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Opportunistic
Networking
Vehicular, D2D, and Cognitive
Radio Networks
Opportunistic
Networking
Vehicular, D2D, and Cognitive
Radio Networks

Edited by
Nazmul Siddique
Syed Faraz Hasan
Salahuddin Muhammad Salim Zabir
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

© 2017 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business

No claim to original U.S. Government works

Printed on acid-free paper

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4665-9696-2 (Hardback)

This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable
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not assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The
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Contents

Editors................................................................................................................vii
Contributors........................................................................................................ix
1 Introduction............................................................................................1
SYED FARAZ HASAN, NAZMUL SIDDIQUE, AND
SALAHUDDIN MUHAMMAD SALIM ZABIR

2 Opportunistic Networking: An Application.........................................13

ABDOLBAST GREEDE AND STUART M. ALLEN

3 Mobile Ad Hoc Networks: Rapidly Deployable

Emergency Communications................................................................47
NIAZ CHOWDHURY AND STEFAN WEBER

4 Opportunistic Vehicular Communication:

Challenges and Solutions......................................................................83
ALI BOHLOOLI

5 Routing Protocols in Opportunistic Networks...................................123

ANSHUL VERMA AND K. K. PATTANAIK

6 Smart Environments: Exploiting Passive RFID

Technology for Indoor Localization....................................................167
KEVIN BOUCHARD, JEAN-SÉBASTIEN BILODEAU,
DANY FORTIN-SIMARD, SEBASTIEN GABOURY,
BRUNO BOUCHARD, AND ABDENOUR BOUZOUANE

7 Smart Homes: Practical Guidelines....................................................205

KEVIN BOUCHARD, BRUNO BOUCHARD, AND
ABDENOUR BOUZOUANE

8 Wireless Sensor Network–Based Smart Agriculture...........................239

SARANG KARIM AND FAISAL KARIM SHAIKH

v
vi ◾ Contents

9 Cognitive Radio Networks: Concepts and Applications.....................265

S. M. KAMRUZZAMAN, ABDULLAH ALGHAMDI, AND
M. ANWAR HOSSAIN

10 Never Die Networks............................................................................293

NORIO SHIRATORI AND YOSHITAKA SHIBATA

Index............................................................................................................315
Editors

Nazmul Siddique is a lecturer in the School of Computing and Intelligent

Systems, University of Ulster, Coleraine, UK. He obtained his Dipl.-Ing. degree
in ­cybernetics from the Dresden University of Technology, Germany; his MSc in
computer ­science from the Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology,
Dhaka; and his PhD in intelligent control from the Department of Automatic
Control and Systems Engineering, University of Sheffield, England. His research
interests include cybernetics, computational intelligence, bio-inspired computing,
stochastic systems, vehicular communication, and opportunistic networking. He
has published over 150 research papers, including four books published by John
Wiley, Springer, and Taylor & Francis (in press). He guest edited eight special issues
of reputed journals and co-edited seven conference proceedings on Cybernetic
Intelligence, Computational Intelligence, Neural Networks, and Robotics. He is a
fellow of the Higher Education Academy, a senior member of IEEE, and a member
of different committees of the IEEE—the SMC Society and the UK-RI Chapter.
He is on the editorial board of seven international journals.

Syed Faraz Hasan is with the School of Engineering and Advanced Technology
at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand, where he leads the
Telecommunication and Network Engineering research group. He also sits on
the Prime Minister’s Chief Science Advisor’s panel on Science Policy Exchange. He
holds a PhD from the University of Ulster, Coleraine, UK, and a bachelor’s degree
in engineering (with distinction) from the NED University of Engineering and
Technology, Karachi, Pakistan. He frequently reviews book proposals and journal
and conference articles for reputed publishers. His main expertise is in wireless
networks with more specific interests in 5G networks and device-to-device com-
munication. His ongoing research has appeared in several newspapers including
those in New Zealand, India, and the United States.

Salahuddin Muhammad Salim Zabir is a professor at the National Institute of

Technology, Tsuruoka College, Japan. He has been involved in research and devel-
opment of computer networks, IoT, ICT for assisting seniors, machine to machine
(M2M), smart cities, e-health, wellness, and disabilities. He earned his PhD and

vii
viii ◾ Editors

MS degrees in information science, both from Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan.

Before that, he obtained his MSc Engineering and BSc Engineering degrees in
computer science and engineering from Bangladesh University of Engineering
and Technology, Dhaka. Prior to his current appointment, he served at Tohoku
University; Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan; Kyung Hee University, Seoul,
Korea; and Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology. He also worked
for the French telecom operator Orange at their R&D Labs in Japan and Panasonic
R&D headquarters in Osaka, Japan. His research interests include computer net-
works, network ­protocols, disaster networks, performance evaluations, IoT technol-
ogy and applications, ubiquitous computing, smart cities, e-health, and applications
of ICT in emerging countries. Dr. Zabir has served on the program/­technical com-
mittees of various international conferences and is guest editing s­pecial issues of
scholarly journals. He is a senior member of the IEEE and BCS.
Contributors

Abdullah Alghamdi Bruno Bouchard

Department of Software Engineering Laboratoire d’Intelligence Ambiante pour
College of Computer and Information la Reconnaissance d’Activités (LIARA)
Sciences Université du Québec à Chicoutimi
King Saud University (UQAC)
Riyadh, KSA Chicoutimi, Quebec, Canada

