Photovoltaic-Effect (Antecedentes de Tesis

Source: Fundamentals and Applications of Renewable Energy, 2nd Edition
ISBN: 9781265079659
Authors: Mehmet Kanoğlu, Yunus A. Çengel, John M. Cimbala
5-1. PHOTOVOLTAIC EFFECT

Solar cells or photovoltaic (PV) cells are devices that convert solar radiation into electricity directly. Solar cells have no moving
parts or components, and they have a lightweight structure. A PV cell operates on the principle of photovoltaic effect. When
photons from solar light are incident on a suitable material, electrons are released, which in turn generate voltage difference or
electric current.
Becquerel noted the photoelectric effect for the first time in 1839. He observed this when light was incident on an electrode in a
solution. The operating principle of a PV cell was discovered by Adams and Day in 1877 in solids with selenium as the material.
Coblenz discovered the generation of voltage between the dark and illuminated regions of semiconducting crystals in 1919. Ohl
discovered the photoelectric effect at a p-n junction of two semiconductors in 1941. Researchers at RCA and Bell Laboratories
achieved a conversion efficiency of 6 percent in 1954 by working on p-type and n-type semiconductors.
PV cells are found in small devices such as calculators and watches, medium-size systems such as water pumps, traffic signs,
satellites, space vehicles, residential units, and large systems such as power stations for utility grids (Fig. 5-1). Some
advantages of PV systems include high reliability with no moving parts and lightweight structure, low operating and
maintenance costs, flexibility in sizing, and no water consumption. Some disadvantages are relatively high initial cost,
intermittent nature of solar energy, additional costs for energy storage, and dust collection on panel surfaces reducing system
performance.
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Figure 5-1 (a) A grid-connected PV system. (b) A cell phone charging station plus nighttime
lighting powered by two 60-W solar panels.
An understanding of the operation of solar cells requires physics of atomic theory and semiconductor theory. We learned from
physics that an atom consists of a nucleus containing protons and neutrons and equal number of electrons orbiting about the
nucleus. For the silicon element, the atomic number is 14, which is equal to the number of photons or electrons. Protons are
contained in the nucleus while electrons are in orbitals or bands with respect to the nucleus. Inner bands are filled while outer
bands may be partially filled (Hodge, 2010).
The energy of an electron depends on the band that it occupies. The most outside band an electron can be found is called the
valence band. The chemical characteristics of an element depend on the number of electrons in the valence band. For a
chemically inert element, the valence band is filled. In silicon, the valence band can accommodate a maximum of eight
electrons, but it has four electrons.
When the electron bond in the valence band is strong, the neighboring atoms share electrons so that valence bands are filled.
This is called the covalent bond. The electrons in a valence band may attach themselves to a neighboring atom if their bond is
not strong. As a result, the donor atom becomes a positively charged ion and the neighboring atom becomes a negatively
charged ion. The two atoms form an ionic bond.
When the electrons in the valence band become too energetic, they jump into a band too far from the nucleus. This remote band
is called the conduction band. The energy difference between an electron in the valence band and an electron in conduction
band is called the band gap energy. A small amount of energy is sufficient to move electrons away from the atom when they are
in the conduction band. This is the mechanism of heat and electrical conduction.
The common unit for band gap energy is electron-volt, eV. Note that 1 eV = 1.602 × 10–19 J. Insulators, conductors, and
semiconductors are characterized by their band gap energies (Kreith and Kreider, 2011).
Conductors have very low band gap energies because their atoms have relatively empty valence bands with some electrons in
the conduction band. Metals such as gold, copper, and iron are good conductors.
Insulators have high band gap energies because their atoms have full valence bands. Band gap energies for insulators are
greater than 3 eV. Glass is an example of an insulator. Electrons in an insulator atom do not flow under the application of
voltage or current.
Semiconductors have partially filled valence bands, and their band gap energies are less than 3 eV. Silicon is an example of
semiconductor.
The band gap energy values for common semiconductor materials for PV cell applications are as follows (Hodge, 2010):
1.01 eV copper indium diselenide
1.11 eV silicon
1.27 eV indium phosphide
1.40 eV gallium arsenide
1.44 eV cadmium telluride
2.24 eV gallium phosphide
2.42 eV cadmium sulfide
Silicon is a semiconductor material and commonly used in PV cells. There are four electrons in the valence band in silicon
atoms. For PV cell applications, pure silicon, called an intrinsic semiconductor, is not used. Instead, silicon is doped with a small
