km / hr
(b) Change 50.9 m2/hr to yd2/hr given that 1 m is 1.09yd
2
50.9m 2  1.09 yd 
× 
1hr  1m 
50.9 m 2 1.1881 yd 2
= ×
1hr 1 m2
= 60.5 yd 2 / hr
(c) Change 6.45 gal/hr to L/min given that 1 imp. gallon is 4.55 litres
6.45 gal 4.55 L 1hr
× ×
1hr 1 gal 60 min
= 0.489 L / min
(d) Change 3.45 ft2/hr to cm2/sec given that 1 ft (foot) is 30.48 cm
2
3.45 ft 2  30.48cm  1hr 1min
×  × ×
1hr  1 ft  60 min 60sec
3.45 ft 2 929.03cm 2 1 hr 1 min
= × × ×
1 hr 1 ft 2 60 min 60sec
= 0.89cm 2 / sec

Page 30
Time
1. (a) Change 420 minutes to hours
60mins =1 hr
means ÷ 60
420 min ÷ 60 = 7 hrs
(b) Change 330 minutes to hours and minutes.
60mins =1 hr
means ÷ 60
330 min ÷ 60 = 5.5hrs = 5hrs 30 mins
(c) Change 215 minutes to hours and minutes.
60mins =1 hr
means ÷ 60
215 min ÷ 60 = 3.583333 hrs = 3hrs 35 min (0.58333 x 60 = 35)
(d) Change 191 seconds to minutes (as a decimal).
60 secs =1 min
means ÷ 60
191 secs ÷ 60 = 3.18333 min
(e) Change 54 hours to days and hours.
24 hrs = 1 day
means ÷ 24
54 hours = 2.25 days = 2days 6 hours (0.25 x 24 = 6)
(f) Change 324 mins to hrs (as a decimal)
60mins =1 hr
means ÷ 60
324 min ÷ 60 = 5.4 hrs = 5hrs 24 min (0.4 x 60 = 24)

2. (a) Change 2 hours 12 minutes to minutes.

1 hr = 60 mins
means x 60
2 hours 12 minutes = 2 x 60 + 12 mins = 132 mins
(b) Change 4.3 hours to hours and minutes.
4 hours 0.3 x 60 mins
= 4 hours 18 mins
(c) Change 4.3 hours to minutes.
1 hr = 60 mins
means x 60
4.3 hours = 4.3 x 60 mins = 258 mins
(d) Change 5 hours 38 minutes to hours.
5 + 38 ÷ 60 hrs
= 5.633333 hours
(e) Change 3 hours 47 minutes to minutes.
3 x 60 + 47 mins
= 227 mins
(f) Change 2.68 hours to hours and minutes.
2.68 hrs = 2 hrs 0.68 x 60 mins

Page 31
 2.68 hrs = 2 hrs 41 mins

3. Change these am/pm times to 24 hour times

(a) Midnight 0000
(b) 7:31am 0731
(c) Midday 1200
(d) 7.31pm 1931

4. Change these 24 hour times to am/pm times

(a) 0047 12:47am
(b) 0931 9:31am
(c) 1550 3:50pm
(d) 2300 11pm

5. A train leaves at 1227 and arrives at its destination at 2309. How long did the
journey take?
Hours Minutes
23 09
- 12 27
Becomes 22 69 Change 1 hr into 60 mins.
- 12 27
10 42 The journey took 10hrs 42 mins.

6. Three drivers recorded their times to travel to the same holiday destination.
The times were 5 hrs 11 mins, 5 hrs 52 mins and 6 hrs 9 mins. What was the
average driving time?

Total of the times is: 17 hours 12 mins or 1032 mins

Average time = 1032 mins ÷ 3 = 344 mins or 5 hrs 44 mins

7. A car travelling at an average speed of 85 km/hr takes how long to cover

400km?
distance
speed=
time
400km
85km/hr=
t hrs
85km/hr × t hrs=400km
400km
t=
85km/hr
t = 4.706hr
Time taken is 4 hrs 42 minutes.

8. Students at a local school attend six, fifty minute lessons each day. How long
have they spent in class over a 5 day school week.

Time spent over a week = 6 x 50 x 5 = 1500 min = 25 hours

Page 32
9. A family needs to travel 575 km to reach their holiday destination. If they
leave at 6.45am and travel at an average speed of 85 km/hr, what time will
they arrive at their destination?
distance
speed=
time
575km
85km/hr=
t hrs
85km/hr × t hrs=575km
575km
t=
85km/hr
t = 6.765hr
The journey takes 6 hrs 46mins, the family arrive at 1331 or 1:31pm

10. A cyclist left home at 5.45 am and arrived at her destination 42 km away at
7:12 am. What was her average speed?

Time taken is 1 hr 27 min, or 1.45 hr (as a decimal)

Average speed is
d
s=
t
42km
s=
1.45hr
s ≈ 29km / hr

Page 33
*Please let me know if you find any typos in this answer key – I’m sure there are some!

Chem 1061
SI prefix conversion practice

SI Prefixes: pico = p = 10−12 nano = n* = 10−9 micro = μ* = 10−6

milli = m* = 10−3 centi = c* = 10−2 deci = d* = 10−1
kilo = k* = 103 mega = M* = 106 giga = G = 109
(* = memorize)

When setting up a conversion factor to or from a base unit, use 1 for the prefixed unit and
the power of 10 in front of the base unit. Example: 1 mg = 10-3 g; 1 kg = 103 g. Enter 103 in your
calculator by typing 1 E 3 (using a button labeled E, EE, or EXP).

Check your work: as the unit gets larger, the number should get smaller, and vice-versa.

Give all answers in scientific notation. Practice setting these up as dimensional analysis
conversions with cancelling units.

Converting to or from the base unit:

1. Convert 4.0 cm to m. 9. Convert 4 nL to L.

 m
 L
4.0 cm × = 4.0 x 10−2 m 4 nL × = 4 x 10−9 L

cm
nL

2. Convert 4.0 m to cm. 10. Convert 4 L to nL.

1 cm
nL
4.0 m ×
 m = 4.0 x 102 cm 4 L ×
 L
= 4 x 109 nL

3. Convert 40. mm to m. 11. Convert 40.0 μL to L.

 m
 L
40. mm × = 4.0 x 10−2 m 40.0 µL ×
µ
= 4.00 x 10−5 L

mm

4. Convert 40. m to mm. 12. Convert 40.0 L to μL.

1 mm
40. m ×
 m = 4.0 x 104 mm 40.0 L ×


µ
= 4.00 x 107 µL
L

5. Convert 0.4 km to m. 13. Convert 0.04 GL to L.

 m
0.4 km × = 4 x 102 m 0.04 GL ×

 L
= 4 x 107 L

km
GL

6. Convert 0.4 m to km. 14. Convert 0.04 L to GL.

1 km
0.4 m ×
 m = 4 x 10−4 km 0.04 L ×


GL
= 4 x 10−11 GL
L

7. Convert 40.0 m to mm. 15. Convert 400.00 dL to L.

1 mm
 L
40.0 m ×
 m = 4.00 x 104 mm 400.00 dL × = 4.0000 x 101 L

dL
8. Convert 400.0 m to mm. 16. Convert 400.00 L to dL.
1 mm
400.0 m ×
 m = 4.000 x 105 mm
dL
400.00 L ×
 L = 4.0000 x 103 dL
*Please let me know if you find any typos in this answer key – I’m sure there are some!

Note, you can avoid using negative exponents by using the inverse of the power of 10 in front of the
prefix - this is equal to having the power of 10 in front of the base unit. For example, 1 cm = 10−2 m
is mathematically equal to 102 cm = 1 m.

1. Convert 4.0 cm to m. 9. Convert 4 nL to L.

 m
 L
4.0 cm × = 4.0 x 10−2 m 4 nL × = 4 x 10−9 L

cm
nL

m
L
4.0 cm × = 4.0 x 10−2 m 4 nL × = 4 x 10−9 L

 cm
 nL

2. Convert 4.0 m to cm. 10. Convert 4 L to nL.

1 cm
nL
4.0 m ×
 m = 4.0 x 102 cm 4 L ×
 = 4 x 109 nL
L

 cm
 nL
4.0 m × = 4.0 x 102 cm 4L× 1L
= 4 x 109 nL
1m

3. Convert 40. mm to m. 11. Convert 40.0 μL to L.

 m
 L
40. mm × = 4.0 x 10−2 m 40.0 µL × = 4.00 x 10−5 L

mm
µ

m
40. mm ×
 mm = 4.0 x 10−2 m 40.0 µL ×


L
= 4.00 x 10−5 L
µ

4. Convert 40. m to mm. 12. Convert 40.0 L to μL.

1 mm
40. m ×
 m = 4.0 x 104 mm 40.0 L ×


µ
= 4.00 x 107 µL
L

 mm
40. m ×
m
= 4.0 x 104 mm 40.0 L ×

 µ
= 4.00 x 107 µL

L
7. Convert 40.0 m to mm. 15. Convert 400.00 dL to L.
1 mm
40.0 m ×
 m = 4.00 x 104 mm 400.00 dL ×

 L
= 4.0000 x 101 L

dL

 mm
40.0 m × = 4.00 x 104 mm
L
400.00 dL ×
 dL = 4.0000 x 101 L

m

8. Convert 400.0 m to mm. 16. Convert 400.00 L to dL.

1 mm
400.0 m ×
 m = 4.000 x 105 mm
dL
400.00 L ×
 L = 4.0000 x 103 dL

 mm
400.0 m × = 4.000 x 105 mm 400.00 L ×

 dL
= 4.0000 x 103 dL

m
L
 *Please let me know if you find any typos in this answer key – I’m sure there are some!

Converting between units with different prefixes:

The most systematic way to convert units from one prefix to another is to go through the base unit, and
use two conversion factors. One-step conversion is also shown with the powers of 10 on the opposite
sides of the fraction after cancelling the base unit (a power of 10 must never be placed next to its own
prefix) and simplified with a single positive power of 10. Use the last two with caution – it is much
easier to misplace a power of 10 or a minus sign when combining steps like this.

Check your answer by counting how many powers of 10 the unit is changing by. If the unit gets larger by
3 powers of 10, the number gets smaller by 3 powers of 10, and vice-versa. Do not use this method to
solve the problem, use it to check your dimensional analysis.

21. Convert 0.4 km to cm.

17. Convert 4.0 cm to mm.

 m 1 cm

 m 1 mm 0.4 km × ×
 m = 4 x 104 cm
4.0 cm × ×
 m = 4.0 x 10 mm 1
1 km
1 cm

 cm

 mm 0.4 km × = 4 x 104 cm
4.0 cm ×
 cm
= 4.0 x 10 mm 1

 km

 cm

 mm 0.4 km × = 4 x 104 cm
4.0 cm × = 4.0 x 10 mm 1

km

cm
22. Convert 0.4 cm to km.
18. Convert 4.0 mm to cm.

 m 1 km

 m 1 cm 0.4 cm × ×
 m = 4.0 x 10-6 km
4.0 mm × 1 mm
×
 m = 4.0 x 10 cm −1
1 cm

 km

 cm 0.4 cm × = 4.0 x 10-6 km
4.0 mm ×
 mm
= 4.0 x 10 cm −1

 cm

km
1 cm 0.4 cm × = 4.0 x 10-6 km
4.0 mm × = 4.0 x 10 cm −1

 cm

 mm
23. Convert 40.0 nm to mm.
19. Convert 40 mm to km.

 m 1 mm

 m 1 km 40.0 nm × ×
 m = 4.00 x 10-5 mm
40 mm × × = 4.0 x 10 km -5
1 nm
1 mm
 m

 mm

 km 40.0 nm × = 4.00 x 10-5 mm
40 mm × = 4.0 x 10 km -5

 nm

 mm

mm

km 40.0 nm × = 4.00 x 10-5 mm
40 mm × = 4.0 x 10-5 km
 nm

 mm
24. Convert 400.0 nm to mm.
20. Convert 40 km to mm.

 m 1 mm

 m 1 mm 400.0 nm × ×
 m = 4.000 x 10-4 mm
40 km × ×
 m = 4.0 x 107 mm 1 nm
1 km

 mm

 mm 400.0 nm × = 4.000 x 10-4 mm
40 km × = 4.0 x 10 mm 7

 nm

 km

mm

 mm 400.0 nm × = 4.000 x 10-4 mm
40 km × = 4.0 x 10 mm 7
 nm

km
*Please let me know if you find any typos in this answer key – I’m sure there are some!