Stuart M. Allen Kevin Bouchard

School of Computer Science & Laboratoire d’Intelligence Ambiante pour
Informatics Cardiff University la Reconnaissance d’Activités (LIARA)
Cardiff, UK Université du Québec à Chicoutimi
(UQAC)
M. Anwar Hossain Chicoutimi, Quebec, Canada
Department of Software Engineering
College of Computer and Information Abdenour Bouzouane
Sciences Laboratoire d’Intelligence Ambiante pour
King Saud University la Reconnaissance d’Activités (LIARA)
Riyadh, KSA Université du Québec à Chicoutimi
(UQAC)
Jean-Sébastien Bilodeau Chicoutimi, Quebec, Canada
Laboratoire d’Intelligence Ambiante
pour la Reconnaissance d’Activités Niaz Chowdhury
(LIARA) Knowledge Media Institute
Université du Québec à Chicoutimi The Open University
(UQAC) England, United Kingdom
Chicoutimi, Quebec, Canada
Dany Fortin-Simard
Laboratoire d’Intelligence Ambiante pour
Ali Bohlooli
la Reconnaissance d’Activités (LIARA)
Faculty of Computer Engineering
Université du Québec à Chicoutimi
University of Isfahan
(UQAC)
Isfahan, Iran
Chicoutimi, Quebec, Canada

ix
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x ◾ Contributors

Sebastien Gaboury Faisal Karim Shaikh

Laboratoire d’Intelligence Ambiante Institute of Information &
pour la Reconnaissance d’Activités Communication Technologies
(LIARA) Mehran University of Engineering and
Université du Québec à Chicoutimi Technology
(UQAC) Jamshoro, Pakistan
Chicoutimi, Quebec, Canada and
Science and Technology Unit
Abdolbast Greede
Umm Al-Qura University, Makkah, KSA
University of Zawia
Zawiya, Libya
Yoshitaka Shibata
Faculty of Software and Information
Syed Faraz Hasan
Science
School of Engineering and Advanced
Iwate Prefectural University
Technology
Takizawa, Iwate, Japan
Massey University
Palmerston North, New Zealand
Norio Shiratori
Global Information and
S. M. Kamruzzaman
Telecommunication Institute
Department of Electrical and
Waseda University
Computer Engineering
Tokyo, Japan
Ryerson University
Toronto, Canada
Nazmul Siddique
School of Computing and Intelligent
Sarang Karim
Systems
Institute of Information &
Ulster University
Communication Technologies
Coleraine, UK
Mehran University of Engineering and
Technology
Anshul Verma
Jamshoro, Pakistan
Department of Computer Science and
Engineering
K. K. Pattanaik
National Institute of Technology
Department of Information and
Jamshedpur
Communication Technology
Jharkhand, India
ABV-Indian Institute of Information
Technology and Management
Gwalior, India
 Contributors ◾ xi

Stefan Weber Salahuddin Muhammad Salim Zabir

School of Computer Science and National Institute of Technology
Statistics Tsuruoka College
Trinity College Dublin Tsuruoka, Japan
Dublin, Republic of Ireland
Chapter 1

Introduction
Syed Faraz Hasan, Nazmul Siddique, and
Salahuddin Muhammad Salim Zabir

Contents
1.1 Introduction..................................................................................................1
1.2 Mobile Ad Hoc Networks.............................................................................2
1.3 Opportunistic Networking...........................................................................3
1.3.1 Opportunistic Vehicular Communication.........................................4
1.3.2 Routing in Opportunistic Networks..................................................5
1.4 Applications..................................................................................................6
1.4.1 Smart Environments..........................................................................6
1.4.2 Smart Homes.....................................................................................7
1.4.3 Smart Cities ......................................................................................8
1.4.4 Smart Agriculture..............................................................................8
1.4.5 Smart Health Care.............................................................................9
1.4.6 Emergency Communications: An Introduction to
Never-Die Networks..........................................................................9
1.5 The Road Ahead..........................................................................................10
References............................................................................................................10

1.1 Introduction
The concept of interconnecting computer systems began in the 1970s when a few
academic institutes in the United States wanted to share data. This culminated in
the development of Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET),
which connected four academic institutions together. The successful deployment
and operation of ARPANET gave rise to limitless discussion on how information

1
2 ◾ Opportunistic Networking

can be shared between devices. Topics pertinent to the architecture of a network,

its operation, the number and type of interconnected devices, data type, and
so on were brought into the discussion. Issues related to the type of architec-
ture were particularly interesting. Two of the earliest architectural designs were
infrastructure-based and ad hoc networks [1]. Infrastructure-based networks have
a central entity, generally the base station, which governs communication between
all participating devices. In contrast, in ad hoc networks, devices communicate
with each other directly. Because there is no central authority in ad hoc networks,
a variety of research issues emerged that required careful consideration. The number
and nature of these issues progressed with the introduction of wireless communica-
tion services. On top of everything else, devices can now move from one place to
another while still staying connected to the network. An ad hoc network that gives
its nodes freedom from wires and supports mobile nodes is known as a mobile ad
hoc network (MANET) [2].

1.2 Mobile Ad Hoc Networks

By definition, a MANET is a group of devices that relays data from one device to
another over several hops until the data reaches its intended destination. Figure 1.1
shows a typical scenario that uses mobile nodes to convey data over a multihop
link. MANETs continue to play an important role in present-day communication
systems. They are particularly popular in applications that use sensors. Freedom
from wires and from a central managing entity makes MANETs an ideal choice
for distributed environments. Several communication technologies can be used
on such a distributed architecture. For instance, IEEE 802.11 Wi-Fi and IEEE
802.15.4 ZigBee have been extensively used in ad hoc network deployments.
Another useful feature of MANETs is that the nodes can commence communica-
tion very quickly [3]. Due to this advantage, MANETs work well in emergency
communication where access to the network infrastructure has been compromised.