amount of another material (dopant) to yield an extrinsic semiconductor.
When the dopant has more electrons in the valence band compared to the number of electrons in silicon, the resulting material
is an n-type (negative-type) semiconductor. Phosphorus has five valence electrons (one more than silicon atom), and it is used
as a dopant to create a free electron, producing an n-type material. When the dopant has a smaller number of electrons in the
valence band compared to pure silicon, the resulting material is a p-type (positive-type) semiconductor. A p-type semiconductor
having fewer electrons in the valence band is also called having an excess of holes. Boron has three valence electrons (one less
than silicon atom), and it is used as the dopant to create a shortage of electron (creating a hole), producing a p-type material.
Despite having absence of electrons in the valence band, the semiconductor is electrically neutral. An n-type semiconductor is
also electrically neutral despite having excess electrons in the valence band.
An n-type semiconductor acquires positive charge because it has tendency to lose electrons and gain holes. A p-type
semiconductor acquires negative charge because it has tendency to lose holes and gain electrons. As a result of doping silicon
with two different dopants, n-type and p-type semiconductors are obtained. Combining n-type and p-type semiconductors
result in a p-n junction. Forming of the junction enhances the flow of electrons and holes. The negative charge on p-type
semiconductor and positive charge on n-type semiconductor are responsible for preventing electrons and holes from crossing
the junction.
The operation of a PV cell designated by a p-n junction is shown in Fig. 5-2. Photons from solar radiation penetrate the p-n
junction and strike silicon atoms. If the energy level of the photon is sufficiently high, the electron in the valence band acquires
more energy than the band gap energy, and the electron will jump to the conduction band. This initiates an electron flow and an
electric current flow. As a result, energy in photons of solar light is converted to electrical energy.
Figure 5-2 Photovoltaic cell operation. Electrons flow from the n-type semiconductor to the p-type
semiconductor through the load.
If the energy of photon is less than the band gap energy, the electron has insufficient energy to jump into the conduction band.
This excess energy in the electron is converted to excess kinetic energy, which is converted to heat, manifesting itself as a rise
in temperature of the PV system. This shows that only the photons of solar radiation having a minimum band gap energy
contribute to the electricity production. The energy of a photon depends on the wavelength of solar light. The higher the
wavelength, the lower the energy level of the photon. Therefore, in PV cells, only low-wavelength spectrum of solar radiation
contributes to the PV energy conversion.
A single photon can only move a single valence electron to the conduction band. When the photon possesses more energy than
the band gap energy, the part of energy that is equal to the gap energy is used to move the electron while the excess energy is
converted to heat. Therefore, the excess energy of the photon does not contribute to the electricity production.
As discussed in Chap. 3, electromagnetic waves transport energy just like other waves, and all electromagnetic waves travel at
the speed of light in a vacuum, which is c0 = 2.9979 × 108 m/s. Electromagnetic waves are characterized by their frequency ν or
wavelength λ. These two properties in a medium are related by
c
λ=
ν
(5-1)
where c is the speed of propagation of a wave in that medium. The speed of propagation in a medium is related to the speed of
light in a vacuum by c = c0 /n, where n is the index of refraction of that medium. The refractive index is essentially unity for air
and most gases, about 1.5 for glass, and 1.33 for water. The commonly used unit of wavelength is the micrometer (μm) or
micron, where 1 μm = 10−6 m. It has proven useful to view electromagnetic radiation as the propagation of a collection of
discrete packets of energy called photons or quanta, as proposed by Max Planck in 1900 in conjunction with his quantum
theory. In this view, each photon of frequency ν is considered to have an energy of
hc
e = hν =
λ
(5-2)
where h = 6.626069 × 10−34 J·s is Planck's constant. Note from the second part of Eq. (5-2) that the energy of a photon is
inversely proportional to its wavelength. Therefore, shorter-wavelength radiation possesses larger photon energies (Çengel and
Ghajar, 2020).
Example
EXAMPLE 5-1 Maximum Wavelength of Solar Radiation for PV Cells
The band gap energy values are 1.11 eV for silicon and 1.40 eV for gallium arsenide. What are the maximum wavelengths
of solar radiation for which solar radiation can be converted to electrical energy for silicon and gallium arsenide?
hc
SOLUTION The energy of each photon is e = where h = 6.626069 × 10–34 J·s and c = 2.9979 × 108 m/s. For silicon,
λ
the band gap energy is 1.11 eV. Solving for the wavelength, we obtain
(6.626069 × 10−34 J⋅s)(2.9979 × 108 m/s) 1 eV