25. Convert 4 mL to µL. 31. Convert 400.00 dL to pL.

 L 1 µL
 L 1 pL
4 mL × ×  = 4 x 103 µL 400.00 dL × 1 dL
×
 L = 4.0000 x 1013 pL
1 mL
 L

 µL
 pL
4 mL × = 4 x 103 µL 400.00 dL × = 4.0000 x 1013 pL

 mL
 dL

 µL
 pL
4 mL × = 4 x 103 µL 400.00 dL × = 4.0000 x 1013 pL

mL
dL

26. Convert 4 µL to mL. 32. Convert 400.00 pL to dL

 L
 L 1 dL
4 µL ×
1 mL
×  = 4 x 10-3 mL 400.00 pL × × = 4.0000 x 10-9 dL
1 µL
 L 1 pL
 L

 mL
 dL
4 µL × = 4 x 10-3 mL 400.00 pL ×
 pL
= 4.0000 x 10-9 dL

 µL

mL
dL
4 µL × = 4 x 10-3 mL 400.00 pL × = 4.0000 x 10-9 dL

 µL
 pL

27. Convert 40.0 μL to nL.

 L 1 nL
40.0 µL × ×
 L = 4.00 x 104 nL
1 µL

 nL
40.0 µL × = 4.00 x 104 nL

 µL

 nL
40.0 µL × = 4.00 x 104 nL

µL

28. Convert 40.0 nL to μL.

 L 1 µL
40.0 nL × ×
 L = 4.00 x 10-2 µL
1 nL

 µL
40.0 nL × = 4.00 x 10-2 µL

 nL

µL
40.0 nL × = 4.00 x 10-2 µL

 nL

29. Convert 0.04 GL to mL.

 L 1 mL
0.04 GL × ×
 L = 4 x 1010 mL
1 GL

 mL
0.04 GL × = 4 x 1010 mL

 GL

 mL
0.04 GL ×
GL
= 4 x 1010 mL
30. Convert 0.04 mL to GL.

 L 1 GL
0.04 mL × 1 mL
×
 L = 4 x 10-14 GL

 GL
0.04 mL × = 4 x 10-14 GL

 mL

GL
0.04 mL × = 4 x 10-14 GL

 mL
 Physical Science: Tables & Formulas
SI Base Units
Base Quantity Unit Name Unit Symbol
Amount of substance mole Mol
Electric current ampere A
Length meter M
Luminous intensity candela Cd
Mass kilogram Kg
Time second S
Temperature Kelvin K

SI Derived Units
Derived Quantity Name (Symbol) Expression in terms of Expression in terms
other SI units of SI base units
Area Square meter (m2)
Volume Cubic meter (m3)
Speed/velocity Meter per second (m/s)
Acceleration Meter per second squared (m/s2)
Frequency Hertz (Hz) s-1
Force Newton (N) m . kg . s-2
Pressure, stress Pascal (Pa) N.m2 m-1 . kg . s-2
Energy, work, quantity of heat Joule (J) N. m m2 . kg . s-2
Power Watt (W) J/s m2 . kg . s-3
Electric charge Coulomb (C) -- s.A
Electric potential difference Volt (V) W/A m2·kg·s-3·A-1
Electric resistance Ohm (Ω) V/A m2·kg·s-3·A-2

Prefixes used to designate multiples of a base unit

Prefix Symbol Meaning Multiple of base unit Scientific Notation
tera T trillion 1, 000, 000, 000, 000 1012
giga G billion 1, 000, 000, 000 109
mega M Million 1, 000, 000 106
kilo k Thousand 1, 000 103
centi c One hundredth 1/100 or .01 10-2
milli m One thousandth 1/1000 or .001 10-3
micro u One millionth 1/1000000 or .000001 10-6
Nano n One billionth 1/1000000000 or .000000001 10-9
pico p One trillionth 1/1000000000000 or.000000000001 10-12

In general, when converting from base units (m, l, g, etc) or derived units (m2,m3, m/s, Hz, N, J, V, etc) to a
multiple greater (kilo, mega, giga, or tera) than the base or derived unit- then divide by the factor. For
example: 10m = 10/1000km = 1/100 km = .01km.
Page 1 of 10
When converting from base units or derived units to a multiple smaller (centi, milli, micro, nano) than the
base or derived unit- then multiply by the factor. For example: 10m = 10 x 100cm = 1000cm.

Subatomic Particles
Particle Charge Mass Location
Proton +1 1 nucleus
Neutron 0 1 nucleus
Electron -1 0 Outside the nucleus

Common Cations
Ion Name (symbol) Ion Charge
Lithium (Li) 1+
Sodium (Na) 1+
Potassium (K) 1+
Rubidium (Rb) 1+
Cesium (Cs) 1+
Beryllium (Be) 2+
Magnesium (Mg) 2+
Calcium (Ca) 2+
Strontium (Sr) 2+
Barium (Ba) 2+
Aluminum (Al) 3+

Common Anions
Element Name (symbol) Ion Name (symbol) Ion Charge
Fluorine Fluoride 1-
Chlorine Chloride 1-
Bromine Bromide 1-
Iodine Iodide 1-
Oxygen Oxide 2-
Sulfur Sulfide 2-
Nitrogen Nitride 3-

Common Polyatomic Ions

Ion Name Ion Formula Ion Name Ion Formula
Carbonate CO32- Nitrite NO2-
Chlorate ClO3- Phosphate PO43-
Cyanide CN- Phosphite PO33-
Hydroxide OH- Sulfate SO42-
Nitrate NO3- Sulfite SO32-

Page 2 of 10
Prefixes for Naming Covalent Compounds
Number of Atoms Prefix Number of Atoms Prefix
1 Mono 6 Hexa
2 Di 7 Hepta
3 Tri 8 Octa
4 Tetra 9 Nona
5 penta 10 deca

Types of Chemical Reactions

Type of reaction Generalized formula Specific Example
Combustion HC + O2  H2O + CO2 2C2H6 + 7O2  6H2O + 4CO2
Synthesis A + B  AB 2Na + Cl2  2NaCl
Decomposition AB  A + B 2H2O  2H2 + O2
Single Replacement A + BC  AC + B 2Al + 3CuCl2  3Cu + 2AlCl3
Double Replacement AX + BY  AY + BX Pb(NO3)2 + K2CrO4  PbCrO4 + 2KNO3

The Effects of Change on Equilibrium in a Reversible Reaction (Le Châtelier’s

Principle)
Condition Effect
Temperature Increasing temperature favors the reaction that absorbs energy (endothermic)
Pressure Increasing pressure favors the reaction that produces less gas.
Concentration Increasing conc. of one substance favors reaction that produces less of that substance

Common Acids
Acid Formula Strength
Hydrochloric (muriatic) acid HCl strong
Nitric acid HNO3 strong
Sulfuric acid H2SO4 strong
Acetic acid CH3COOH weak
Citric acid C6H8O7 weak
Formic HCOOH weak

Common Bases
Base Formula Strength
Potassium hydroxide (potash) KOH strong
Sodium hydroxide (lye) NaOH strong
Calcium hydroxide (lime) Ca(OH)2 strong
ammonia NH3 weak
Page 3 of 10
pH scale
Strong acids  more acidic  weak acids Neutral Weak bases  More basic  strong bases
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

Types of Nuclear Radiation

Radiation Type Symbol Charge Nuclear Equation
4 225
Ac  87 221Fr + 2 4He
Alpha particle 2 He +2 89
0 14 14 0
Beta particle -1 e -1 6 C  7 N + -1 e

Gamma γ 0 n/a

Equations
Density = mass ÷ volume (D = m/v) Units: g/cm3 or g/mL

Rearranged: mass = Density x Volume Units: grams or

Volume = mass ÷ density Units: cm3 or mL

Moles = mass (grams) x Molar Mass (grams / mol) Molar Mass = atomic mass in grams

Energy = mass x (speed of light)2 E = mc2 Units: joules

Speed = distance ÷ time v=d÷t Units: meters / second

Rearranged: distance = speed x time Units: meters

time = distance ÷ speed Units: seconds

.
Momentum = mass x velocity p=mxv Units: kg m/s

Acceleration = (final velocity - initial velocity) ÷ time a = Δv ÷ t Units: meters / (second)2

Rearranged: Δv = acceleration x time Units: meters/second

time = Δv ÷ a Units: seconds

Force = mass x acceleration F=mxa Units: kg . m/s2 or Newtons (N)

Rearranged: mass = Force ÷ acceleration Units: g or kg

acceleration = Force ÷ mass Units: meters / (second)2
Page 4 of 10
Weight = mass x gravity (9.8 m/s2 ) Units: kg . m/s2 or Newtons (N)

Work = Force x distance W=Fxd Units: Joules (J)

Rearranged: Force = Work ÷ distance Units: Newtons

distance = Work ÷ Force Units: meters

Power = Work ÷ time P=W÷t Units: J/s or Watts (W)

Rearranged: Work = Power x time Units: Joules (J)

time = Work ÷ Power Units: seconds (s)

Mechanical Advantage = Output Force ÷ Input Force (Resistance Force ÷ Effort Force)

or

Mechanical Advantage = Input Distance ÷ Output Distance (Effort Distance ÷ Resistance Distance)

Gravitational Potential Energy = mass x gravity (9.8 m/s2) x height GPE = m x g x h Units:
Joules

Rearranged: m = GPE ÷ (g . h) h = GPE ÷ (m . g)

Kinetic Energy = ½ mass x (velocity)2 KE = .5 mv2 Units: Joules

Rearranged: m = 2KE ÷ v2 v=

Efficiency of a Machine = (Useful Work Output ÷ Work Input) x 100

Temperature Conversions

Celsius-Fahrenheit Conversion:

Fahrenheit temperature = (1.8 x Celsius temperature) + 32.00 F = 1.8 (C) + 320

Celsius temperature = (Fahrenheit temperature – 32) ÷ 1.8 C = (F – 32) ÷ 1.8

Celsius-Kelvin Conversion:

Kelvin = Celsius + 273 Celsius = Kelvin -273

Page 5 of 10
Specific Heat Equation

Energy = mass x Specific Heat Value x change in temperature E=m.c.Δt Units: Joules

Rearranged: mass = Energy ÷ (c x Δ T) Units: kg Δ T = Energy ÷ (c x mass ) Units: K or 0C

Wave Speed Equation

Wave’s Speed = frequency x wavelength v=fxλ Units: m/s

Rearranged: Frequency = Wave Speed ÷ wavelength f=v÷λ Units: Hertz

Wavelength = Wave Speed ÷ frequency λ=v÷f Units: meters / second

Speed of light (in a vacuum) = 3.0 x 108 m/s (300,000,000 m/s)

Speed of Sound (in air at 25 0C) = 346 m/s Speed of Sound (in water at 25 0C) = 1490 m/s

Speed of Sound (in iron at 25 0C) = 5000 m/s

Ohm’s Law Equation

Current = Voltage ÷ Resistance I=V/R Units: Amperes (A)

Rearranged: Voltage = Current x Resistance V=IxR Units: Volts (V)

Resistance = Voltage ÷ Current R=V/I Units: Ohms (Ω)

Electric Power Equation

Power = Current x Voltage P=IxV Units: watts (W) or Kilowatts (kW)

Variations: P = I2 x R P = V2 / R

Rearranged: Voltage = Power ÷ Current V=PxI Units: Volts (V)

Current = Power ÷ Voltage I=P÷V Units: Amperes (A)

Page 6 of 10
Electromagnetic Spectrum: Relates the energy, frequency and wavelength of various types of
electromagnetic waves (radio, TV, micro, infrared, visible, ultraviolet, X-ray, and gamma). As energy and
frequency increase the wavelength decreases.