N2
N5
N1

N3 N4

Figure 1.1 A MANET comprising 11 nodes. Node 1 uses Nodes 2–4 as relays to
convey information to Node 5.
 Introduction ◾ 3

Several disaster recovery programs make use of MANETs to provide communica-

tion services in emergency environments.
Because the devices forming a MANET are mobile, the network architecture
(or topology) is dynamic. The architecture changes with the mobility of the par-
ticipating devices. It is intuitive that the greater the device mobility, the quicker
the change in network architecture. This rapidly changing architecture poses con-
siderable challenges in terms of protocol design. Legacy communication protocols,
for example Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol
(UDP), were developed for a network with fixed topology. It is therefore imperative
for the success of MANETs to develop new protocols that can withstand a sudden
change in network architecture.
The main discussion in this book starts with a detailed overview of MANETs
in Chapter 2. Several important aspects of MANETs, their operation, associated
challenges, and application scenarios are discussed in detail in Chapter 2. Giving
due attention to the issue of protocol design for a rapidly changing topology, a new
protocol known as Beatha is also proposed in Chapter 3. The internal and external
delays caused by Beatha and its features related to flow control and retransmis-
sion are highlighted. After thoroughly defining the principles and operation of
Beatha, its performance is evaluated using Optimized Network Engineering Tool
(OPNET) for a variety of static and mobile scenarios. It is shown that Beatha
outperforms TCP and its variants in terms of throughput, retransmission count,
and time delay. Although Beatha is a routing protocol that is meant for mobile sce-
narios, we discuss the routing issues in highly mobile scenarios later in Chapters 4
and 5 in this book.
Nevertheless, special-purpose routing protocols such as Beatha keep communi-
cation services running even when there is a change in network topology. In certain
situations, however, a change in network architecture is so sudden and frequent
that communication services run the risk of getting suspended anyway. Such time-
critical MANETs are known as opportunistic networks [4]. It must be noted that
the notion of opportunistic communication is not limited only to MANETs, as
highlighted in the following.

1.3 Opportunistic Networking

In opportunistic networks, devices communicate with each other without having a
dedicated end-to-end communication path. It is not necessary to know the commu-
nication path between the source and its intended destination in a typical opportu-
nistic network. The concept is very similar to the delay-tolerant networking (DTN)
paradigm, which also does not require a dedicated path between the source and
destination [5]. In an ideal opportunistic network, the network topology may vary
drastically, having little or no impact on the quality of service received by the users.
The end user receives a high-level impression of being always connected to the
4 ◾ Opportunistic Networking

network services. In essence, an opportunistic network offers a series of connections

one after another. These opportunistic connections can be enabled by various wire-
less communication technologies. Dedicated wireless communication technologies
that could work well in opportunistic networks are not well known in the literature.
Most of the works consider the use of existing wireless technologies in opportunistic
environments. These include infrastructure-based as well as ad hoc technologies.
The opportunistic scenarios often emerge because of high node mobility. When a
mobile node is moving at high speeds, it often faces periods of connectivity and disrup-
tion. An interesting example of an opportunistic communication scenario is fast-moving
vehicles that try to access sparsely deployed roadside infrastructure [7]. These vehicles
give rise to vehicular ad hoc networks (VANETs), which are very similar to MANETs
except that they have higher node mobility. This book gives a detailed account of
VANETs in the context of opportunistic networking in Chapter 4. Chapter 5 provides
a detailed account of opportunistic networking and its associated challenges. The chap-
ter starts with a discussion on wireless technologies that may suit the intermittent nature
of opportunistic networks. A detailed account of how data is forwarded in opportunis-
tic networks is given. Several protocols and their underlying principles to support inter-
mittent data transfer are also highlighted in Chapter 5. Because there is an intermittent
path between the source and destination, it is important for the network to be able to
store some information. Memory elements called repositories are often employed to hold
communication sessions in case a connection is suddenly lost [6]. Chapter 5 also covers
a detailed discussion on repositories and their placement within an opportunistic net-
work. Towards the end, Chapter 5 reports some interesting simulation results that may
be useful for designing an opportunistic network.

1.3.1 Opportunistic Vehicular Communication

Vehicular communication is the information exchange between vehicles, as well as
between vehicles and the roadside infrastructure. The information that these vehi-
cles share may be related to on-road safety services or other infotainment ­services.
Vehicular communication is an essential part of the intelligent transportation systems
project, which focuses on improving passenger safety on roads and highways [8].
The notion of opportunity in vehicular communication stems from the fact that
vehicles change their position very rapidly, and hence their ability to send data to
their immediate neighbors also changes drastically. The length of time for which
the vehicles are within each other’s coverage range is an “opportunity” for them to
exchange data. At two different instants in time, a vehicle may have completely dif-
ferent neighbors because of high mobility. As can be seen from Figure 1.2, vehicle
V1 has taken a turn that resulted in it losing the opportunity to communicate with
its previous neighbors. Of course, it will encounter other vehicles on the way and
become a part of another VANET.
Chapter 4 of this book starts by defining VANETs and comparing them with
MANETs. It then explores various wireless technologies that may be used for
 Introduction ◾ 5

V1 takes a turn and

exits VANET

VANET

Figure 1.2 The concept of opportunity in vehicular communication.

enabling vehicular communication. Among several technologies that may be used,

IEEE 802.11 has been used extensively in the literature. Therefore, a detailed account
of this wireless technology and its application in vehicular environments is provided.
The IEEE has standardized a modified version of legacy 802.11 for use in vehicu-
lar communication. It is known as 802.11p [9] and is discussed in Chapter 4. This
chapter also outlines several ongoing projects around the world that explore the use
of vehicular communication for passenger safety and infotainment services. Several
other issues including handovers, routing, and predictive methods for determining
the most probable path of a certain vehicle are also highlighted in this chapter. Among
these issues, routing is one of the most important. This is because without customized
routing protocols it is impossible to exchange information within the network.