( )
hc
λ = =
e 1.11 eV 1.602 × 10−19 J
= 1.12 × 10−6 m
= 1.12 μm
Repeating the calculation for gallium arsenide, we find
(6.626069 × 10−34 J⋅s)(2.9979 × 108 m/s) 1 eV

( )
hc
λ = =
e 1.40 eV 1.602 × 10−19 J
= 0.885 × 10−6 m
= 0.885 μm
Therefore, the maximum wavelength of solar radiation for PV energy conversion is 1.12 μm for silicon and 0.885 μm for
gallium arsenide.
This example shows that photons of solar radiation should have a maximum wavelength of 1.12 μm to convert solar light to
electricity when silicon is used as the semiconductor material (Fig. 5-3). Remember that the energy of a photon is inversely
proportional to its wavelength. Solar radiation wavelengths greater than 1.12 μm do not have sufficient energy in photons to
move a valence electron and initiate the current flow. When the wavelength is less than 1.12 μm, the difference between the
photon energy from the solar light and the band gap energy of the silicon is the excess energy, which is also wasted. These
characteristics explains why the conversion efficiency of solar radiation to electricity by PV effect is relatively low.
Figure 5-3 There is no electricity generation when the wavelength of solar radiation is greater than
1.12 μm when silicon is used as the semiconductor material. When the wavelength is less than 1.12
μm, the difference between the photon energy from the solar light and the band gap energy of the
silicon is the excess energy. (Adapted from Hodge, 2010.)
As discussed in Chap. 3, the electromagnetic spectrum of solar radiation falls between the wavelengths of 0.3 and 3.5 μm.
About 40 percent of solar radiation is in visible range (between 0.4 and 0.7 μm) with peak radiation at a wavelength of 0.48 μm,
which corresponds to the green portion of the visible spectrum. The visible spectrum of solar radiation contributes the most to
the PV energy conversion. About 52 percent of solar radiation falls into near-infrared region with a wavelength range of 0.7 to
3.5 μm. The contribution of this infrared region to electricity generation by PV effect is very low. Ultraviolet region of solar
radiation falls in wavelengths between 0.3 and 0.4 μm, and its contribution to PV energy conversion is small.
The conversion efficiency of a solar cell may be defined as the electrical power output (in W) divided by the incident solar
radiation:
Ẇ out
ηcell =
AG solar
(5-3)
where A is the area of the solar cell in m2 and G solar is the solar irradiation in W/m2 .
Example
EXAMPLE 5-2 Maximum Efficiency of a Silicon Solar Cell
Solar radiation is incident on a 1-m2 silicon solar cell at a rate of 1000 W/m2 ·μm at a wavelength of 0.48 μm. Determine the
maximum efficiency of this solar cell at this wavelength.
SOLUTION The rate of solar radiation incident is
G = AG solar = (1000 W/m2)(1.0 m2) = 1000 W
Each photon with a wavelength λ has an energy of
(6.626069 × 10−34 J⋅s)(2.9979 × 108 m/s) 1 μm