Page 7 of 10
Page 8 of 10
 AM radio - 535 kilohertz to 1.7 megahertz
 Short wave radio - bands from 5.9 megahertz to 26.1 megahertz
 Citizens band (CB) radio - 26.96 megahertz to 27.41 megahertz
 Television stations - 54 to 88 megahertz for channels 2 through 6
 FM radio - 88 megahertz to 108 megahertz
 Television stations - 174 to 220 megahertz for channels 7 through 13

 Garage door openers, alarm systems, etc. - Around 40 megahertz

 Standard cordless phones: Bands from 40 to 50 megahertz
 Baby monitors: 49 megahertz
 Radio controlled airplanes: Around 72 megahertz, which is different from...
 Radio controlled cars: Around 75 megahertz
 Wildlife tracking collars: 215 to 220 megahertz
 MIR space station: 145 megahertz and 437 megahertz
 Cell phones: 824 to 849 megahertz
 New 900-MHz cordless phones: Obviously around 900 megahertz!
 Air traffic control radar: 960 to 1,215 megahertz
Page 9 of 10
 Global Positioning System: 1,227 and 1,575 megahertz
 Deep space radio communications: 2290 megahertz to 2300 megahertz

Page 10 of 10
 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

INTRODUCTION

Dimensional Analysis is a mathematical technique that makes use of the

dimensions as a tool to the solution of several engineering problems. Each
physical phenomenon can be expressed by an equation composed of physical
quantities (or variables). These physical quantities may be dimensional or non-
dimensional quantities. Through dimensional analysis, the physical quantities or
variables can be arranged in a systematic fashion and the physical quantities can
be combined to form non-dimensional parameters.

Uses of dimensional analysis in the study of fluid mechanics:

1. Testing the dimensional homogeneity of any equation in fluid mechanics

2. Deriving equations expressed in terms of non-dimensional parameters to
show the relative significance of each parameter
3. Planning model tests and presenting experimental results in a systematic
manner using non-dimensional parameters; this enables analysis of even
complex fluid flow phenomenon.

DIMENSIONS

Engineers and scientists use various physical quantities to describe a physical

phenomenon. These physical quantities can be described by a set of quantities
which are in a sense independent of each other. These quantities are called
fundamental quantities or primary quantities.

The primary quantities are mass, length, time, and temperature denoted by M, L,
T and  respectively.

All other physical quantities such as area, volume, acceleration, force, energy,
power, etc. are termed as derived quantities or secondary quantities. These
quantities are called secondary quantities because they can be expressed in
terms of physical quantities.

The expression for a derived quantity in terms of the primary quantities is called
the dimension of the physical quantity. For instance, let us derive the dimension
of the derived quantity namely, force.

As per Newton’s second law of motion, the dynamic force is the product of
mass and acceleration. Acceleration, too, is a derived quantity which is the rate
of change of velocity. Velocity is yet another derived quantity which represents
 Dimensional Analysis

the rate of change of displacement. The dimensions of velocity are: LT -1. Hence,
the dimensions of acceleration are: LT-2; so, the dimensions of force are: MLT -2.

Some engineers prefer to use force instead of mass as fundamental quantity

because force is easy to measure. In such a case, the physical phenomenon is
represented by variables expressed in F-L-T system instead of M-L-T system.
The advantage with the dimensional form of any quantity is that it is
independent of the system of units and enables us to convert from one system of
units to the other system of units.

DIMENSIONAL HOMOGENEITY

The Fourier’s principle of dimensional homogeneity states that an equation

which expresses a physical phenomenon must be algebraically correct and
dimensionally homogeneous.

When an equation is said to be dimensionally homogeneous?

An equation is said to dimensionally homogeneous, if the dimensions of the

terms on the left hand side of the equation are same as the dimensions of the
terms on the right hand side of the equation.

Illustration of dimensional homogeneity

Consider the expression for discharge in a rectangular weir,

Q = (2/3)Cd(2g)1/2 LH3/2

Let us list the SI units and dimensions of the various quantities in the above
expression
Quantity SI units Dimensions
(M-L-T system)
3 3 -1
Discharge, Q m /s LT
Coefficint of discharge, No units Dimensionless
Cd
(Acceleration due to (m/s2)1/2 (LT-2)1/2 = L1/2T-1
gravity)1/2, g1/2
Length of the notch, L m L
3/2
(Head over the sill of (m) L3/2
notch)3/2, H3/2
The dimensions of the left hand side of the equation are: L3T-1. the dimensions
of the right hand side of the equation are: (L1/2T-1).L.L3/2 = L1/2+1+3/2. T-1 = L3T-1

Prepared by: Prof. A. MURUGAPPAN Page No.:2 of 47

Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis

Thus we find that the dimensions of both the LHS and RHS of the equation are
the same. Hence, the equation is dimensionally homogeneous.

The unique characteristic of a dimensionally homogeneous equation is that it is

independent of the system of units chosen for measurement, i.e., if an equation
is dimensionally homogeneous, it can be used without any modification with
either system of units.

METHODS OF DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

(A) Rayleigh Method

(B) Buckingham  - Method

(A) Rayleigh Method

This method was proposed by Lord Rayleigh in the year 1989 to determine the
effect of temperature on viscosity of a gas. Let X be a variable which is a
function of different variables namely, X1, X2, ……, Xn. This can be written in
the general form as

X  f  X 1 , X 2 ,......, X n  …… (1)

In the above equation, X is the dependent variable and X1, X2, ……, Xn are the
independent variables.

In the Rayleigh method, the functional relationship of the variables X1, X2, ……,
Xn is expressed in the form of an exponential equation which must be
dimensionally homogeneous. Hence, equation (1) can be expressed as


X  C X1a X 2b ......X nn  …… (2)

where C is a dimensionless constant; C can be determined either from the

physical characteristics of the problem or from experimental measurements. a,
b, ……, n are the exponents of X1, X2, ……, Xn respectively which can be
evaluated on the basis that the equation is dimensionally homogeneous. By
grouping together the variables with like powers, the dimensionless parameters
are formed. The Rayleigh method is illustrated in the following example.

Illustration

Let us consider the problem of flow of liquid through a circular orifice

discharging freely into the atmosphere under a constant head. Let Q be the

Prepared by: Prof. A. MURUGAPPAN Page No.:3 of 47

Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis

discharge passing through the orifice of diameter d, under a constant head H.

Let  be the mass density and let  the dynamic viscosity of the liquid
discharged through the orifice. Now, the discharge Q through the orifice can be
assumed to be dependent on the variables namely, diameter d of the orifice,
constant head H, mass density  of liquid, dynamic viscosity  of liquid and the
acceleration due to gravity g since the flow is freely into the atmosphere. Hence,
the general functional relationship for the dependent variable Q can be written
as

Q  f ( ,  , d , H , g) …… (3)

Equation (3) can be expressed by Rayleigh method in the exponential form as


Q  C  a  bd c H d g e  …… (4)

where C is a dimensionless constant

The following Table shows the SI units and the dimensions of the various
quantities considered in this illustration.

Quantity with symbol SI units Dimensions (in MLT system)

Discharge, Q m3s-1 M0L3T-1
Dynamic viscosity,  kg(mass)m-1s-1 ML-1T-1
Mass density,  kg(mass)m-3 ML-3T0
Diameter, d m M0LT0
Head, H m M0LT0
Gravitational constant, g ms-2 M0LT-2
Dimensionless constant, C - M0L0T0

Substituting the dimensions for each variable in equation (4)

M0L3T-1 =(M0L0T0) (ML-1T-1)a (ML-3T0)b (M0LT0)c (M0LT0)d (M0LT-2)e

For dimensional homogeneity of the above equation, the exponents of each of

the dimensions M, L and T on both sides of the equation must be identical. Thus

for M: 0=a+b (5a)

for L: 3 = - a – 3b + c + d + e (5b)
for T: -1 = - a – 2e (5c)

Prepared by: Prof. A. MURUGAPPAN Page No.:4 of 47

Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis

Now, there are 5 unknowns namely a, b, c, d and e; but there are only 3
equations; hence, three of the unknowns must be expressed in terms of the other
two.

From equation (5a), b = - a …… (6a)

1 a
From equation (5c), e   …… (6b)
2 2
1 a
From equation (5b), 3  a  3(a)  c  d  
2 2
3a 1
3  cd 
2 2
5 3a
c    d …… (6c)
2 2
Substituting the values of b, c and e from equations (6a), (6c) and (6b) in (4), we
have,

  5 3a 
  d 
1 a
  
 a a  2 2
Q  C   d  d 2 2
H g 
 
 5 1  3a  a  
  
= C  d 2 g 2   a  a d 2 g 2  H d d d
  
 


   
 1 1
  H  d 
a
  2 2 2     
= C d d g 
 
 d 3 / 2 1 / 2  d  
 
g  
 1
 
a d
    
= C  d    
1 H
2
g 2 
 1 / 2 
 d 3 / 2 1 / 2  d  

d

g  
 1
 
a d 1 / 2 
  
2 2    H  1 
= C d g 
     
  d 3 / 2 1 / 2  d  d  
 
g  
 1
 
a d 1 / 2 
     
H 
2 2     H 1 / 2
= C d g 
 
 d 3 / 2 1 / 2  d 
 
g  

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Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis

 1
 
a d 1 / 2 
    
= C  d H g 2  
2 1 / 2    H
 
 d 3 / 2 1 / 2  d  
 
g  
   H  d 1 / 2 
a
C   2   
=  d 2 gH  3 / 2 1 / 2   
  4  d 
2 g  d 
4
   H 

= a 2 gH f1  

 ,
3 / 2 1 / 2   d 

 d g  
This expression may be written in the usual form as
Q  Cd a 2 gH …… (7)

where Cd is the coefficient of discharge of the orifice

   H 
C d  f1  3 / 2 1/ 2 ,   …… (8)
 d g d
 
   H 
In the above expression, both the terms  ,
 d 3 / 2 g1 / 2   d 
are dimensionless
 
and Cd is also a dimensionless factor.

Example 1: Show by Rayleigh method that the resistance R to the motion of a

sphere of diameter D moving with a uniform velocity V through a fluid having
density  and viscosity  may be expressed as


R  D 2V 2   
  

 VD 
Solution.

The functional relationship for R may be expressed as

R = f(, , D, V) …… (9)

By Rayleigh method, equation (9) can be expressed in the exponential form as

R = k(abDcVd) …… (10)

where k is a dimensionless constant.

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Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis

The following Table shows the SI units and the dimensions of the various
quantities considered in this illustration.

Quantity with symbol SI units Dimensions (in MLT system)

Resistance, R N (or) ML1T-2
kg(mass)ms-2
Dynamic viscosity,  kg(mass)m-1s-1 ML-1T-1
Mass density,  kg(mass)m-3 ML-3T0
Diameter, D m M0LT0
Velocity, V ms-1 M0LT-1
Dimensionless constant, k - M0L0T0

Substituting the dimensions for each variable in equation (10)

MLT-2 =(M0L0T0) (ML-1T-1)a (ML-3T0)b (M0LT0)c (M0LT-1)d

For dimensional homogeneity of the above equation, the exponents of each of

the dimensions M, L and T on both sides of the equation must be identical. Thus

for M: 1=a+b (11a)

for L: 1 = - a – 3b + c + d (11b)
for T: -2 = - a – d (11c)

Now, there are 4 unknowns namely a, b, c and d; but there are only 3 equations;
hence, three of the unknowns must be expressed in terms of the other one.