1.3.2 Routing in Opportunistic Networks

In an ad hoc network, routing is concerned with delivering information from source to
destination over multiple hops [10]. Routing becomes a big challenge in networks that
rapidly change their topology. It has been pointed out that a rapidly changing topology
is one of the main characteristics of opportunistic environments. A changing topol-
ogy would mean that the number of hops between source and destination, as well as
their spatial positions, will continue to change. Therefore, designing effective routing
protocols for an opportunistic network requires careful consideration of a variety of
factors [11]. Routing lies at the heart of a communication network, without which data
exchange is not possible. Due to its significance, we provide a detailed discussion on
routing in Chapter 5 with special regards to opportunistic networking environments.
The discussion in Chapter 5 begins with an introduction to routing in opportunis-
tic environments. Routing in simple terms is the process of finding forwarding nodes
that can relay information between a source and its destination. Chapter 5 h ­ ighlights
how context information is very helpful in making important routing decisions.
6 ◾ Opportunistic Networking

Context information may include users’ behaviors, their mobility patterns, network
demands, and so on. Context information can be useful for selecting an appropriate
set of forwarders to achieve better routing services in a rapidly changing environment.
Based on the use of context information, Chapter 5 classifies routing protocols into
three categories and comparatively analyzes them. Several examples are drawn from
each category to explain the main concept behind routing and its use of context infor-
mation. Towards the end, this chapter introduces a few recent projects that aim to
analyze the routing issues pertinent to opportunistic networking scenarios.
The end of Chapter 5 also concludes the first half of this book, which describes
the basic theory and operation of new networking paradigms. The second half of
this book is dedicated to exploring the application of these concepts in a number
of scenarios.

1.4 Applications
The use of state-of-the-art communications technology can help raise the standard
of living for people across the world. Following this theme, the second half of this
book considers the use of technology in a number of daily life setups. The book
discusses the notion of smart environments in the context of our homes, cities,
hospitals, and so on. Smart agriculture is also discussed in this half of the book,
as a large number of countries are driven by their agricultural products. The topics
covered in the second half are outlined in the following subsections.

1.4.1 Smart Environments

Smart environments first emerged in the form of automatic and remote controlling
of different appliances. An early example of a “smart” environment—probably the
most common example—had automatic lights with remote controlled entry and
exit. By definition, smart environments consist of an intelligent agent (or group of
agents) that respond to different events [12]. A general diagram depicting some of
the entities of a typical smart environment is shown in Figure 1.3. The figure will
become more populated with advances in technology; at this point it serves to define
the interconnection between different smart entities. With advances in technology,
smart environments have become increasingly complex but also increasingly reliable.
The underlying principles of the application of smart environments stem from the
improvements in sensing technology and short-range communications [13].
Complete system designs that convert an ordinary environment into a smart
environment have been proposed and tested [14]. The main idea is to enable com-
munication between all user appliances and create a central portal from which
everything can be controlled. For example, a user can switch on a personal heater
using a web application when it is getting cold. The heater can even be automated to
start itself if the concerned sensor feels a drop in temperature. Smart environments
 Introduction ◾ 7

Smart Smart Smart

homes health care agriculture
Smart city
Smart environment

Figure 1.3 A conceptual block diagram describing the hierarchy of smart entities.

can provide a number of services, the most common of which is localization.

A number of daily-life setups as well as emergency scenarios need to know a per-
son’s position. Therefore, the bulk of research focuses on the challenges of localiza-
tion within smart environments [15].
Chapter 6 of this book examines different techniques for providing positioning
­services in an indoor environment. The authors of this particular chapter take into
account trilateration and other proximity-based localization services. However, the
main point of discussion centers on passive Radio Frequency Identification (RFID)
technology [16] and its use in positioning. The discussion on RFID is backed with
experimental results that endorse the use of this technology in smart environments.
Although RFID seems to be a good technology for localizing a device (or a person),
it still faces a number of issues. For example, the main parameter of interest in RFID
techniques is received signal strength intensity (RSSI). RSSI itself is a highly fluctuating
parameter that varies almost unpredictably [17]. Using such an unpredictable variable
to provide reliable services is a huge research challenge that is well covered in Chapter 6.

1.4.2 Smart Homes

A smart environment is composed of a number of smart entities, one of which is a
smart home. A smart home offers a residential setting with automated appliances
that can react to changes in their surroundings [18]. Designing a smart home is a
good starting point towards designing a smart environment. Chapter 7 of this book
focuses entirely on smart homes and more specifically on their design.
The authors of Chapter 7 have considerable experience in designing smart
homes, which they put to use to explore good design practices. The design prac-
tices highlighted in Chapter 7 can be extended to other smart environments as
well. A good design is generally centered on optimizing a predefined set of require-
ments. For example, a smart home intended for offering more comfort to residents
will have completely different specifications than one designed for energy-efficient
­living. Designing a smart home, regardless of its purpose, essentially has two design
tasks: one related to hardware (e.g., which sensor to install, etc.) and the other
related to software (e.g., when will a sensor actuate what to do). Chapter 7 covers
reflections from both hardware and software standpoints. It also presents a case
study of a purpose-built intelligent home infrastructure.
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8 ◾ Opportunistic Networking

1.4.3 Smart Cities

A typical smart city is envisaged as a system that ensures better living standards
by benefitting from a set of components working together. A smart city is often
a software platform that establishes links between different social services, for
example health care, agriculture, and so on, as shown in Figure 1.3. Hence, the
“smartness” of a city is linked with the smartness of its constituent ­components.
Some of the most common constituents of a smart city include its citizens,
­economy, environment, communication infrastructure, and so on. Because a
smart city is an amalgamation of a number of subfunctions, the communication
technologies that link these functions together are of key importance. Strides in
the world of telecommunication help enable the implementation and planning
of smart cities. For example, as highlighted in Ref. 19, key enablers like IPv6 are
important for a plausible implementation plan. Of course, there are a number of
issues that still require careful consideration, for example, standardization and
specification.
An important constituent of the smart city is smart agriculture, which is the
focus of the following section.