( ) = 4.138 × 10−19 J
hc
e= =
λ 0.48 μm 1 × 10−6 m
The rate of photons incident on the PV cell is
G 1000 J/s
n photon = = = 2.417 × 1021 photons/s
e 4.138 × 10−19 J
Each photon will move one electron and, therefore, the number of electrons are equal to the number of photons. The band
gap energy of silicon is 1.11 eV. Then the maximum electrical power output is
1.602 × 10−19 J
Ẇ out,max = nphotone = (2.417 × 1021 photons/s)(1.11 eV) ( ) = 430 W
1 eV
The maximum efficiency at this wavelength is the maximum electrical power output divided by the incident solar radiation:
Ẇ out,max 430 W
ηλ,cell,max = = = 0.430 = 43.0%
AG solar (1 m )(1000 W/m2)
2
This is the maximum conversion efficiency of a silicon solar cell when solar radiation is incident at a wavelength of 0.48
μm. The maximum efficiency will be different at different wavelengths because photon energy depends on the wavelength.
The value of maximum efficiency is 100 percent when the wavelength is 1.12 μm. The maximum efficiency is zero when the
wavelength is greater than 1.12 μm.
The overall maximum efficiency of a solar cell can be determined by integrating the cell efficiency at each wavelength over
the entire solar irradiation spectrum:
∫ ηλ,cell,maxG λdλ
ηcell,max =
∫ G λdλ
(5-4)
where ηλ,cell is the maximum cell efficiency at a given wavelength and G λ is the solar irradiation at the given wavelength.
Actual efficiencies of solar cells are less than the maximum efficiencies based on Eq. (5-4). Some of the reasons are
reflection of solar radiation from the cell surface, shading of the cell due to electrical contacts, internal electric resistance of
the cell, and recombination of electrons and holes not contributing to electric flow. Using antireflective (AR) coatings on PV
panels are now a standard practice to minimize reflection of solar light. This can reduce the reflection from 30 percent to 3
percent for a silicon cell. Undesired recombination of electrons and holes can be reduced by using hydrogen alloys in
polycrystalline and amorphous cells (Kreith and Kreider, 2011).
Mismatch of the photon energy of the solar radiation and the band gap energy of the cell material results in relatively low
maximum efficiencies for the solar cell. An effective solution to this issue is using multijunction solar cells for which two or
more thin layers of solar cells are stacked on top of each other. This is shown in Fig. (5-4). Material a is used as the top
layer, and the material b as the bottom layer. Material a will not produce PV effect when the wavelength is greater than λa.
That is, only the area A1+A2 contributes to the solar radiation conversion to electricity. Material b has different
characteristics such that its maximum wavelength for the PV effect is λb. By adding a second cell layer, a wider range of
wavelength for solar radiation becomes available for energy conversion. The solar radiation with wavelength greater than λa
will pass through layer a but absorbed by layer b for wavelengths up to λb. As a result, a greater area in the spectrum
(A1+A2+A3) contributes to the solar radiation conversion to electricity. Multijunction solar cells allow higher cell
efficiencies in comparison to the cell efficiencies using a single layer of material a or a single layer of material b by utilizing
a wider spectrum of solar radiation in PV energy conversion. Using more layers would result in higher cell efficiencies.
However, using very thin layers of crystalline and polycrystalline cells on top of each other has some serious challenges.
This concept is mainly used for thin-film amorphous solar cells (Goswami et al., 2000). Different types of solar cells are
described later in the chapter.
Figure 5-4 Photovoltaic energy conversion in multijunction solar cells. (Adapted from Goswami et
al., 2000.)

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Source: Fundamentals and Applications of Renewable Energy, 2nd Edition

5-1. PHOTOVOLTAIC EFFECT

1.01 eV copper indium diselenide

1.27 eV indium phosphide

1.40 eV gallium arsenide

1.44 eV cadmium telluride

2.24 eV gallium phosphide

2.42 eV cadmium sulfide

EXAMPLE 5-1 Maximum Wavelength of Solar Radiation for PV Cells

(6.626069 × 10−34 J⋅s)(2.9979 × 108 m/s) 1 eV

Repeating the calculation for gallium arsenide, we find

(6.626069 × 10−34 J⋅s)(2.9979 × 108 m/s) 1 eV

EXAMPLE 5-2 Maximum Efficiency of a Silicon Solar Cell

SOLUTION The rate of solar radiation incident is

Each photon with a wavelength λ has an energy of

(6.626069 × 10−34 J⋅s)(2.9979 × 108 m/s) 1 μm

The rate of photons incident on the PV cell is

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