From equation (11a), b = 1 – a …… (12a)

From equation (11c), d = 2 – a …… (12b)
From equation (11b), c = 1 + a + 3(1 – a) - (2 – a)
= 1 + a + 3 - 3a - 2 + a
c=2–a …… (12c)
Substituting the values of b, c and d from equations (12a), (12c) and (12b) in
(10), we have,


R  k  a  1a D2a V 2a  
 a  D2 V 2 
= k  
  a D a V a 

 
    
a
= k  D V 
2 2
 
  DV  
This may be expressed in the functional form as

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Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis

 
  
R = D 2V 2   
 DV 
…… (13)

Buckingham  - Method

Statement of Buckingham’s  - Theorem: If a phenomenon is described by n

dimensional variables, and if these n dimensional variables can be completely
described by m fundamental quantities or dimensions (such as mass, length,
time, etc.), and are related by a dimensionally homogeneous equation, then the
relationship among the n quantities (or variables) can always be expressed by (n
– m) dimensionless and independent  terms.
Let Y be a variable which depends on the independent variables X 1, X2, X3,
……, Xn. Then, the functional equation can be written as

Y = f(X1, X2, X3,……, Xn) …… (14)

Equation (14) can be transformed to another functional relationship as

f1(Y, X1, X2, X3,……, Xn) = C …… (15)

where C is a dimensionless constant. This is as if Y = f(X) = X2 + C; hence, Y –

X2 = f1(X, Y) = C. In accordance with the Buckingham’s  - theorem, a non-
dimensional equation can be obtained as

f2(1, 2, 3, ……, n-m) = C1 …… (16)

How are these  - terms formed?

Each dimensionless  - term is formed by combining m variables out of the total

n variables with one of the remaining (n – m) variables. These m variables in
each of the  - terms are the same. As these m variables appear repeatedly in
each of the  - terms, these variables are called repeating variables.

How are these repeating variables chosen?

These repeating variables are chosen from among the n variables such that they
involve all the m fundamental quantities or dimensions and they themselves do
not form any dimensionless number. Thus the different  - terms may be
established as below.
________
1  X1a1 X 2b1 X 3c1 ......X m
m1
X m1 |

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Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis

 2  X1a2 X 2b2 X 3c2 ......X m

m2
X m 2 | …… (17)
………………………………….. |
 nm  X1anm X 2bnm X 3cnm ......X m
mn  m
Xn |
_______ |
In equation (17), each individual equation is dimensionless and the exponents a,
b, c, d, ……, m, etc., are determined by considering the dimensional
homogeneity for each equation so that each  - term is dimensionless.

The final general equation for the phenomenon may be obtained by expressing
one  - term as a function of other  - terms. That is,
________
1  f1  2 ,  3 ,  4 ,...... nm  |
 2  f 2 1,  3 ,  4 ,...... nm  |
……………………………… | …… (18)
 nm  f1 1,  2 ,  3 ,...... nm1  |
________|

Illustration of Buckingham’s  - method

Let us consider the same problem of flow through a small orifice as considered
under the Rayleigh’s method.

Step 1. The discharge of an orifice depends upon the diameter d of orifice,

constant supply head H, acceleration due to gravity g, dynamic viscosity  of
liquid and mass density  of liquid. The functional equation for discharge Q can
be written as

Q  f (d , H , g ,  ,  ) …… (19)

Equation (19) can be expressed in its most general form as

f1 (Q, d , H , g ,  ,  )  C …… (20)

The total number of variables (including both the dependent variable Q and all
the independent variables) n = 6. All these variables can be expressed by the
three fundamental dimensions of either the M-L-T or F-L-T system. Hence, the
number of fundamental quantities m= 3. Therefore, the number of
dimensionless  - terms to be formed are (n –m) = (6 – 3) = 3, so that

f 2 ( 1 ,  2 ,  3 )  C1 …… (21)

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Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis

Step 2. Selection of Repeating Variables.

In order to form these  - terms, we have to choose m = 3 repeating variables.
The criteria for choosing these m repeating variables is that these variables
among themselves contain all the three fundamental dimensions and they
themselves do not form any dimensionless parameter. Thus let us choose the
dynamic viscosity  with dimensions ML-1T-1, constant supply head H with
dimension L and acceleration due to gravity g with dimensions LT-2 as the
repeating variables.

Step 3. Formulation of the different  - terms.

___________
1   a1 H b1 g c1 Q |
 2   a2 H b2 g c2  | …… (22)
 3   a3 H b3 g c3 d |
___________|

Step 4. Determination of the  - terms

Let us express the 1 – term in the dimensional form using the M-L-T system.


1  M 0 L0T 0  ML1T 1 a Lb LT 2 c L3T 1
1 1 1

Equating the exponents of M, L and T, we obtain

for M: 0 = a1 ……(23a)
for L: 0 = - a1 + b1 + c1 + 3 ……(23b)
for T: 0 = - a1 – 2c1 – 1 ……(23c)

From (23a), a1 = 0; from (23c), c1 = - ½; from (23b), b1 = - 5/2

0 5 / 2 1 / 2 Q
Hence, 1   H g Q
H 5 / 2 g1/ 2
Now, Let us express the 1 – term in the dimensional form using the M-L-T
system.


 2  M 0 L0T 0  ML1T 1 a Lb LT 2 c ML3 
2 2 2

Equating the exponents of M, L and T, we obtain

Prepared by: Prof. A. MURUGAPPAN Page No.:10 of 47
Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis

for M: 0 = a2 + 1 ……(24a)
for L: 0 = - a2 + b2 + c2 - 3 ……(24b)
for T: 0 = - a2 – 2c2 ……(24c)

From (24a), a2 = - 1; from (24c), c2 = ½; from (24b), b2 = 3/2

g1 / 2 H 3 / 2
Hence,  2   1H 3 / 2 g1/ 2  =

Now, Let us express the 3 – term in the dimensional form using the M-L-T
system.


 3  M 0 L0T 0  ML1T 1 a Lb LT 2 c L
3 3 3

Equating the exponents of M, L and T, we obtain

for M: 0 = a3 ……(25a)
for L: 0 = - a3+ b3+ c3 + 1 ……(25b)
for T: 0 = - a3 – 2c3 ……(25c)

From (25a), a3 = 0; from (25c), c3 = 0; from (25b), b3 = - 1

Hence,  3   0 H 1g 0 d =
d
H

Step 5.

As per equation (21), we have,

f 2 ( 1 ,  2 ,  3 )  C1

 Q g1/ 2 H 3 / 2 d 
 f2  , ,
 H 5 / 2 g1 / 2  H  = C1
 

or

Q  g1 / 2 H 3 / 2 d 
= C2 f 3  , 
5 / 2 1/ 2   H 
H g 

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Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis

Example 1. Find the form of the equation for discharge Q through a sharp –
edged triangular notch assuming Q depends on the central angle  of the notch,
head H, gravitational acceleration g, and density  of fluid, viscosity  of fluid
and surface tension  of fluid.

Solution.

Functional relationship for discharge Q

Q = f (, H, g, , , ) …… (26)

Equation (26) can be written in the most general form as

f1 (Q,, H, g, , , ) = C …… (27)

Number of variables n = 7
Number of fundamental quantities m = 3
Number of  - terms, (n – m) = 7 – 3 = 4

Repeating variables: , g, H

 - terms:

1 = a1. gb1. Hc1. Q

2 = a2. gb2. Hc2. 
3 = a3. gb3. Hc3. 
4 =  (since, the central angle  of the notch itself is a
dimensionless quantity)

1 – term:

1 = a1. gb1. Hc1. Q

M0L0T0 = (ML-3)a1 (LT-2)b1 (L)c1 (L3T-1)

Equating the exponents of M, L and T, we obtain

for M: 0 = a1 ……(28a)
for L: 0 = - 3a1 + b1 + c1 + 3 ……(28b)
for T: 0 = - 2b1 – 1 ……(28c)

From (28a), a1 = 0; from (28c), b1 = - ½; from (28b), c1 = - 5/2

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Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis

Q
1 
g1 / 2 H 5 / 2
2 – term:

2 = a2. gb2. Hc2. 

M0L0T0 = (ML-3)a2 (LT-2)b2 (L)c2 (ML-1T-1)

Equating the exponents of M, L and T, we obtain

for M: 0 = a2 + 1 ……(29a)
for L: 0 = - 3a2 + b2 + c2 – 1 ……(29b)
for T: 0 = - 2b2 – 1 ……(29c)

From (29a), a2 = - 1; from (29c), b2 = - ½; from (29b), c2 = - 3/2


2 
g1 / 2 H 3 / 2
3 – term:

3 = a3. gb3. Hc3. 

M0L0T0 = (ML-3)a3 (LT-2)b3 (L)c3 (MT-2)

Equating the exponents of M, L and T, we obtain

for M: 0 = a3 + 1 ……(30a)
for L: 0 = - 3a3 + b3 + c3 ……(30b)
for T: 0 = - 2b3 – 2 ……(30c)

From (30a), a3 = - 1; from (30c), b3 = - 1; from (30b), c3 = - 2


3 
gH 2
Thus we have,

f 2 1,  2 ,  3 ,  4   C1
 Q   
 f 2  1/ 2 5 / 2 , 1/ 2 3 / 2 , ,  C1
g H g H 2 
gH 


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Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis

   

Q C f
= 2 3  , ,  
1/ 2 5 / 2  1/ 2 3 / 2
 2 
g H  g H gH 
    5/ 2
 Q  g1 / 2  1 / 2 3 / 2 , ,  H
 g H gH 2 
 
 Q  CH 5 / 2
   
where C  g1 / 2  , ,  

 g 1/ 2 3 / 2
H gH 2


Example 2. The discharge Q of a centrifugal pump is dependent on the mass

density  of fluid, pump speed N (rpm), diameter D of impeller, pressure p of
fluid, and viscosity  of fluid. Show using Buckingham’s  - theorem that Q can
be represented by

 gH  
Q  ( ND3 )  2 2 , 
 N D ND2 
where H = head and  = kinematic viscosity of the fluid.

Solution.

Functional relationship for discharge Q

Q = f (, N, D, p, ) …… (31)

Equation (31) can be written in the most general form as

f1 (Q, , N, D, p,) = C …… (32)

Number of variables n = 6
Number of fundamental quantities m in which the six variables can be expressed
=3
Number of  - terms, (n – m) = 7 – 3 = 4

Repeating variables: , N, D

 - terms:

1 = a1. Nb1. Dc1. Q

2 = a2. Nb2. Dc2. p
3 = a3. Nb3. Dc3. 

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Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis

1 – term:

1 = a1. Nb1. Dc1. Q

M0L0T0 = (ML-3)a1 (T-1)b1 (L)c1 (L3T-1)

Equating the exponents of M, L and T, we obtain

for M: 0 = a1 ……(33a)
for L: 0 = - 3a1 + c1 + 3 ……(33b)
for T: 0 = - b1 – 1 ……(33c)

From (33a), a1 = 0; from (33c), b1 = - 1; from (33b), c1 = - 3

Q
1 
ND 3
2 – term:

2 = a2. Nb2. Dc2. p

M0L0T0 = (ML-3)a2 (T-1)b2 (L)c2 (ML-1T-2)

Equating the exponents of M, L and T, we obtain

for M: 0 = a2 + 1 ……(34a)
for L: 0 = - 3a2 + c2 – 1 ……(34b)
for T: 0 = - b2 – 2 ……(34c)

From (34a), a2 = - 1; from (34c), b2 = - 2; from (34b), c2 = - 2

p
2 
N 2 D 2

3 – term:

3 = a3. Nb3. Dc3. 

M0L0T0 = (ML-3)a3 (T-1)b3 (L)c3 (ML-1T-1)

Equating the exponents of M, L and T, we obtain

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Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis

for M: 0 = a3 + 1 ……(35a)
for L: 0 = - 3a3 + c3 - 1 ……(35b)
for T: 0 = - b3 – 1 ……(35c)

From (35a), a3 = - 1; from (35c), b3 = - 1; from (35b), c3 = - 2


3 
ND2
Thus we have,

f 2 1,  2 ,  3   C1
 Q p  
f2  , ,  C1
 ND3 N 2 D 2 ND2 
 
Q  p  
  C f  ,
ND3
2 3  N 2 D 2 ND 2 
 
Q  p  
    ,
ND3  N 2 D 2 ND 2 
 

Since, p = gH and   , we have,

Q  gH  
   2 2 ,
3

ND  N D ND2 

 
 gH
 Q  ND3   2 2 ,
 
 N D ND2 


Example 3. Show by -theorem that a general equation for discharge Q over a

weir of any shape is given by
     
Q  (H g ) 
5 / 2 1/ 2  ,  
 3 / 2 1/ 2   2 
 H g   H g 
where H = head over the weir,  = kinematic viscosity of the liquid,  = mass
density of the liquid, and  = surface tension of the liquid. Hence show that
discharge over a rectangular weir of crest length L is given by
Q  Cd LH 3 / 2

Solution:

Functional relationship for discharge Q

Q = f (H, g, , , ) …… (36)

Equation (36) can be written in the most general form as

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Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis

f1 (Q, H, g, , , ) = C …… (37)

Number of variables n = 6

Number of fundamental quantities m in which the six variables can be expressed

=3

Number of  - terms, (n – m) = 6 – 3 = 3

Repeating variables: , g, H

 - terms:

1 = a1. gb1. Hc1. Q

2 = a2. gb2. Hc2. 
3 = a3. gb3. Hc3. 