1.4.4 Smart Agriculture

Given that agriculture is the driving force for a number of countries across the world,
its effective use is crucial for the success of various world economies. Interesting
milestones achieved by electronic and wireless technology have also affected agri-
cultural activities. Chapter 8 of this book covers an interesting discussion on smart
agriculture, its underlying principles, and good practices.
The authors of Chapter 8 start by defining the term smart agriculture and move
on to advocating the use of wireless sensor networks (WSNs) to make it more
effective. The authors emphasize that WSNs are at the heart of data collection for
agricultural fields and that the data thus collected can help farmers take necessary
steps at appropriate times [20]. Figure 1.4 shows a sample smart farm that has sen-
sors spread across the land and also mounted on farm animals [21]. The sensors col-
lect data and send it to the central management system through the gateway. The
management system runs analytical functions to make observations and possibly
predict any future threats (or trends). The information generated is then passed on
to the user.
The authors of Chapter 8 mention some detailed applications of smart agri-
culture and introduce a generic architecture for such systems. The chapter then
provides some guidelines for deployment of smart agriculture solutions and how
existing hardware from different manufacturers could be deployed for building
such a system. The authors also mention some examples of existing solutions that
adopt different approaches to the domain and make projections about the future of
smart agriculture.
 Introduction ◾ 9

Central
Gateway management
system

Figure 1.4 A smart farm that comprises sensors deployed on land and mounted
on animals. All sensors send data to the central server via the gateway, where it
is processed.

1.4.5 Smart Health Care

Continuing with the discussion about smart environments, Chapter 9 of this book
examines the use of technology in the health care sector. In Chapter 9, the authors
introduce the concept of cognitive radio networks (CRNs) [22] and demonstrate
its application in hospitals using a case study. Other applications of CRNs, for
example in military and homeland security, are also highlighted.
Whereas all wireless networks use a fixed frequency spectrum to exchange data,
cognitive networks search for a spectrum hole and use that white space for wireless
transmission (and reception). Users of CRNs are referred to as secondary users, in
that they do not own the spectra that they use. The authors argue that CRNs can
be employed in body area networks (BANs). A BAN is the wireless interconnection
of a number of medical devices that monitor the state of a patient often in a critical
condition [23]. The current state of BANs uses unlicensed technologies, for exam-
ple Wi-Fi and Bluetooth, which are prone to interference from other users. The
authors of Chapter 9 propose that short-range communication between medical
devices can be managed using a CRN. The idea is that the devices would determine
the best possible spectral space and transmit data over that space.

1.4.6 Emergency Communications: An Introduction

to Never-Die Networks
Chapter 10 is an invited chapter on never-die networks (NDNs) contributed by the
original proposers of the concept [24]. As experienced in the March 2011 earth-
quake in Japan, big natural disasters may cause the breakdown of network commu-
nication infrastructure. This leaves the people in the affected areas isolated from the
rest of the world and also from their family, friends, and peers. As a result, important
10 ◾ Opportunistic Networking

i­ nformation—particularly regarding potential precautions against further deteriora-

tion of the situation, evacuation, and rescue—cannot be exchanged. NDNs propose
a framework for offering minimal connectivity to the general population in such sit-
uations. Such a network could ensure minimal or short-term exchange of informa-
tion for a large number of people simultaneously in a disaster scenario. As explained
by the authors, the design of an NDN has the following features [25]:

◾◾ An NDN should provide real-time services.

◾◾ The number of users connected to an NDN is very large.
◾◾ Data exchange is meant to support services of short duration only.

One distinguishing aspect of Never Die Network is that in order to ensure

connectivity during disaster situations when the whole or part of the communica-
tion infrastructure has been damaged, it proposes a layered communication archi-
tecture comprising wired infrastructure as well as wireless connectivity including
WiFi, balloon mounted base stations, ship mounted base stations, satellite links
etc,. However, NDN is not only about hardware. Rather, it also incorporates
software, communication methods, and protocols. As such, the concept of Never
Die Network includes the concepts of both Network Fault Tolerance System and
Resilient Overlay Network.
In addition to the conceptual background, the authors of this chapter describe their
experience of the situation after the Great East Japan Earthquake and Tsunami in 2011.
They also provide an outline of ongoing research activities and experiments on NDNs.

1.5 The Road Ahead

Chapter 2 commences the discussion on basic working and principles of ad hoc
­networks. Issues such as routing in MANETs and the fundamentals of ­opportunistic
communication are covered. Readers who already have a background in these topics
can skip ahead to Chapter 6, which covers the application part of this book. The use
of communication technology in several important sectors of daily life is highlighted
in the second half of this book.

References
1. A. Zemlianov and G. de Veciana, Capacity of Ad Hoc Wireless Networks With
Infrastructure Support, IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Communications, 23(3),
2005.
2. P. Li, Y. Fang, J. Li and X. Huang, Smooth Trade-Offs between Throughput and
Delay in Mobile Ad Hoc Networks, IEEE Transactions on Mobile Computing, 11(3),
2012.
3. Y. Lu, X. Li, Y.-T. Yu and M. Gerla, Information-Centric Delay-Tolerant Mobile
Ad-Hoc Networks, IEEE INFOCOM Workshops, 2014.
 Introduction ◾ 11

