STATISTICAL QUALITY CONTROL

Introduction: Quality is the determining factor the success of any product or service large
resource are committed in every organization to ensure quality
Definition: It is defined as customer satisfaction in general and fitness for use in particular.
Both the external consumer who buy the product and services and the internal consumers that
is, all divisions or departments of the business organization are equally interested in the quality.

Statistical quality control: The process of applying statistical principles to solve the problem
of controlling the quality control of a product or service is called statistical quality control.
Quality elements: a) Quality design b) Quality conformance

a) Quality design: Quality of design refers to product feature such as performance, reliability
durability, ease of use, serviceability
b) Quality conformance: Quality conformance means whether the product meets the given
quality specification or not
Inspection: The process of measuring the out put and comparing it to check whether it meets
the given specified requirements or not, is called inspection.
Inspection Methods: The following are the methods of inspection based on merits

1) Incoming inspection: In this method, the quality of the goods and services arriving into the
organization is inspected. This ensures that the material suppliers adhere to the given
specifications with this defective material cannot enter into the production process. This
focuses on the vendor‟s quality and ability to supply acceptable raw materials.
2) Critical point inspection: Inspecting at the critical points of a product manufacture gives
valuable insight into the completely functional process. At the points of manufacture that
involve high costs or which offer no possibility for repair or rework, inspection is crucial
further operation depend on these results critical point inspection helps to drop the defective
production, and thereby, facilitate avoiding unnecessary further expenditure on them.
3) Process inspection: This is also called patrolling inspection or floor inspection or roving
inspection. Here the inspector goes around the manufacturing points in the shop floor to inspect
the goods produced on random sample basis from time to time.
4) Fixed inspection: It provides for a centralized and independent where work is brought for
inspection from time to time. This method is followed where the inspection equipment cannot
be moved to the points of productions.
5) Final inspection: This is centralized inspection making use of special equipment. This
certifies the quality of the goods before they are shipped.

Elements of statistical Quality Control: The technique under SQC can be divided in to two
parts a) Process control b) Acceptance sampling
a) Process control: Process control is a technique of ensuring the quality of the products
during the manufacturing process itself. If a process consistently produces items with
acceptable or tolerable range of specification. It is said to be statically under control. Process
control is achieved through control charts. Process control aims to control and
maintain the quality of the products in the manufacturing process. Statistical control charts:
A control chart compares graphically the process performance data to computed statistical
control limits. These control limits act as limit lines on the chart control chats are the tools to
determine whether the process is under control or not.
The quality of the production process may be affected by chance cause or
assignable cause.
Chance cause: such causes, which may or may not affect the manufacturing process are called
chance cause, chance cause cannot even be identified. It is not possible to always maintain the
given specification.
Assignable Cause: Assignable causes affect the quality of the production process. These causes
can be identified and specified. Causes such as change in the labour shift, power fluctuations, or
excessive tool wear are said to be assignable causes as they affect the quality of manufacturing
process in different ways.
Process capability: Process capability refers to the ability to achieve measurable results from a
combination of machines, tools, methods, materials and people engaged in production.

Confidence limits and control limit:

Confidence limit: It indicate the range of confidence level. A confidence level refers to the
probability that the value of measurement or parameter, such as length of screw, is correct. Ex:
If a component is required with measurement of 50 mm. across, then the buy accept all
components measuring between 48 mm and 52 mm across, considering a five percent
confidence level.
Control limit: Control limits are found in the control charts. There are two control limits 1)
Upper control limit (UCL) and 2) Lower control limit (LCL). These are determined based on
the principles of normal distribution
Ex: In a pilot investigation of the length of the nails produced in the shop floor, it is found
that the mean length is cm, the S.D 3σ, the measure of variability of the nails
produced 0.2 cm. How do you construct the control chart for this data.

+3σ Upper control limit

Length of nail

-3σ Lower control limit

Sample number
Control charts for variables: A variable is one whose quality measurement changes from unit
to unit. The quality of these variables is measured in terms of hardness, thickness, length, and
so on. The control charts for variables are drawn using the
principles of normal distribution. There are two types of control charts for variables

and R chart.

and R Chart: The chart is used to show the process variations based on the average
measurement of samples collected. It shows more light on diagnosing quality problem when
read along with R chart. It shows the erratic or cyclic shifts in the
manufacturing process. It can also focus on when to take a remedial measure to set right the
quality problems. However, collecting data about all the variables involves a large amount of
time and resources.
The R chart is based on the range of the items in the given ample. It highlights the
changes in the process variability. It is a good measure of spread or range. It
shows better results when read along with the chart.