1 – term:

1 = a1. gb1. Hc1. Q

M0L0T0 = (ML-3)a1 (LT-2)b1 (L)c1 (L3T-1)

Equating the exponents of M, L and T, we obtain

for M: 0 = a1 ……(38a)
for L: 0 = - 3a1 + b1 + c1 + 3 ……(38b)
for T: 0 = - 2b1 – 1 ……(38c)

From (38c), b1 = -1/2

Putting a1 = 0 and b1 = -1/2 in (38b), we have,
c1 = -5/2

Hence, 1 = 0. g-1/2. H-5/2. Q

Q
=
g1/ 2 H 5 / 2
2 – term:

2 = a2. gb2. Hc2. 

M0L0T0 = (ML-3)a2 (LT-2)b2 (L)c2 (L2T-1)

Equating the exponents of M, L and T, we obtain

for M: 0 = a2 ……(39a)
for L: 0 = - 3a2 + b2 + c2 + 2 ……(39b)
Prepared by: Prof. A. MURUGAPPAN Page No.:17 of 47
Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis

for T: 0 = - 2b2 – 1 ……(39c)

From (39c), b2 = -1/2

Putting a2 = 0 and b2 = -1/2 in (39c), c2 = -3/2

Hence, 2 = 0. g-1/2. H-3/2. 


=
g1/ 2 H 3 / 2
3 – term:

3 = a3. gb3. Hc3. 

M0L0T0 = (ML-3)a3 (LT-2)b3 (L)c3 (MT-2)

Equating the exponents of M, L and T, we obtain

for M: 0 = a3 + 1 ……(40a)
for L: 0 = - 3a3 + b3 + c3 ……(40b)
for T: 0 = - 2b3 – 2 ……(40c)

From (40a), a3 = -1; from (40c), b3 = -1

Putting a3 = -1 and b3 = -1 in (40b), we have, c3 = -2

Hence, 3 = -1. g-1. H-2. 


=
gH 2
Thus we have,

f 2 1,  2 ,  3   C1
 Q      
 f2   ,  ,  
 1/ 2 5 / 2   1/ 2 3 / 2   2  = C1
 g H  g H   gH 
       
  Q  =C f   ,  
 g1 / 2 H 5 / 2  2 3  g 1 / 2 H 3 / 2   gH 2 
    
     
 Q  ( g1 / 2 H 5 / 2 )  ,  
 1/ 2 3 / 2   2
 g H   gH 
Q
We have, = a dimensionless term; this can be written as
1/ 2 5 / 2
g H

Prepared by: Prof. A. MURUGAPPAN Page No.:18 of 47

Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis

Q Q
 which is also dimensionless (the term H is replaced
1/ 2 3/ 2 1/ 2 3/ 2
g HH g LH
by the crest length L of the rectangular weir)
Q
Let =C
1/ 2 3/ 2
g LH
Q
  Cg1/ 2  Cd
3/ 2
LH
 Q  Cd LH 3 / 2

Example 4. By dimensional analysis show that the torque T on a shaft of

diameter d, revolving at a speed N in a fluid of viscosity  and mass density  is
given by the expression
   
T  d 5 N 2   
 d 2N 


Use Buckingham’s method. Hence show that power P is given by

   
P  d 5 N 3    
 d 2N 
Solution:

Functional relationship for discharge T

T = f (d, N, , ,) …… (41)

Equation (36) can be written in the most general form as

f1 (T, d, N, , ,) = C …… (42)

Number of variables n = 5

Number of fundamental quantities m in which the six variables can be expressed

=3

Number of  - terms, (n – m) = 5 – 3 = 2

Repeating variables: , d, N

 - terms:

1 = a1. db1. Nc1. T

2 = a2. db2. Nc2. 

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Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis

1 - term:

1 = a1. db1. Nc1. T

M0L0T0 = (ML-3)a1 (L)b1 (T-1)c1 (ML2T-2)

Equating the exponents of M, L and T, we obtain

for M: 0 = a1 + 1 ……(43a)
for L: 0 = - 3a1 + b1 + 2 ……(43b)
for T: 0 = - c1 – 2 ……(43c)

From (43a), a1 = - 1; from (43c), c1 = - 2; putting a1 = - 1 in (43b), we have,

b1 = - 5

Hence, 1 = -1. d-5. N-2. T

 T 
1   
 d 5 N 2 
 

2 - term:

2 = a2. db2. Nc2. 

M0L0T0 = (ML-3)a2 (L)b2 (T-1)c2 (ML-1T-1)

Equating the exponents of M, L and T, we obtain

for M: 0 = a2 + 1 ……(43a)
for L: 0 = - 3a2 + b2 - 1 ……(43b)
for T: 0 = - c2 – 1 ……(43c)

From (43a), a2 = - 1; from (43c), c2 = - 1; putting a2 = - 1 in (43b), we have,

b2 = - 2

Hence, 2 = -1. d-2. N-1. 

  
2   
 d 2 N 
 

As   , where  is the kinematic viscosity, the 2 – term can be written as

  
 2   
 d 2N 

Thus we have,
f 2 1,  2   C1

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Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis

 T    
f2   ,    C1
 5 2 2 
 d N   d N 
 T 
   C2 f 3   
 d 5 N 2   2 
  d N 
  
 T  ( d 5 N 2 )  
 d 2N 
We know that power, P = (Torque, T) x (angular velocity, )
2N
Angular velocity,  =
60
2N    5 3   
Hence, P = ( d 5 N 2 )   = ( d N )  
60  d 2N   d 2N 
It should be noted that in the above expression, the quantity
 P 
  is a dimensionless quantity
 d 5 N 3 
 

Example 5. The resistance R to the motion of a supersonic aircraft of length L,

moving with a velocity V in air of density , depends on the viscosity  and
bulk modulus of elasticity K of air. Obtain using Buckingham’s  - theorem, the
following expression for the resistance R

 2 2
     K 
R  L V  
 
, 

 V

2
LV   
Solution:

Functional relationship for discharge R

R = f (L, V, , , K) …… (44)

Equation (44) can be written in the most general form as

f1 (R, L, V, , , K) = C …… (45)

Number of variables n = 6

Number of fundamental quantities m in which the six variables can be expressed

=3

Number of  - terms, (n – m) = 6 – 3 = 3

Prepared by: Prof. A. MURUGAPPAN Page No.:21 of 47

Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis

Repeating variables: , L, V

 - terms:

1 = a1. Lb1. Vc1. R

2 = a2. Lb2. Vc2. 
3 = a3. Lb3. Vc3. K

1 - term:

1 = a1. Lb1. Vc1. R

M0L0T0 = (ML-3)a1 (L)b1 (LT-1)c1 (MLT-2)

Equating the exponents of M, L and T, we obtain

for M: 0 = a1 + 1 ……(46a)
for L: 0 = - 3a1 + b1 + c1 + 1 ……(46b)
for T: 0 = - c1 – 2 ……(46c)

From (46a), a1 = - 1; from (46c), c1 = - 2; putting a1 = - 1 and c1 = - 2 in (46b),

we have, b1 = - 2

Hence, 1 = -1. L-2. V-2. R

 R 
1   
 L2V 2 
 

2 - term:

2 = a2. Lb2. Vc2. 

M0L0T0 = (ML-3)a2 (L)b2 (LT-1)c2 (ML-1T-1)

Equating the exponents of M, L and T, we obtain

for M: 0 = a2 + 1 ……(47a)
for L: 0 = - 3a2 + b2 + c2 - 1 ……(47b)
for T: 0 = - c2 – 1 ……(47c)

From (47a), a2 = - 1; from (47c), c2 = - 1; putting a2 = - 1 and c2 = - 1 in (47b),

we have, b2 = - 1

Hence, 2 = -1. L-1. V-1. 

  
2   
 LV 
Prepared by: Prof. A. MURUGAPPAN Page No.:22 of 47
Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis

3 - term:

3 = a3. Lb3. Vc3. K

M0L0T0 = (ML-3)a3 (L)b3 (LT-1)c3 (ML-1T-2)

Equating the exponents of M, L and T, we obtain

or M: 0 = a3 + 1 ……(48a)
for L: 0 = - 3a3 + b3 + c3 - 1 ……(48b)
for T: 0 = - c3 – 2 ……(48c)

From (48a), a3 = - 1; from (48c), c3 = - 2; putting a3 = - 1 and c3 = - 2 in (48b),

we have, b3 = 0

Hence, 3 = -1. L0. V-2. K

 K 
3   
 V 2 
 
Hence, f 2 1,  2 ,  3   C1
 R      K 
 f 2  ,  ,   = C1
 2 2  LV 
 L V   2
  V 
 R    
   C2 f 3   ,  K 
 L2V 2   LV   V 2 
 


 R  L2V 2   
    K 
, 



 LV   V 
2

MODEL INVESTIGATION

Different kinds of hydraulic structures such as dams, spillways, canal head

works and diversion structures and hydraulic machines such as turbines and
pumps are designed and constructed to yield efficiently the desired output. We
have to ascertain that the designed structures after construction will definitely
yield the desired output. In case, if the structure is found not to perform as per
the design, then it is not possible to rectify the same as the structures are very
massive. Therefore, it becomes imperative to study, in advance, how the
structure or the machine would perform once it is constructed. For this purpose,
one has to resort to experimental investigation. As the real structures or
machines to be constructed in the field are very huge in size, it is not feasible to
conduct these experimental investigations on the full size of the structure.

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Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis

Hence, a small scale replica of the actual structure is constructed and then tests
are conducted to obtain the desired information. The small scale replica
(imitation) of the actual structure or the machine is known as its model whiles
the actual structure or machine is known as the prototype.

The model tests are quite economical and convenient as the design, construction
and operation of the model may be altered several times if necessary, till all the
discrepancies found in the model are eliminated and the most suitable design is
obtained. On the basis of final results obtained from the model tests, the design
of the prototype may be modified and also it may be possible to predict the
behaviour of the prototype. However, the model test results can be used to
obtain the performance of the prototype only if a complete similarity between
the model and the prototype exists. This may be achieved as below.

TYPES OF SIMILARITIES

There are three types of similarities to be established for complete similarity to

exist between the model and the prototype. They are:

1. Geometric similarity
2. Kinematic similarity
3. Dynamic similarity

1. Geometric similarity:

When a model and the corresponding prototype are said be geometrically

similar?

If the ratios of the corresponding length dimensions of the model and the
prototype are equal, the model and the prototype are said to be geometrically
similar. Such a ratio is called scale ratio.

For example, let the lengths, breadths and depths of a model and the
corresponding prototype be respectively, Lm, bm and dm and Lp, bp and dp.

Then the length scale ratios are: Lm / Lp, bm / bp and dm / dp. If these scale ratios
are equal, then the model and the prototype are said to be geometrically similar.

Hence, for geometric similarity between the model and the prototype,

Length scale ratio, Lr = Lm / Lp = bm / bp = dm / dp

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Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis

The area scale ratio, Ar, is defined as the ratio of the area of the model and the
area of the prototype.

Ar = Am / Ap = (Lm x bm) / (Lp x bp) = (Lm / Lp) (bm / bp) = Lr. Lr = Lr2

Similarly, the volume scale ratio, Vr, is defined as the ratio of the volume of the
model and the volume of the prototype.