4. Y. Ma and A. Jamalipour, Opportunistic Geocast in Large Scale Intermittently

Connected Mobile Ad Hoc Networks, 17th Asia-Pacific on Communications, 2011.
5. A. Elmangoush, R. Steinke, M. Catalan, A. Corici, T. Magedanz and J. Oller,
Interconnecting Standard M2M Platforms to Delay Tolerant Networks, International
Conference on Future Internet of Things and Clouds, 2014.
6. M. Pitkanen, T. Karkkainen and J. Ott, Opportunistic Web Access via WLAN
Hotspots, IEEE Pervasive Computing and Communications, 2009.
7. S. F. Hasan, N. H. Siddique and S. Chakraborty, Intelligent Transport Systems,
Springer, New York, 2012.
8. S. F. Hasan, Vehicular Communication and Sensor Networks, IEEE Potentials,
2013.
9. B. Bellalta, E. Belyaev, M. Jonsson and A. Vinel, Performance Evaluation of IEEE
802.11p-Enabled Vehicular Video Surveillance System, IEEE Communications
Letters, 18(4), 2014.
10. I. T. Haque, On the Overheads of Ad Hoc Routing Schemes, IEEE Systems Journal,
9(2), 2015.
11. Z. Zhang and R. Krishnan, An Overview of Opportunistic Routing in Mobile
Ad Hoc Networks, IEEE Military Communications Conference, 2013.
12. M. Roscia, M. Longo and G. C. Lazaroiu, Smart City by Multi-Agent Systems,
International Conference on Renewable Energy Research and Applications, 2013.
13. D. –M. Han and J. –H. Lim, Smart Home Energy Management System using IEEE
802.15.4 and Zigbee, IEEE Transactions on Consumer Electronics, 56(3), 2010.
14. O. Evangelatos, K. Samarasinghe and J. Rolim, Syndesi: A Framework for
Creating Personalized Smart Environments using Wireless Sensor Networks, IEEE
International Conference on Distributed Computing in Sensor Systems, 2013.
15. S. A. Kharidia, Q. Ye, S. Sampalli, J. Cheng, H. Du and L. Wang, HILL: A Hybrid
Indoor Localization Scheme, 10th International Conference on Mobile Ad Hoc and
Sensor Networks, 2014.
16. F. Manzoor and K. Menzel, Indoor Localization for Complex Building Designs using
Passive RFID Technology, 30th URSI General Assembly and Scientific Symposium,
2011.
17. S. F. Hasan, N. H. Siddique and S. Chakraborty, Extended MULE Concept for
Traffic Congestion Monitoring, 63(1), 2012.
18. C. Yang, B. Yuan, Y. Tian, Z. Feng and W. Mao, A Smart Home Based on Resource
Name Service, IEEE International Conference on Computational Science and
Engineering, 2014.
19. J. V. den Bergh and S. Viaene, Key Challenges for the Smart City: Turning Ambition
into Reality, International Conference on System Sciences, 2015.
20. F. Mehdipour, Smart Field Monitoring: An Application of Cyber-Physical Systems
in Agriculture (work in progress), International Conference on Advanced Applied
Informatics, 2014.
21. K. Taylor, C. Griffith, L. Lefort, R. Gaire, M. Compton and T. Wark, Farming the
Web of Things, IEEE Intelligent Systems, 2013.
22. S. Sengupta, J. Jay and K. P. Subbalakshmi, Open Research Issues in Multi-Hop
Cognitive Radio Networks, IEEE Communications Magazine, 2013.
23. P. Honeine, F. Mourad, M. Kallas, H. Snoussi, H. Amoud and C. Francis, Wireless
Sensor Networks in Biomedical: Body Area Networks, 7th International Workshop
on Systems, Signal Processing and their Applications, 2011.
12 ◾ Opportunistic Networking

24. N. Uchida, K. Takahata, Y. Shibata and N. Shiratori, A Large Scale Robust Disaster
Information System based on Never Die Network, IEEE International Conference
on Advanced Networking and Applications, 2012.
25. N. Uchida, K. Takahata, Y. Shibata and N. Shiratori, Evaluation of Never Die
Network for a Rural Area in an Ultra Large Scale Disaster, 6th International
Conference on Complex, Intelligent and Software Intensive Systems, 2012.
Random documents with unrelated
content Scribd suggests to you:
 Cincinnati Anti-Tuberculosis League.
Cleveland Subdivision $8,869.96
Oklahoma—
Oklahoma City $125.00
To be applied to diet for tuberculosis
patients.
Oregon—
Visiting Nurse Association, Portland $1,606.22
To be applied to Sanatorium, educational
work and instructive nursing for advanced cases.
Pennsylvania—
Pennsylvania Red Cross Branch (about) $17,000.00
Purposes to which fund will be applied not
yet determined.
Dispensary Aid Society of the Tuberculosis
League of Pittsburgh $3,976.00
To be applied to building and maintenance of
dispensary building on the grounds of the
Tuberculosis Hospital of the above organization.
Mrs. Charles L. Taylor (“Pittsburgh Red Cross
Circle”) $175.00
Given to the Pittsburgh Tuberculosis
Hospital.
Mrs. J. E. Roys (“Bloomsburg Red Cross Circle”) $61.79
To be applied to anti-tuberculosis work in
Columbia County.
Rhode Island—
Rhode Island Anti-Tuberculosis Association $7,763.66
To be applied two-thirds to local work
(Providence) and one-third to State Association,
to start new associations, educational work, etc.
South Carolina—
South Carolina Red Cross Branch $141.65
Disposition not yet decided upon.
Tennessee—
 Tuberculosis Committee. Memphis Civic League $637.21
Given to city Tuberculosis Hospital.
Federation of Women’s Clubs, Nashville $1,600.00
Principally towards support of State or
Municipal Sanatorium.
Chattanooga Woman’s Club $105.31
Care of tuberculosis patients among the
poor.
Texas—
Anti-Tuberculosis Association, Austin $100.00
To be applied in educational work.
Utah—
Utah Federation of Women’s Clubs $265.96
Application not yet decided.
Virginia—
Nurses’ Committee, King’s Daughters
(Petersburg) $164.06
To be applied to the starting of a fund to
establish a small hospital for local use.
Wisconsin—
Visiting Nurses’ Association of Oshkosh $369.19
To be applied two-thirds for visiting nurse’s
salary and one-third for bed in sanatorium.
Wisconsin Anti-Tuberculosis Association,
Milwaukee $8,754.88
To be applied to educational and
organizational work.
 Women and Children at Red Cross Day Camp, New York City.

Amusements at Red Cross Day Camp, Vanderbilt Clinic, New York City.
Kitchen, Red Cross Day Camp, Roof Vanderbilt Clinic,
New York City.
Men’s Side. Red Cross Day Camp, Roof Vanderbilt Clinic, New York City.

Morning Examination of Teeth and Finger-nails of Children.