For charts : UCL = + A2 When = Mean of Means

LCL = - A2 = Mean of sample range

A2= Constant

For R chart : UCL = D4 D4, D3 are constants

LCL = D3

is the average of sample ranges (Ranges is the difference between the

maximum variable and minimum variable)
EX: Construct and R charts from the following information and state whether the process
is in control for each of the following has been co mputed from a sample of
5 units drawn at an interval of half an hour from an ongoing manufacturing process.

Samples 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
x 24 34 35 39 26 29 1334 37 29

R 23 39 14 5 20 17 21 11 40 10

∑
= = 30
Solution: The mean of means =

∑
= =
is calculated as =
x Chart: x hcart UCL and LCL compute at sample size 5 A 2 table value is 0.58

UCL= +A2 = 30 + (0.58x20) =41.6

LCL = D3 = 30 – (0.58x20) = 18.4

60
50

40 UCL = 41.6

Measurement
of variables 30 = 30

20
LCL = 18.4
10

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Number of samples
R Chart: R chart UCL and LCL compute at sample size 5, D4 table value is 2.11 and

D3 table value is 0

UCL = D4 = 2.11 x 20 = 42.2

LCL = D3 = 0 x 20 = 0
45
UCL = 42.6
25

20
Measurement = 42.6
of variables 15

10

5
0 LCL = 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Number of samples

Therefore 3, 7 points the process is out of control.

Control charts for attributes: The quality of attributes can be determined on the basis of
„Yes‟ or „No‟, „Go‟ or „No go‟. In other words, in case of a mirror glass, even if there is
one scratch it is not considered to be a quality mirror, in such a case quality is decided
base on whether the mirror has any scratch or not.
The control charts for attributes are „C‟ chart and „P‟ charts

„C‟ Chart: „C‟ chart is use where there a number defects per unit. This control charts
controls the number of defects per unit. Here the sample size should be constant. This
calculate as below.

UCL = c + 3 c and LCL = c - 3 c

Total number of defects in all the samples

Where the c =
Total number of samples inspected
Ex:

Sample Number No. of defects Sample Number No. of defects

1 5 11 4

2 4 12 6

3 9 13 7

4 7 14 3

5 8 15 5

6 9 16 3

7 4 17 3

8 5 18 1
Total number of defects = 100

c= =

UCL = c + 3 c = 5+3 = 11.69

LCL = c - 3 c = 5-3 = 0

LCL = 0 means, LCL got negative value, take it as equal to zero

15

10 UCL = 11.69
No. defects
per each 8
sampled unit
6

c=5

0 LCL = 0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 15 18
Number of samples
„P‟ Chart: „P‟ Chart is used where there is date about the number of defectives per
sample. It is also called fraction defective chart or percentage defectives chart. Here each
item is classified on „go or no go‟ basis that is good or bad. Hence if the sample size is
larger, the results could be better.
UCL =

LCL =

Where average defective ( p ) = Total no of defective found

Total no of pieces inspected

„n‟ = Number of pieces inspected per day

Ex: For each of the 14 days a number of magnets used in electric relays are inspected and
the number of defectives is recorded. The total number of magnets tested is 14,000. The
following are the particular of the number of
defectives found every day.

Number of Number of
Day number Day number
defective defective
1 100 8 120
2 50 9 60
3 150 10 140
4 200 11 50
5 150 12 70
6 50 13 40
7 80 14 40

Solution:

Total number of defectives = 14000

The average sample size(n) per day= 14000/14 days = 1000

Percentage of defective per day = Total no of defective found per day

Total no of pieces inspected per day

Day Percentage of Number of Percentage of Day Number of

number defectives defective defectives number defective

1 100/1000=0.10 100 120/1000=0.12 8 120
2 50/1000 =0.05 50 60/1000 =0.06 9 60
3 150/1000=0.15 150 140/1000=0.14 10 140
4 200/1000=0.20 200 50/1000 =0.05 11 50
5 150/1000=0.15 150 70/1000 =0.07 12 70
6 50/1000 =0.05 50 40/1000 =0.04 13 40
7 80/1000 =0.08 80 140/1000=0.14 14 40
 Total no of defective found
(p)=
Total no of pieces inspected

1400/14000 = 0.1

(− )
UCL = 0.1 + 3 = 0.4

(− )

LCL = 0.1 - 3 =0

UCL = 0.4

Percentage
of defective

p=

LCL = 0

1 5 10 15

Day Number

Acceptance Sampling: Acceptance sampling is a technique of deciding whether to accept

the whole lot or not based on the number of defectives from a random drawn sample.