Vr = Vm / Vp = (Lm x bm x dm) / (Lp x bp x dp) = (Lm / Lp) (bm / bp) (dm / dp)
= Lr. Lr.Lr = Lr3

It is thus observed that, if the model and the prototype are geometrically similar,
by mere change of the scale, both the model and the prototype can be
superimposed.

2. Kinematic similarity:

When a model and the corresponding prototype are said be kinematically

similar?

If the paths of the homologous moving particles are geometrically similar and if
the ratios of the velocities as well as accelerations of the homologous particles
are equal, kinematic similarity is said to exist between the model and the
prototype.
What is a homologous point?

Consider a model and the corresponding prototype which possess geometric

similarity. A point in the model and the corresponding point in the prototype are
said to be homologous points.

Since, both velocity and acceleration are vector quantities (i.e., both have
magnitude and direction), kinematic similarity implies that the directions of
velocities and accelerations at corresponding points (i.e., homologous points)
are parallel to each other and the ratios of magnitudes of both velocities and
accelerations at corresponding points in the model and the prototype have
constant values at all corresponding set of points. Some of the scale ratios which
are useful in describing kinematic similarity are:

Time scale ratio, Tr = Tm / Tp

Velocity scale ratio, Vr = Vm / Vp = (Lm / Tm) / (Lp / Tp)

= (Lm / Lp) (Tp / Tm)
= (Lm / Lp) {1 / (Tm / Tp)}

Prepared by: Prof. A. MURUGAPPAN Page No.:25 of 47

Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis

= Lr / Tr

where, Vm and Vp are respectively, the velocities of flow in the model and the
prototype at homologous points.

Acceleration scale ratio, ar = am / ap = {Lm / (Tm)2} / {Lp / (Tp)2}

= (Lm / Lp) {(Tp)2 / (Tm)2}
= (Lm / Lp) [1 / {(Tm)2 / (Tp)2}]
= Lr / Tr2

Discharge scale ratio, Qr = Qm / Qp = {(Lm)3 / Tm} / {(Lp)3 / Tp}

= {(Lm)3 / (Lp)3}{Tp / Tm}
= {(Lm)3 / (Lp)3} {1 / (Tm / Tp)}
= Lr3 / Tr
Kinematic similarity can be attained if the flow nets for the model and the
prototype are geometrically similar. This means that, by mere change of the
scale, the flow net for the model and the flow net for the prototype can be
superimposed.

3. Dynamic similarity:

When a model and the corresponding prototype are said be dynamically

similar?

If the ratios of all the forces acting at homologous points in the model and the
prototype which possess both geometric and kinematic similarities are equal,
then it is said that the model and the prototype possess dynamic similarity.

In the problems concerning fluid flow, the forces acting may be any one, or a
combination of several of the following forces:

(i) Inertia forces, Fi

(ii) Friction or viscous forces, Fv
(iii) Gravity forces, Fg
(iv) Pressure forces, Fp
(v) Elastic forces, Fe
(vi) Surface tension forces, Fs

Inertia force, Fi, is the force of resistance offered by an inert mass to

acceleration. According to Newton’s law of motion, the magnitude of the
inertial force is equal to the product of the particle mass and acceleration of the
particle. The direction of the inertia force is opposite to the direction of the
acceleration of the particle.

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Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis

The conditions required for complete dynamic similarity are developed from the
Newton’s Second Law of Motion. In a flowing fluid, if a fluid particle of mass
M is subjected to acceleration a, then the inertial force Fi of the particle equals
‘Ma’. If all the above listed forces come into play in the fluid flow system under
consideration, then the resultant force, F, which is the vectorial sum of all the
listed forces acting on the fluid particle, will be equal to the inertial force of the
fluid particle, i.e.,

F = Fv + Fg + Fp + Fe + Fs = Ma

For complete dynamic similarity to exist between the model and its prototype,
the ratio of the inertia forces of the model and the prototype must be equal tot he
ratio of the resultant forces of the model and the prototype. i.e.,

(F)m / (F)p = (Fv + Fg + Fp + Fe + Fs)m / (Fv + Fg + Fp + Fe + Fs)p

= (Ma)m / (Ma)p …… (1)

In addition to the above stated condition for complete dynamic similarity, the
ratio of the inertia forces of the model and the prototype must also be equal to
the ratios of the individual component forces of the model and the prototype.
i.e.,

(i) (Fv)m / (Fv)p = (Ma)m / (Ma)p

(or)
(Ma/Fv)m = (Ma/Fv)p ...... (2)

(ii) (Fg)m / (Fg)p = (Ma)m / (Ma)p

(or)
(Ma/Fg)m = (Ma/Fg)p …… (3)

(iii) (Fp)m / (Fp)p = (Ma)m / (Ma)p

(or)
(Ma/Fp)m = (Ma/Fp)p …… (4)

(iv) (Fe)m / (Fe)p = (Ma)m / (Ma)p

(or)
(Ma/Fv)m = (Ma/Fv)p …… (5)

(v) (Fs)m / (Fs)p = (Ma)m / (Ma)p

(or)
(Ma/Fs)m = (Ma/Fs)p …… (6)

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Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis

Thus, it may be mentioned that when both the model and the prototype are
geometrically, kinematically and dynamically similar, then they are said to be
completely similar or complete similitude exists between the two systems.
However, the existence of dynamic similarity implies that both geometric and
kinematic similarities exist between the model and the prototype. Hence, if
dynamic similarity exists between the model and the prototype, they are said to
be completely similar. Further, for complete similarity to exist between the
model and the prototype, the dimensionless terms (or the  - terms) formed
from the complete set of variables involved must be the same for both the model
and the prototype.

DIMENSIONLESS NUMBERS (FORCE RATIOS)

When a mass is in motion, inertial force always exists. Hence, in order to

develop the conditions for dynamic similarity, the ratio of inertial force and any
one of the remaining forces listed previously is considered. Each of these ratios
will obviously be a non-dimensional factor. The various force ratios are
discussed herein:

(a) Inertia force – viscous force ratio (Reynolds number)

We know that, Inertia force = mass x acceleration

Since, mass density  = mass / volume, mass can be expressed as the product of
mass density  and volume. Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity.
Hence, we have,

Inertia force = (mass density x volume) (velocity / time)

= mass density x (volume / time) x velocity

By definition, (volume / time) represents the discharge. Discharge is the product

of cross-sectional area of flow, A and the velocity of flow, V, i.e., discharge, Q =
AV

So, Inertia force =  (AV) V = AV2

As cross sectional area of flow passage, A, has dimensions of L2, we have,

Inertia force, Fi = L2V2

By definition, as per Newton’s law of viscosity, we have, shear stress due to

viscous force, Fv, is given by

Prepared by: Prof. A. MURUGAPPAN Page No.:28 of 47

Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis

 =  (dV / dy)
where,  = coefficient of viscosity of fluid (or) simply, the dynamic viscosity of
the fluid
(dV / dy) = velocity gradient

Viscous force, Fv = shear stress x area = A =  (dV / dy) A

Assuming (dV / dy) to be linear, the above expression can be written as

Fv =  (V / y) A

As y represents the thickness of fluid film, it has dimensions of L. The

dimension of the area ‘A’ is ‘L2’. Replacing ‘y’ by ‘L’ and ‘A’ by ‘L2’ , the
above expression for Fv becomes

Fv =  (V / L) L2 = VL

Now, the ratio between the inertia force, Fi, and the viscous force, Fv, is given
by
(Fi / Fv) = (L2V2) / (VL) = (LV /  ) = (VL / )

where  is the kinematic viscosity of the fluid.

The force ratio (or) non-dimensional ratio, (LV /  ) , is called the Reynolds
number, Re or NR.

The Reynolds number indicates the relative predominance of the inertia force to
the viscous force occurring in the flow system. If the Reynolds number is larger,
greater will be the relative magnitude of inertia force. If the Reynolds number is
smaller, the greater will be the relative magnitude of viscous force.

(b) Inertia force – Gravity force ratio (Froude number)

From the previous discussion, we have, Fi = L2V2

As per Newton’s second law of motion, force due to gravity can be expressed as

Fg = mass x acceleration due to gravity

Mass can be expressed as the product of mass density,  and the volume; hence,

Fg = (mass density x volume) (acceleration due to gravity)

= ( x volume) x g

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Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis

Volume has dimensions of L3. Replacing ‘volume’ by ‘L3’, the above expression
becomes

Fg = L3g

Now, the ratio between the inertia force, Fi, and the gravity force, Fg, is given
by

(Fi / Fg) = (L2V2) / ( L3g) = V2 / Lg

The square root of this ratio, i.e., (V2 / Lg)1/2 = V / (Lg)1/2 is called the Froude
number.

(c ) Inertia Force – Pressure Force ratio (Euler number)

Pressure force, Fp can be expressed as the product of the pressure intensity, p

and the area, A, over which it acts. i.e.,

Fp = p x A

Area A has dimensions of L2; Replacing ‘A’ by ‘L2’, the above expression
becomes

Fp = p x L2

Hence, the ratio between the inertia force, Fi, and the pressure force, Fp, is given
by

Fi / Fp = (L2V2) / (pL2) = V2 / p = V2 / (p / )

The square root of this ratio, i.e., [V2 / (p / )]1/2 = [V / (p/)1/2] is called the
Euler number, Eu or NE. The reciprocal of Euler number, i.e., [(p / )1/2 / V] is
sometimes known as ‘Newton number’.

(d) Inertia force – Elasticity force ratio (Mach number)

Force due to elasticity, Fe, is expressed as the product of the bulk modulus of
elasticity, K, of the flowing fluid and the area, A, over which the force acts, i.e.,

Fe = K x A

As the dimensions of area, A, are L2, the above expression becomes

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Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis

Fe = K x L2

The ratio between the inertia force, Fi, and the force due to elasticity, Fe, is
given by

Fi / Fe = (L2V2) / (KL2) = V2 / K = V2 / (K / ) = V2 / C2

where, C = (K / )1/2 = velocity of sound in that fluid medium whose bulk

modulus of elasticity, K, and mass density, , are being considered.
The ratio (V2 / C2) is known as the ’Cauchy number’. The square root of this
ratio, i.e., (V / C) or {V / (K / )1/2} is known as the ‘Mach number’, Ma or NM.
When Ma > 1, i.e., V > C, or in other words, the characteristic velocity of flow
of the fluid is more than velocity of sound in that flow medium, the flow is said
to be supersonic. When Ma < 1, i.e., V < C, or in other words, the characteristic
velocity of flow of the fluid is less than velocity of sound in that flow medium,
the flow is said to be subsonic. When Ma = 1, or V = C, the flow is considered
to be sonic. When Ma >>1, i.e., V >> C, then the flow is sometimes termed as
hypersonic. A higher Mach number indicates the predominance of the effect of
compressibility of the fluid. However, when the Mach number is relatively
small, say, less than 0.4, the effect of compressibility of the fluid can be
neglected.

(e) Inertia force – Surface tension force ratio (Weber number)

Force due to surface tension, Fs = L

where  = surface tension of fluid in contact with, say, air (in N/m)
L = length of the fluid film over which the force due to surface tension
acts
Hence, the ratio of the inertia force, Fi, and the surface tension force, Fs, is
given by

Fi / Fs = (L2V2) / (L) = (LV2) /  = [V2 / { / (L)}]

The square root of this ratio, i.e., [V / { / (L)}1/2] is called the Weber number.

SIMILARITY LAWS OR MODEL LAWS

The results obtained from the model tests can be transferred to the prototype by
the use of model laws. The model laws can be developed from the principles of
dynamic similarity. The conditions for the existence of dynamic similarity
between the model and the prototype are depicted by equations (1) to (6). In

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Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis

almost all hydraulic problems encountered in practice, for which model studies
are required to be carried out, it is quite rare that all the forces, namely, Fi, Fg,
Fv, Fp, Fe and Fs are simultaneously predominant in the flow phenomenon.
Moreover, in most of the fluid flow problems, only one force in addition to the
inertia force, Fi, is relatively more significant than the rest of the forces. The
rest of the forces may either do not exist or may be of negligible magnitude.
Under these circumstances, the various model laws have been developed
depending upon the significant influence of each of the forces on the different
fluid flow phenomena. In the derivation of these model laws, it has been
assumed that for equal values of the dimensionless parameters the
corresponding flow pattern in model and its prototype are similar.