COMPETITION FOR 1909 CHRISTMAS
STAMP DESIGN
Report of Special Committee appointed to secure competitive
designs for Red Cross Christmas Stamp for “1909” issue, Committee
consisting of

Miss Mabel T. Boardman, Washington.

Miss Emily P. Bissell, Delaware.
Mrs. Wm. K. Draper, New York.
Major-General Geo. W. Davis, Washington.
Mr. Joseph A. Steinmetz, Pennsylvania.

The Committee met at the call of the National Society at

Washington Headquarters on the morning of Tuesday, February
16th, and reported as follows:
That the National Headquarters and all State Branches of the Red
Cross be instructed to give out information inviting the free
competition for the design for the Red Cross Christmas Stamp for
1909.
The State Secretaries and members of the Red Cross will address
Art Institutions and secure the co-operation of newspapers and
magazines and secure a wide public invitation for these designs.
There will be three main awards, consisting of the following cash
prizes, in order of merit:

$100.00
50.00
25.00
and there will be chosen out of the stamp sketches submitted, not to
exceed 10 other designs to be retained by the Red Cross as their
property as a matter of record and for such designs as will be
retained there will be a cash price of $10.00 each.
The wording shall read:
AMERICAN RED CROSS
1909
MERRY CHRISTMAS
HAPPY NEW YEAR
and the finished size of the stamp shall be ⅞ of an inch square.
It is preferred that the background of the stamp shall be “white,”
and that the emblem of the “Red Cross” shall be shown somewhere
prominently in the design. The Red Cross is a geometrical design,
made up of 5 equal squares, arranged in the form of a cross, and
this proportion must be strictly observed.
A design may be submitted in two or three colors, the ground work
not being considered as an applied color.
Artists’ designs submitted must not exceed 3 inches square, as it
is supposed that in a space 3 inches by 3 inches the design can be
clearly shown in proper detail, suitable for process reduction to size
of the finished stamp, which is ⅞ of an inch by ⅞ of an inch.
The competition closes at 6 o’clock P. M. May 15th and designs
may be submitted at any time up to that date.
There will be an Associate Committee of Artists to pass on the
designs, and it is hoped to have a public exhibition in Washington of
the designs submitted.
Designs may be submitted to Mr. Charles L. Magee, Secretary
American Red Cross, State, War and Navy Building, Washington, D.
C., or to the Secretary of any Red Cross State Branch.
The name and address of the artist must be subscribed on the
back of the design and shall not be visible anywhere in the design or
on the face thereof.
Respectfully submitted,
JOS. A. STEINMETZ,
Philadelphia, Pa.,
Chairman of Stamp Committee.
 SOUTH CHINA FLOOD RELIEF
The following report of the relief work in Southern China has been
received by the Red Cross:

American Consular Service,

Canton, China, December 14, 1908.
CHAS. L. MAGEE, ESQ.,
Secretary National Red Cross Society, Washington, D. C.
Sir—Referring to your letter of August 18 and my reply of
September 18, 1908, regarding the $2,000 sent by your
Society through the Department of State for the relief of flood
sufferers, I have to enclose herewith a copy of a report just
received by me from Dr. Charles K. Edmunds, Secretary of
the Canton Flood Relief Committee. I also enclose eight
photographs taken in districts affected by the flood.
I am, sir, your obedient servant,
WILLARD B. HULL,
Vice-Consul in Charge.

[Note.—$2,000 in gold in exchange gave $4,519.77 Mexican

dollars for relief work.]
 Building Destroyed at Tsing Yuen.

Dykes Destroyed on the North River.

 Houses Destroyed by the High Water.

Destroyed Dyke and Houses near Tsing Yuen, North River District.
 REPORT TO W. B. HULL, ESQ., AMERICAN
VICE-CONSUL-GENERAL
IN CHARGE, AT CANTON,
IN REGARD TO
AID GIVEN TO FLOOD SUFFERERS,
SUMMER 1908,
By
EXPENDITURE OF $2,000 GOLD,
RECEIVED FROM THE AMERICAN
NATIONAL RED CROSS.

Amount Received $4,519.77 Mex.

Disbursed in three lots:
A. To Rev. Mr. Roach, of the Baptist
Mission on North River, Yingtak $1,000.00 Mex.
B. To Chinese Committee (per Kwong
On & Co.), for West River Relief 1,000.00 Mex.
C. To Rev. W. W. Clayson, London
Mission, acting in co-operation
with Chinese Commission on
North River, Tsing Yuen and Sham
Shui Districts 2,519.77 Mex.

The most needy districts were Yingtak and Tsing Yuen.

The money was spent in the following manner in the three
cases:
A. Employment given to a daily average of 80-85 men and
women and 30 cents and 25 cents (Mex.) per day,
respectively, during some forty days, tiding them over the
worst period of want until local officials came to aid more
effectively. Work was the repairing of a main public highway.
The Baptist Mission supplied the necessary road material,
lime, etc. There remains a balance of $200 Mexican on hand.
B. While in Yingtak it was thought wisest to give
employment to the needy as above described; along the West
River it was deemed best to give money direct. In this region
rice and other foodstuffs were being sold at a reduction of 30
or 40 per cent. through the agency of local gentry of wealth,
officials and the native benevolent institutions. One thousand
dollars was then distributed through the Native General
Committee from the United Churches of Canton, and some
thousands of people supplied with cash to buy food at these
reduced rates.
C. In Tsing Yuen and Sham Shui Districts, Mr. Clayson
personally assisted the Native Committee in distributing
tickets, which were redeemable in cash at three centres,
Tsing Yuen, Shek Kok and Sai Nam. Rather thorough
investigations were made so as to reach the most needy, and
especial attention was given to villages lying in from the river,
which had, in fact, suffered most from devastation of crops,
and yet had up to the time of this relief been least helped,
because living back from the river they did not know how to
get relief, and had few chances of earning any support.
The method of distribution adopted was very laborious, but
it is thought that it was the most satisfactory. Those wanting
most relief were reached and given tickets, and even if they
were too weak to go to the centre to get the money, they
could be trusted to see that they did get it. Those helped in
these districts were mostly widows, the blind, lame and
diseased and aged. Two days around each centre were taken
to distribute tickets, and one day at the centre for distribution
of money—with which the people then bought foodstuffs at
reduced prices from the officials or Benevolent Societies—the
latter turning their money over and over as long as it lasted
under this depreciating process.
 The $2,519.77 (Mexican) which our Committee gave Mr.
Clayson was put with that of the Native Christian Committee,
making a total of $4,610.00, which was disbursed at the three
centres as follows: Tsing Yuen, $1,448; Shek Kok, $1,047,
and in Sai Nam, $1,115.
It can confidently be said that but for the timely aid this
money made possible, several thousands of people on the
verge of starvation would have suffered worse agony than
they did.
Our Committee wishes to offer our most sincere and
appreciative thanks to the Red Cross Society for this timely
aid, and to you for your kind offices in the matter.
Respectfully submitted,
C. K. EDMUNDS,
Secretary.
To Hon. W. B. Hull,
American Vice-Consul in Charge.
Refugees Camped in Mat Sheds on the Hillsides Waiting for the Waters
to Recede.

Refugees on the Bank of the North River Waiting for the Boats of the
Relief Committee.
 AN INSPIRATION
BEING THE STORY OF ST. MATTHEW’S RED
CROSS HOSPITAL.

By Nellie Olmsted Lincoln.

St. Matthews Red Cross Guild Hospital.

A beautiful thought of a wise and generous woman, like a fruitful

seed, has blossomed and borne fruit in an ideal, modern hospital,
just completed and given to the people of San Mateo.
Thursday, February 11, 1909, was a red letter day in the annals of
this lovely little California town, for on that day was formally opened
St. Matthew’s Red Cross Hospital, built and equipped by Mrs.
Whitelaw Reid in memory of her mother.
It was a happy combination of circumstances that made it possible
for four officers of the Red Cross to be present at the opening: Mrs.
Whitelaw Reid, Hon. Benjamin Ide Wheeler, President of the
California Branch; Mrs. John Merrill, Vice-President, and Mrs.
Thurlow McMullin, Secretary. Addresses were made by the Rt. Rev.
William T. Nichols, Bishop of California; the Rev. N. B. W. Gallwey,
rector of St. Matthew’s; President Benjamin Ide Wheeler, of the
University of California, and Mr. Paul Pinckney, thanking the donor in
the name of the people of San Mateo.

Dining-room of Hospital.

Two years and a half ago, immediately after the earthquake, Mrs.
Reid, feeling the great good a district nurse could do in the
community, sent from New York a nurse who could be called upon
for emergency cases and also to work among the poor. In providing
for her, a house was built in which there was a fine operating room
and rooms for six patients. Other nurses were secured, and in a
short time one hundred and one cases were cared for. It was soon
found that the building was inadequate, and Mrs. Reid immediately
took steps to have it moved and on its place erected the one just
completed.
This is a charming building, with timbered and plastered exterior,
generous porches and accommodations for twenty-four patients, in
three wards and ten private rooms. The operating room is entirely in
white tiling, with an exceptionally fine light and every appliance for
the use of surgeon and nurse. Opening from it are two rooms, one a
sterilizing room with the finest of apparatus, and the other the room
for anaesthetizing. In the entrance hall is a modest bronze tablet,
bearing the date of opening and stating that the building is in
memory of Jane Templeton Mills, born August 1st, 1832, died April
26th, 1888.
The halls are wide and well lighted, and the elevator with its
electric motor can bring the patients from the lower floor to be
wheeled upon the two porches, where they can find new life in the
California sunshine. There is a special room for X-ray work, and
there, as elsewhere, the outfit is complete.
 Ward of St. Matthews Red Cross Guild Hospital.

All the nurses are graduates, Miss Sarah M. Dick, of the Cook
County Training School, being superintendent, so that the care
offered patients is of the best; and to hold and attract the highest
type of nurse, everything connected with their rooms is as dainty as
the rest of the hospital. Charming pictures in sitting room and dining
room add to the homelike appearance. All physicians of the
community are urged to bring their patients, and there is no
distinction of creed—everything is offered in the broad spirit of the
Red Cross.
Several beds have been endowed. Adjacent to the main building,
yet surrounded by larger grounds of its own, stands the maternity
house, in which there are also nurses’ rooms and headquarters for
the district nurse, one of whose duties is to hold classes for anyone
interested in “first aid.”
It seems as if Mrs. Reid had thought of every detail possible to
make the gift as near perfect as a mortal may, even providing one of
the purest specimens of radium. It is her earnest hope that similar
hospitals will be erected throughout the country, so that in times of
emergency they may be ready for immediate use for Red Cross
purposes.
The affairs of the Hospital are administered by a Board of
representative women consisting of Mrs. Ansel M. Easton, Vice-
President; Mrs. Charles E. Green, Treasurer; Mrs. Lewis P. Hobart,
Secretary; Mrs. Ernest Coxhead, Corresponding Secretary; Mrs. A.
M. Easton, Mrs. William H. Crocker, Miss Jennie Crocker, Mrs.
Frances C. Carolan, Mrs. Walter Martin, Mrs. Laurence Irving Scott,
Mrs. William Tubbs, Mrs. E. D. Beylard, Mrs. N. B. W. Gallwey, Mrs.
J. D. Grant, Mrs. Mountford Wilson, Mrs. James Otis Lincoln. The
president is Rev. N. B. W. Gallwey, whose deep interest and able
leadership have been of inestimable assistance.

Operating-room of Hospital.

Mrs. Reid is Honorary President of the Board, and as perhaps it

can be said of no other person living, this modest, generous donor
has in the completion of this work finished a golden circle around the
world of love and service for suffering humanity, for the Philippines,