It is widely use in buying food products, such as rice, wheat etc. Before buying the
random samples drawn from the bags of say rice are tested. If the quality of sample drawn
looks good or free from defects then according to the requirement the entire bag or part of
it can be brought
The process of acceptance sampling through operating characteristic curve
(OCC)
Operating characteristic curve (OCC): The graphical relationship between
percentage defective in the lots being submitted for inspection and the probability
acceptance is termed as “operating characteristic of a particular sampling plan”

C = 1 (Acceptance number)
100
n = 50 (sample size)
80
Probability of
acceptance 60
percentage
40

20

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Actual percentage of defectives

It gives a clear picture about the probability of acceptance of lot for various
values of percent defectives in the lot. The probability of acceptance of a lot is high
for low values of actual percentage decrease and it is low for high values of actual
percentage defectives.
Construction of OC curve: To develop a sampling plan for acceptance sampling, an
appropriate O.C curve must be selected to construct an OC curve an agreement has to
be reached between the producer and the consumer on the following four point.
1) Acceptable quality level (AQL): This is the maximum proportion of defectives that
will make the lot definitely acceptable.
2) Lot tolerance percentage defective (LTPD): This is the maximum proportion of
defectives that will make the lot definitely unacceptable.
3) Producers risk (α): This is the risk, the producer is willing to take that lots of the
quality level AQL will be rejected, even though, they are acceptable usually α = 5%
 4) Consumer risk (β): This is the risk, the consumer is willing to take that lots of the
quality level LTPD will be accepted, event though, they are actually unacceptable
usually β = 10%.

Producers
risk α = 10% AQL = 20%
α LTPD = 60%
Probability of
acceptance

Consumers β
risk β = 10% 20% 60% 100%

Percentage of defectives (p)

Sampling plans: Based on the number of samples drawn for taking accept/ reject decisions, the
sampling methods are used. There are four methods of acceptance samplings.
1) Single sampling plan: A lot is accepted or rejected on the basis of a single sample drawn from that
cost
2) Double sampling plan: If it is not possible to decide the fate of the lot on the basis of first sample, a
second sample is drawn and the decision is taken on the basis of the combined results of first and
second sample.
3) Multiple sampling plan: A lot is accepted or rejected based upon the result obtained from several
samples (of parts) drawn from the lot.
4) Sequential sampling plan: (Item by item analysis)

Sequential sampling involves increasing the sample size by one part at a time till the sample
becomes large enough and contains sufficient number of defectives to decide intelligently whether to
accept or reject the lot.

Total Quality Management: It is term first coined by the U.S Naval air systems command to
describer, its Japanese-style management approach to quality improvement. It is a management
approach to long-term success through customer satisfaction.
 In a TQM effort, all members of an organization participate in improving processes,
products, services and the culture in which they work
.
 Six Sigma: Six sigma is a set of practices developed by Motorola to
systematically improve processes by eliminating defects. A defect is defined as non-
conformity of a product or service to its specifications.

Six Sigma refers to the ability of highly capable processes to produce output
within specification. In particular processes that operate with Six Sigma quality produce
at defect level below 3.4 defects per million opportunities.

The statistical representation of six sigma quantitatively how a process is

performing. To achieve six sigma, a process must not produce more than 3.4 defects per
million opportunities. A six sigma defect is defined as anything outside of customer
specification. A six sigma opportunity is then the total quantity of chances for a defect.

Definition: Six Sigma at any organizations simply means a measure of quality that
strives for near perfection. Six sigma is a disciplined, data-driven approach and
methodology for eliminating defects in any process from manufacturing to transactional
and from product to service.
Just – In – Time (JIT): When components arrive as and when required in a manufacturing operating
by workers. It is called just-in-time.

Some we would at a stroke eliminate any inventory of parts, they would simply arrive just-in-time.
Similarly we could produce finished goods just-in-time to be handed to a customer who wants them. So
at conceptual extremes. JIT has no need for inventory or stock, either of raw materials or work in
progress or finished goods.

Supply Chain Management: It is the process of planning, implementing and controlling the operations
of the supply chain as efficiently as possible supply chain management spans all movement and storage
of raw materials, work-in-process inventory, and finished goods from point-of-origin to point-of
consumption.