(a) Reynolds Model Law

In case of flows where, in addition to the inertia force, the only other force of
significance is the viscous force, the similarity in flow in the model and the
prototype can be obtained if the Reynolds number of flow is the same in both
the model and the prototype. This is known as Reynolds Model Law.

According to the law, we have,

(NR)model = (NR)prototype

(m Vm Lm) / m = (p Vp Lp) / p

where (NR)model = Reynolds number of flow in model

(NR)prototype = Reynolds number of flow in prototype
m = mass density of fluid in model
Vm = characteristic velocity of flow in model
Lm = characteristic length in model
m = dynamic viscosity of fluid in model
p = mass density of fluid in prototype
Vp = characteristic velocity of flow in prototype
Lp = characteristic length in prototype
p = dynamic viscosity of fluid in prototype

Dividing LHS by RHS of above equation,

[(m Vm Lm) / m] / [(p Vp Lp) / p] = (m / p)(Vm / Vp)(Lm / Lp)(p / m)

= {(m / p)(Vm / Vp)(Lm / Lp)} / {(m / p)}

= r Vr Lr / r = 1 …… (7)

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Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis

where r = Mass density scale ratio

Vr = characteristic velocity scale ratio
Lr = Length scale ratio
r = dynamic viscosity scale ratio

Equation (7) may be used to obtain the scale ratios for various other physical
quantities on the basis of Reynolds model law.
Let us derive the scale ratios for models of certain quantities governed by
Reynolds model law.

Scale ratio for Velocity (Vr):

From equation (7), Vr = r / (rLr) …… (8)

Scale ratio for time (Tr):

The scale ratio for velocity can be written as Vr = Vm / Vp

= (Lm / Tm) / (Lp / Tp)
= (Lm / Lp) (Tp / Tm)
= (Lm / Lp) {1 / (Tm / Tp)}
= Lr / Tr
Substituting Vr = Lr / Tr in equation (7), we have,

{r (Lr / Tr) Lr} / r = 1

 rLr2/rTr = 1
Tr = rLr2/r …… (9)

Scale ratio for acceleration (a r):

Acceleration scale ratio, ar = am / ap = {Lm / (Tm)2} / {Lp / (Tp)2}

= (Lm / Lp) {(Tp)2 / (Tm)2}
= (Lm / Lp) [1 / {(Tm)2 / (Tp)2}]
= Lr / Tr2
From equation (7), we have,
Vr = r / (rLr)
ar = Vr / Tr = {r / (rLr)} / {rLr2/r}

Putting the expression for Tr from equation (9) in the above expression, we
have,

ar = {r / (rLr)} / Tr = = r2 / r2Lr3 …… (10)

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Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis

Scale ratio for discharge (Qr):

We know that, Qr = ArVr = Lr2 Vr

From equation (7), we have,

Vr = r / (rLr)

Hence, Q = Lr2 {r / (rLr)} = Lrr / r …… (11)

Scale ratio for force (Fr):

Shear force due to viscosity of fluid = shear stress x area

= A =  (V/y) A
Fr = r (Vr/yr)Ar = r (Vr/Lr) (Lr ) = r Vr Lr
2

From equation (7), we have, Vr = r / (rLr)

Putting Vr = r / (rLr) in the above expression for Fr

Fr = r {r / (rLr)} Lr = r2 / r …… (12)

Some of the phenomena for which Reynolds model law can be a sufficient
criterion for similarity of flow in the model and the prototype are:

(i) flow of incompressible fluid in closed pipes

(ii) motion of submarines completely under water
(iii) motion of air planes
(iv) flow around structures and other bodies immersed completely under
moving fluids

(b) Froude Model Law

In case of flows where, in addition to the inertia force, the only other force of
significance is the force of gravity, the similarity in flow in the model and the
prototype can be obtained if the Froude number of flow is the same in both the
model and the prototype. This is known as Froude Model Law.

According to the law, we have,

(Fr)model = (Fr)prototype

Vm / (Lm gm)1/2 = Vp / (Lp gp)1/2 ...... (13)

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Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis

where (Fr)model = Froude number of flow in model

(Fr)prototype = Froude number of flow in prototype
Vm = velocity of flow in model
Lm = characteristic dimension (length) in model
gm = acceleration due gravity at the site of model testing
Vp = velocity of flow in prototype
Lp = characteristic dimension (length) in prototype
gp = acceleration due gravity at the site of prototype

Dividing LHS by RHS of above equation,

Vm / (Lm gm)1/2 / Vp / (Lp gp)1/2 = 1

 Vr / (grLr)1/2 = 1
 Vr = (grLr)1/2 ...... (14)

Since in most cases, as the value of g at the site of model testing will practically
be the same as the value of g at the site of the proposed prototype, we have the
scale ratio of g, i.e., gr = gm / gp = 1

Hence, equation (14) becomes

Vr = Lr1/2
Vr / Lr1/2 = 1 …… (15)

Equation (14) or (15) may be used to obtain the scale ratios for various other
physical quantities.

Let us derive the scale ratios for models of certain quantities governed by
Froude model law.

Scale ratio for Time (Tr):

As discussed previously, the scale ratio for velocity can be written as

Vr = Lr / Tr

Substituting Vr = Lr / Tr in equation (14), we have,

Lr / Tr = (grLr)1/2
 Tr = Lr / (grLr)1/2 = Lr1/2 / gr1/2 ...... (16)

Scale ratio for acceleration (a r):

As discussed previously, acceleration scale ratio,

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Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis

ar = Lr / Tr2

We have just expressed the scale ratio for time, Tr, as

Tr = Lr1/2 / gr1/2

Putting the above expression for Tr in ar = Lr / Tr2, we have,

ar = Lr / (Lr1/2 / gr1/2)2 = Lr / (Lr / gr) = gr ...... (17)

Scale ratio for discharge (Qr):

We know that, Qr = ArVr = Lr2 Vr

From equation (14), we have, Vr = (grLr)1/2

Substituting the above expression for Vr in the expression for Qr stated above,
we have,

Qr = Lr2 (grLr)1/2 = Lr5/2gr1/2 …… (18)

Scale ratio for force (Fr):

Force due to gravity (weight of fluid) = mass x acceleration due to gravity

= Mg
where M = mass of fluid
g = acceleration due to gravity
M = mass density of fluid x volume of fluid =  x volume of fluid =  L3

Hence, F =  L3 g

So, Scale ratio for force, Fr = r Lr3 gr ...... (19)

Some of the phenomena for which Reynolds model law can be a sufficient
criterion for dynamic similarity of flow in the model and the prototype are:

(i) Free-surface flows such as flow over spillways, sluices, etc.,

(ii) Flow of jet from an orifice or nozzle
(iii) Problems in which waves are likely to be formed on the surface
(iv) Problems in which fluids of different densities flow over one another

(c) Euler Model Law

In case of fluid systems where, in addition to the inertia force, the only other
force of significance is the force due to supplied pressures, the dynamic
similarity in flow in the model and the prototype can be obtained if the Euler
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Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis

number of flow is the same in both the model and the prototype. This is known
as Euler Model Law.

(Eu)model = (Eu)prototype

[Vm / (pm/m)1/2] = [Vp / (pp/p)1/2] ...... (20)

where (Eu)model = Euler number of flow in model
(Eu)prototype = Euler number of flow in prototype
Vm = velocity of flow in the model
pm = intensity of fluid pressure in the model
m = mass density of fluid in the model
Vp = velocity of flow in the prototype
pp = intensity of fluid pressure in the prototype
p = mass density of fluid in the prototype

Dividing LHS by RHS of above equation,

[Vm / (pm/m)1/2] / [Vp / (pp/p)1/2] = 1

 [Vr / (pr/r)1/2] = 1 ...... (21)

Equation (21) represents the Euler Model Law which may be used to evaluate
scale ratios for various other physical quantities.

Euler model law may be considered as an essential requirement for establishing

dynamic similarity in an enclosed fluid system where the turbulence is fully
developed and the viscous forces are insignificant, and also the forces of gravity
and surface tension are completely absent.

(d) Mach Model Law

In case of fluid flow phenomena where, in addition to the inertia force, the only
other force of significance is the force resulting from elastic compression, the
dynamic similarity in flow in the model and the prototype can be obtained if the
Mach number of flow is the same in both the model and the prototype. This is
known as Mach Model Law.

(Ma)model = (Ma)prototype

[Vm / (Km / m)1/2] = [Vp / (Kp / p)1/2] ...... (22)

where (Ma)model = Mach number of flow in model

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Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis

(Ma)prototype = Mach number of flow in prototype

Vm = velocity of flow in the model
Km = bulk modulus of elasticity of fluid in the model
m = mass density of fluid in the model
Vp = velocity of flow in the prototype
Kp = bulk modulus of elasticity of fluid in the prototype
p = mass density of fluid in the prototype

Dividing LHS by RHS of above equation,

[Vm / (Km / m)1/2] / [Vp / (Kp / p)1/2] = 1

 [Vr / (Kr / r)1/2] = 1 ...... (23)

Equation (23) represents the Mach Model Law which may be used to evaluate
scale ratios for various other physical quantities.

The Mach model law finds extensive application in aerodynamic testing and in
phenomena involving velocities exceeding the speed of sound. It is also
applicable in hydraulic model testing for cases of unsteady flow, especially
water hammer problems.

(e) Weber Model Law

In case of fluid flow phenomena where, in addition to the inertia force, the only
other force of significance is the force resulting from surface tension, the
dynamic similarity in flow in the model and the prototype can be obtained if the
Weber number of flow is the same in both the model and the prototype. This is
known as Weber Model Law.

(We)model = (We)prototype

[Vm / {m / (m Lm)}1/2] = [Vp / {p / (p Lp)}1/2] …… (24)

where (We)model = Weber number of flow in model

(We)prototype = Weber number of flow in prototype
Vm = velocity of flow in the model
m = surface tension of fluid in the model
m = mass density of fluid in the model
Lm = characteristic length in the model
Vp = velocity of flow in the prototype
p = surface tension of fluid in the prototype

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Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis

p = mass density of fluid in the prototype

Lp = characteristic length in the prototype

Dividing LHS by RHS of above equation,

[Vm / {m / (m Lm)}1/2] / [Vp / {p / (p Lp)}1/2] = 1

 [Vr / {r / (r Lr)}1/2] = 1 …… (25)

Equation (25) represents the Weber Model Law which may be used to evaluate
scale ratios for various other physical quantities.

Weber model law can be applied in the following cases:

(i) flow over weirs involving very low heads

(ii) very thin sheet of liquid flowing over a surface
(iii) capillary waves in channels

TYPES OF MODELS

Hydraulic models can be broadly classified into two categories namely,

(i) Undistorted Models

(ii) Distorted Models

(i) Undistorted Models

An undistorted model is the one which is geometrically similar to its prototype,

that is, the scale ratios for corresponding linear dimensions of the model and its
prototype are same. As the basic condition of perfect similitude, i.e., geometric
similarity, is satisfied, prediction in case of such models is relatively easy and
many of the results obtained from the model tests can be transferred directly to
the prototype.

(ii) Distorted Models

Distorted models are those in which one or more terms of the model are not
identical with their counterparts in the prototype. As the basic condition of
perfect similitude, i.e., geometric similarity, is not satisfied, the results obtained
with the help of such models are liable to distortion and have more qualitative
value only.

A distorted model may have either geometrical distortion, or distortion of

hydraulic quantities or a combination of these.
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Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis

What is geometric distortion?

The geometric distortion can either be dimensional distortion or

configurationally distortional. For example, when the scale ratio adopted for the
longitudinal dimension of the model and the prototype is different from the
scale ratio adopted for the vertical dimension of the model and the prototype,
the model is said to be dimensionally distortional. In general, when different
scale ratios are adopted for the longitudinal, transverse and vertical dimensions,
then it is said to be a distortion of dimensions.

Where dimensionally distorted models are frequently employed?

Distortion of dimensions is frequently adopted in river models where a different

scale ratio is adopted for depth. In river models, the scales for vertical
dimensions are larger than scales for horizontal dimensions. Such models are
called ‘vertically exaggerated models’.

When the general configuration of the model does not bear a resemblance with
its prototype, it results in a configurationally distortional model. For example, a
river model will have a distortion of configuration if it is constructed with a
bed-slope different from the one given by vertical exaggeration.

What is material distortion?

When the physical properties of the corresponding materials in the model and
the prototype do not satisfy the similitude conditions, the material distortion
arises.

Material distortion may have to be adopted in river models constructed for the
studies of sediment transport.

Further, it may not be possible to obtain similitude in respect of certain

uncontrollable hydraulic quantities such as time, discharge, etc., which may lead
to distortion of hydraulic quantities.

Typical examples where distorted models are required:

(i) Rivers
(ii) Dams across very wide rivers
(iii) Harbours
(iv) Estuaries, etc.,

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Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis

In all the above cases, the horizontal dimensions are large in proportion to the
vertical ones.

What are the reasons for adopting distorted models?

(i) to maintain accuracy in vertical measurements

(ii) to maintain turbulent flow
(iii) to obtain suitable bed material and its adequate movement
(iv) to obtain suitable roughness condition
(v) to accommodate the available facilities such as space, money, water
supply and time.

Merits of Distorted Models

(i) the vertical exaggeration results in steeper water surface slopes and
magnification of wave heights in models. Hence, the water surface
slopes and the wave heights can be measured easily and accurately.
(ii) Due to exaggerated slopes, the Reynolds number of a model is
considerably increased and the surface resistance is lowered. This
assists in the simulation of flow conditions in the model and its
prototype.
(iii) Sufficient tractive force can be developed to produce adequate bed
movement with a reasonable small model.
(iv) Model size can be sufficiently reduced by distortion. This effects
simplification in its operation and considerable reduction in cost.

Limitations of Distorted models ?

Example 6. A ship 150 m long moves in fresh water at 15C at 36 km/h. A

1:100 model of this ship is to be tested in a towing basin containing a liquid of
specific gravity 0.90. What viscosity must this liquid have for both Reynolds
and Froude model laws to be satisfied? At what speed must the model be
towed? If 117.7 watts is required to tow the model at this speed, what power is
required by the ship? Dynamic viscosity of water at 15C is 1.13 x 10-3 N.s/m2.

Solution.

Prototype Ship:
Length of prototype ship, Lp = 150 m
Velocity of prototype ship, Vp = 36 km/h = (36 x 1000) / (1 x 60 x 60) = 10 m/s
Dynamic viscosity of water at 15C, p = 1.13 x 10-3 N.s/m2
Mass density of water, p = 1000 kg (mass)/m3

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Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis

Model Ship:
Length scale ratio = 1/100, i.e., Lm / Lp = (1 / 100)
Length of model ship, Lm = (1 / 100) Lp = (1 / 100) (150) = 1.5 m
Mass density of liquid, m = (specific gravity of liquid) x (mass density of
water)
= 0.9 x 1000 kg (mass)/m = 900 kg (mass)/m3
3

Dynamic viscosity of liquid, m = ?

Power required to tow the model, Pm = 117.7 watts

Reynolds model law and Froude model law are to be satisfied.

Reynolds model law:

(NR)model = (NR)prototype

(m Vm Lm) / m = (p Vp Lp) / p

Froude model law:
(Fr)model = (Fr)prototype

Vm / (Lm gm)1/2 = Vp / (Lp gp)1/2

Vm 10
 
1.59.811/ 2
1509.811 / 2
 Vm = 1 m/s

Substituting Vm = 1 m/s in the Reynolds model law, we have,

(900)(1)(1.5) (1000)(10)(150)

m 1.13x10- 3
m = 1.017 x 10-6 N.s/m2

Power required to tow the model ship, Pm = 117.7 watts.

We know that,
Power required to tow the model =
(total resistance experienced by the model ship) x
(Velocity of model ship)
i.e., Pm = Rm Vm
where Rm = total resistance experienced by the model ship
P 117.7
Rm  m   117.7 N
Vm 1
The total resistance R experienced by a ship may be assumed to consist of two
portions viz., (i) wave resistance R w due to the action of waves; and (ii) the
frictional resistance Rf due to frictional effects on the wetted surface of the ship.

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Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis

That is,

R  Rw  R f

Let the above equation for the prototype ship may be written as

R p  Rw  p  R f
p
 
and for the model ship as

Rm  Rw m  R f  m
The total resistance R encountered by a ship is a function of the velocity V of
ship, viscosity  of liquid (water) and mass density  of liquid (water), some
characteristic length L to specify the size of the ship and the gravitational
acceleration g. Hence, the functional relationship for R may be written as:

R =  (V, , , L, g)

This functional relationship can be expressed in terms of dimensionless

parameters as

R  VL   V 2  
 1  ,  
L V
2 2     gL 

R

that is, 2 2  1 N R , ( Fr ) 2
L V

Hence, for dynamic similarity between the model and the prototype for total
resistance, we have,
Rp Rm

 p L p 2V p 2  m Lm 2Vm 2
Rp  p L p 2V p 2 (1000)(150) 2 (10) 2
  = = 1111111.1
Rm  m Lm 2Vm 2 (900)(1.5) 2 (1) 2
Rp = Rm x 1111111.1 = 130777777.7 N = 1.308 x 108 N

Hence, Pp = Rp Vp = 1.308 x 108 x 10 = 1.307 x 109 Nm = 1.308 x 109 watts

= 1.308 x 106 kW

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Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis

Example 7. A spillway 7.2 m high and 150 m long discharges 2150 m3/s under
a head of 4 m. If a 1:16 model of the spillway is to be constructed, find the
model dimensions, head over the model and the model discharge.

Solution.

Prototype spillway:
Height of prototype spillway, (Height)p = 7.2 m
Length of prototype spillway, Lp = 150 m
Discharge of prototype spillway, Qp = 2150 m3/s
Head in prototype spillway, (Head)p = 4 m

Model spillway:
Length scale ratio, Lr = Lm / Lp = 1 / 16
Hence, length of model spillway, Lm = (1 / 16) Lp = (1 / 16) (150) = 9.375 m
For geometric similarity of model and prototype,
( Height ) m Lm

( Height ) p Lp

= 7.2   = 0.45 m
Lm 1
 (Height)m = (Height)p
Lp  16 
( Head ) m Lm

( Head ) p Lp

= 4   = 0.25 m
Lm 1
(Head)m = (Head)p
Lp  16 
The discharge equation for spillway is given by
Q = CdLH3/2
where Cd = coefficient of discharge of spillway
L = Length of spillway
H = Head of water in spillway

For kinematic similarity to exist between the model and the prototype, we have,

Qm Lm H m 3 / 2 (9.375)( 0.25) 3 / 2
  = 9.765625 x 10-4
Qp 3 / 2 3 / 2
Lp H p (150)( 4)
Qm = (9.765625 x 10-4)Qp = (9.765625 x 10-4)(2150) = 2.1 m3/s

Example 8. In order to estimate the frictional head loss in a pipe 1 m in

diameter, through which castor oil of specific gravity 0.96 and dynamic
viscosity 9.9 poise, is to be transported at the rate of 5000 litres per second, a
test was conducted on a pipe of diameter 50 mm using water at 15C as the
model fluid. Calculate the discharge required for the model pipe. If the head loss

Prepared by: Prof. A. MURUGAPPAN Page No.:44 of 47

Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis

in 40 m length of the model pipe is measured as 13.6 mm of water, determine

the corresponding head loss in the prototype. Also obtain the value of Darcy’s
friction factor for the prototype. Given absolute viscosity of water at 15C =
0.0131 poise.

Solution.

Prototype pipe:
Diameter of pipe, Dp = 1 m
 
Cross-sectional area of pipe, Ap = D p2 = 12 = 0.7854 m2
4 4
Specific gravity of castor oil transported through pipe = 0.96
Mass density of castor oil, p = (specific gravity of castor oil) x
(mass density of water)
= 0.96 x 1000 = 960 kg (mass) / m3
Dynamic viscosity of castor oil, p = 9.9 poise = 9.9 x 0.1 N.s/m2 = 0.99 N.s/m2
Discharge rate of castor oil through the pipe, Qp = 5000 litres per second
= 5000 x 10-3 m3 / s
= 5 m3 / s
Average velocity of flow through pipe, Vp = Qp / Ap = 5 / 0.7854 = 6.3662 m/s
Head loss due to friction in prototype pipe, (Hf)p = ?
Darcy’s friction factor for the prototype pipe, fp = ?

Model pipe:
Diameter of pipe, Dm = 50 mm = 50 x 10-3 m = 0.05 m
 
Cross-sectional area of model pipe, Am = Dm 2 = 0.052 = 1.963 x 10-3 m2
4 4
Mass density of water, m = 1000 kg (mass) / m3
Discharge of water required for the model pipe, Qm = ?
Length of model pipe, Lm = 40 m
Head loss due to friction in 40 m length of model pipe, (Hf)m = 13.6 mm
= 0.0136 m
Dynamic viscosity of water, m = 0.0131 poise = 0.0131 x 0.1 N.s/m2
= 0.00131 N.s/m2

For dynamic similarity of model and prototype, Reynolds model law must be
applicable.

Reynolds model law:

(NR)model = (NR)prototype

(m Vm Lm) / m = (p Vp Lp) / p

Prepared by: Prof. A. MURUGAPPAN Page No.:45 of 47

Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis

Here, the characteristic dimension of pipe is its diameter; hence, Lm = Dm and Lp

= Dp in the above expression
960Vm 0.05 10006.36621
 
0.00131 0.99
 Vm  0.1755 m/s

Hence, discharge required for the model pipe, Qm = Am x Vm

= (1.963 x 10-3) x (0.1755)
= 3.446 x 10-4 m3/s
= 0.345 x 10-3 m3/s
= 0.345 litres per second
By dimensional analysis, the Resistance to flow is given by

 VD 
R = L2V 2  
  
As the Reynolds number for both the model and the prototype are the same, the
value of the function  in the above expression will be the same for both the
model and the prototype. Hence, we can write,
 R   
   R 
 L2V 2   2 2
  m  L V  p
Resistance to flow, R = (drop in pressure intensity due to head loss) x
(cross-sectional area of pipe)

= (gHf)  D 2 
4 
Hence, we have,

 
  2 
 gH f  4 D  


  2 
 gH f  4 D   
      
 L V
2 2   L V
2 2 
   
 m  p
( H f ) m  D p 2  Lm 2  Vm 2 
 
( H f ) p  Dm 2  L p 2  V p 2 
   
 L   D   0.05 
As  m    m    
 Lp   Dp   1 
( H f ) m  1  2  0.05  2  0.1755  2
       7.5997 x 10-4
( H f ) p  0.05   1   6.3662 
It is given that (Hf)m = 0.0136 m of water in a length of 40 m
Hence, (Hf)p = (Hf)m / (7.5997 x 10-4) = 0.0136 / (7.5997 x 10 -4)
= 17.896 m of castor oil

Prepared by: Prof. A. MURUGAPPAN Page No.:46 of 47

Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar
 Dimensional Analysis

The corresponding length of prototype pipe in which this loss of 17.896 m

occurs can be determined using the length scale ratio.

Lm Dm 0.05
   0.05
Lp Dp 1
 Lp = Lm / 0.05 = 40 / 0.05 = 800 m
Hence, loss of head per metre length of prototype pipe = (Hf)p / Lp
= 17.896 / 800
= 0.02237 m of castor oil
= 22.37 mm of oil per m length of pipe

Darcy-Weisbach equation for head loss due to friction in pipe is given by

fL V 2
Hf 
D 2g
Applying the above equation for the model pipe, we have,
f p Lp V p2
 
Hf
p

D p 2g p
f p (800) (6.3662) 2
17.896 =
1 ( 2)( 9.81)
 fp = friction factor for the prototype pipe = 0.01083

Prepared by: Prof. A. MURUGAPPAN Page No.:47 of 47

Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar