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HEARING
An Introduction to Psychological and
Physiological Acoustics
HEARING
An Introduction to Psychological and
Physiological Acoustics
SIXTH EDITION
STANLEY A. GELFAND, PhD

Professor
Department of Linguistics and Communication Disorders
Queen’s College of the City University of New York
Flushing, New York
and
PhD Program in Speech-Language-Hearing Sciences and AuD Program
Graduate Center of the City University of New York
New York, New York
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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© 2018 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Gelfand, Stanley A., 1948- author.

Title: Hearing : an introduction to psychological and physiological acoustics / Stanley A. Gelfand.
Description: Sixth edition. | Boca Raton : CRC Press, 2018. | Includes bibliographical references.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017021446 (print) | LCCN 2017022201 (ebook) | ISBN 9781315154718
(eBook General) | ISBN 9781498775434 (eBook PDF) | ISBN 9781351650755 (eBook ePub) |
ISBN 9781351641234 (eBook Mobipocket) | ISBN 9781498775427 (hardback : alk. paper)
Subjects: | MESH: Hearing--physiology | Psychoacoustics
Classification: LCC QP461 (ebook) | LCC QP461 (print) | NLM WV 272 | DDC 612.8/5--dc23
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To Janice
In Loving Memory
Contents
Preface xiii
1 Physical concepts 1
Physical quantities 1
Decibel notation 6
Harmonic motion and sound 8
Combining waves 15
Complex waves 17
Filters 20
Standing waves 21
Impedance 22
References 24
2 Anatomy 27
Gross anatomy and overview 27
Temporal bone 29
Outer ear 32
Pinna 32
Ear canal 32
Eardrum 33
Middle ear 33
Ossicular chain 35
Intratympanic muscles 36
Inner ear 37
Osseous and membranous labyrinths 37
Inner ear fluids 37
Vestibular organs 39
Cochlea 39
Hair cells 44
Innervation 48
Efferent innervation of the hair cells 50
Central auditory pathways 51
Ascending auditory pathways 52
Cochlear nuclei 52
Superior olivary complex 53
Lateral lemniscus 54
Inferior colliculus 54
Medial geniculate body 54
vii
viii Contents
Cortex 55
Descending auditory pathways 57
Olivocochlear bundle 58
Middle ear muscle reflex 59
References 59
3 Conductive mechanism 69
Outer ear 69
Pinna 69
Ear canal 69
Middle ear 70
Middle ear transformer mechanism 72
Area ratio 72
Curved-membrane mechanism 73
Ossicular lever 74
Middle ear response 76
Bone conduction 77
The acoustic reflex 80
Reflex parameters 81
Middle ear muscle theories 89
References 90
4 Cochlear mechanisms and processes 95
Action of sensory receptors 95
Classical theories of hearing 96
Classical resonance theory 96
Traveling wave theory 97
Classical temporal theories 97
Place-volley theory 98
The traveling wave 98
Hair cell activation 100
Mechanoelectrical transduction 103
Cochlear electrical potentials 104
Resting potentials 105
Receptor potentials 105
Cochlear microphonics 105
Distribution of the cochlear microphonic 108
Summating potentials 111
Cochlear tuning and frequency selectivity 112
Nonlinearity in the cochlea 118
Active processes and the cochlear amplifier 120
Otoacoustic emissions 122
References 127
5 Auditory nerve 137
Frequency coding 138
Tuning curves 138
Firing patterns 139
Responses to clicks 139
Responses to tones and tonal complexes 141
Two-tone suppression 144
Intensity coding 146
Speech coding 150
Contents ix
Whole-nerve action potentials 151

References 154
6 Auditory pathways 159
Responses of the auditory nervous system 159
Binaural and related responses 161
Brainstem 161
Coding of binaural differences 163
Cortex 164
Tonotopic organization 165
Cochlear nuclei 165
Lateral lemniscus 167
Cortex 169
Auditory evoked potentials 170
Frequency-following response 173
Complex auditory brainstem response 173
Auditory steady-state response 174
Effects of cortical ablation 175
Medial olivocochlear reflex 177
References 181
7 Psychoacoustic methods 197
Scales of measurement 197
Measurement methods 198
Classical methods of measurement 198
Method of limits 198
Method of adjustment 201
Method of constant stimuli 201
Forced-choice methods 203
Adaptive procedures 203
Bekesy’s tracking method 203
Simple up-down or staircase method 204
Parameter estimation by sequential testing 205
Block up-down methods 206
Transformed up-down or staircase procedures 207
Modifications, other procedures, and comparisons 209
Direct scaling 209
Ratio estimation and production 210
Magnitude estimation and production 210
Cross-modality matches 211
Category rating scales 211
References 211
8 Signal detection theory 217
Factors affecting responses 217
Psychophysical methods in sdt 222
Yes/no methods 222
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x Contents
Two-interval and N-interval f orced-choice methods 222

Confidence rating methods 222
Some implications of sdt 223
References 223
9 Auditory sensitivity 225
Absolute sensitivity 225
Minimum audible levels 225
Threshold microstructure 227
Upper limits of hearing 227
Reference levels 227
Hearing level 230
Effects of duration 230
Differential sensitivity 232
Intensity discrimination 233
Frequency discrimination 235
Profile analysis 236
Temporal resolution 238
Temporal discrimination 240
Stimulus uncertainty 241
Temporary threshold shift 242
Appendix 9.1 244
Appendix 9.2 244
References 244
10 Masking 251
Nature of masking 252
Frequency selectivity 255
Psychoacoustic tuning curves 259
Comodulation masking release 262
Overshoot 263
Temporal masking 264
Central masking 266
Informational masking 267
References 269
11 Loudness 275
Loudness level 275
Loudness scaling and loudness functions 277
Loudness and distance 280
Loudness and bandwidth 280
Temporal integration of loudness 281
Loudness adaptation 283
Induced loudness reduction 285
Binaural loudness summation 285
Annoyance 287
References 288
12 Pitch and timbre 295
Mel scales of pitch 295
Musical pitch 297
Consonance and dissonance 300
Pitch and intensity 301
Contents xi
Beats, harmonics, and combination tones 301

Pitch of complex sounds 303
Missing fundamental and periodicity pitch 306
Pitch shift of the missing fundamental 308
Place/spectral theories 309
Temporal theories 309
Timbre 311
References 315
13 Binaural and spatial hearing 321

Binaural fusion 321
Binaural beats 322
Binaural summation 322
Differential sensitivity 323
Auditory scene analysis 324
Directional hearing 325
Localization 325
Head movements 330
Lateralization 331
Virtual auditory space localization 334
Minimum audible angle 334
Minimum audible movement angle 336
Directional hearing in infants 336
Species differences in directional hearing 336
Auditory distance perception 337
Precedence effect 338
Masking level differences 342
References 346
14 Speech and its perception 357

Speech sounds: Production and perception 358
Vowels 358
Consonants 360
Dichotic listening and cerebral lateralization 364
Categorical perception 365
The speech module 366
Power of speech sounds 367
Speech intelligibility 368
Audibility: Speech level and signal-to-noise ratio 369
Frequency 369
Amplitude distortion 370
Interruptions and temporal distortion 370
Masking and reverberation 372
Nonacoustic considerations 373
Speech perception theories and approaches 373
Models implicating the production system 374
Motor theory 374
Direct realist theory 374
Analysis-by-synthesis 374
General auditory approaches 374
Fuzzy logical model of perception 374
xii Contents
Word recognition models 375

Prototype and exemplar models 375
Logogen model 375
Cohort model 375
Trace model 375
Shortlist model 376
Neighborhood activation model 376
Speech intelligibility and acoustical measurements 376
Clear speech 378
References 379
Index 391
Preface
This is the sixth edition of a textbook intended In addition to reflecting advances in the field,
to provide beginning graduate students with an the sixth edition of Hearing has been strongly
introduction to the sciences of hearing, as well as influenced by extensive comments and sugges-
to provide an overview of the field for more expe- tions from both colleagues and graduate students.
rienced readers. This has resulted in updates, changes, and addi-
The need for a current text of this type has tions to the material as well as several new and
been expanded by the advent of the professional revised figures; but every effort has been made to
doctorate in audiology, the AuD in addition to maintain the fundamental characteristics of the
those in PhD programs in the speech and hear- prior editions wherever possible. These include the
ing sciences. However, an interest in hearing is by basic approach, structure, format, and the general
no means limited to audiologists and speech and (and often irregular) depth of coverage, the provi-
hearing scientists. It includes readers with widely sion of references at the end of each chapter, and
diverse academic backgrounds, such as psycholo- the provision of liberal references to other sources
gists, speech-language pathologists, physicians, for further study. As one might expect, the hard-
deaf educators, industrial hygienists, linguists est decisions involved choosing material that could
and engineers, among others. The result is a frus- be streamlined, replaced, or omitted, keeping the
trating dilemma in which a text will likely be too original orientation and flavor of the book, and
basic for some of its intended readers and too avoiding a “state-of-the-art” treatise.
advanced for others. Thus, the idea is to provide a It is doubtful that all of the material covered in
volume sufficiently detailed to serve as a core text this text would be addressed in a single one-semester
for graduate students with a primary interest in course, nor that it would be the only source used. It
hearing, while at the same time avoiding a reli- is more likely that this book would be used as a core
ance on scientific or mathematical backgrounds text for a two-course sequence dealing with psy-
not shared by those with different kinds of aca- chological and physiological acoustics, along with
demic experiences. appropriately selected readings from the research
Hearing science is an exciting area of study literature and state-of-the-art books. Suggested
because of its broad, interdisciplinary scope, and readings are provided in context throughout the
even more because it is vital and dynamic. Research text to provide a firm foundation for further study.
continuously provides new information to expand My heartfelt appreciation is expressed to the
on the old and also causes us to rethink what was numerous colleagues and students who provided
once well established. The reader (particularly the me with valuable suggestions that have been incor-
beginning student) is reminded that new findings porated into this and prior editions. I am especially
occasionally disprove the “laws” of the past. Thus, indebted to my current and former colleagues and
this textbook should be treated as a first step; it is students in the Department of Linguistics and
by no means the final word. Communication Disorders at Queens College,
xiii
xiv Preface
the PhD Program in Speech-Language-Hearing Lauren Calandruccio, Joseph Danto, Lillian and
Sciences, and the AuD Program at the City Sol Gelfand, Irving Hochberg, Gertrude and Oscar
University of New York Graduate Center, and at Katzen, Arlene Kraat, Linda Leggio, John Lutolf,
the East Orange Veterans Affairs Medical Center. Grace McInnes, Maurice Miller, Neil Piper, Teresa
Thank you all for being continuous examples of Schwander, Stanley Schwartz, Shlomo Silman,
excellence and for your valued friendships. I am Carol Silverman, Helen and Harris Topel, Robert
also grateful to the talented and dedicated staff of Vago, Barbara Weinstein, and Mark Weiss. Very
CRC Press/Taylor & Francis Group, who contrib- special gratitude is expressed to Harry Levitt, who
uted so much to this book and graciously arranged will always be my professor.
for the preparation of the indices and the proof- Finally, my deepest gratitude goes to Janice,
reading of the final page proofs. the love of my life, whose memory will always be
At the risk of inadvertently omitting several, a blessing and inspiration; and to my wonderful
I would like to thank the following people for children, Michael, Joshua, and Erin, and Jessica
their advice, inspiration, influence, and support, and Robert for their love, support, confidence, and
which have taken forms too numerous to mention: unparalleled patience.
Cherry Allen, Nick Barber, Sandra Beberman, Moe
Bergman, Arthur Boothroyd, Miranda Bromage, Stanley A. Gelfand
1
Physical concepts
This book is concerned with hearing, and what basic quantities (and other derived quantities), and
we hear is sound. Thus, both intuition and reason include such phenomena as velocity, force, and
make it clear that a basic understanding of the work. If a quantity can be described completely
nature of sound is prerequisite to an understand- in terms of just its magnitude (size), then it is a
ing of audition. The study of sound is acoustics. scalar. Length is a good example of a scalar. On the
An understanding of acoustics, in turn, rests upon other hand, a quantity is a vector if it needs to be
knowing several fundamental physical principles. described by both its magnitude and its direction.
This is so because acoustics is, after all, the physics For example, if a body moves 1 m from point x l
of sound. We will therefore begin by reviewing a to point x2, then we say that it has been displaced.
number of physical principles so that the following Here, the scalar quantity of length becomes the
chapters can proceed without the constant need for vector quantity of displacement when both magni-
the distracting insertions of basic definitions and tude and direction are involved. A derived quantity
concepts. The material in this chapter is intended is a vector if any of its components is a vector. For
to be a review of principles that were previously example, force is a vector because it involves the
learned. Therefore, the review will be rapid and components of mass (a scalar) and acceleration (a
somewhat cursory, and the reader may wish to con- vector). The distinction between scalars and vectors
sult the American National Standard addressing is not just some esoteric concept. One must be able
acoustical terminology and a physics or acoustics to distinguish between scalars and vectors because
textbook for a broader coverage of these topics (e.g., they are manipulated differently in calculations.
Pearce and David, 1958; van Bergeijk et al., 1960; The basic quantities may be more or less appreci-
Peterson and Gross, 1972; Beranek, 1986; Kinsler ated in terms of one’s personal experience, and are
et al., 1999; Speaks, 1999; Everest, 2000; Rossing expressed in terms of conventionally agreed upon
et al., 2002; Hewitt, 2005; Young and Freedman, units. These units are values that are measurable
2007),* as well as the American National Standard and repeatable. The unit of time (t) is the s econd
addressing acoustical terminology (ANSI, 2004). (s), the unit of length (L) is the meter (m), and
the unit of mass (M) is the kilogram (kg). There
PHYSICAL QUANTITIES is a common misconception that mass and weight
are synonymous. This is actually untrue. Mass is
Physical quantities may be thought of as being related to the density of a body, which is the same
basic or derived, and as either scalars or vectors. for that body no matter where it is located. On
The basic quantities of concern here are time, the other hand, an object’s weight is related to the
length (distance), and mass. The derived quanti- force of gravity upon it, so that weight changes as a
ties are the results of various combinations of the function of gravitational attraction. It is common
knowledge that an object weighs more on earth
* While no longer in print, the interested student may than it would on the moon, and that it weighs more
be able to find the classical books by Pearce and David at sea level than it would in a high-flying airplane.
(1958), van Bergeijk et al. (1960), and Peterson and In each of these cases, the mass of the body is the
Gross (1972) in some libraries. same in spite of the fact that its weight is different.
1
2 Physical concepts
A brief word is appropriate at this stage regard- moment in time. Instantaneous velocity reflects
ing the availability of several different systems of the speed at some point in time when the displace-
units. When we express length in meters and mass ment and time between that point and the next one
in kilograms we are using the units of the Système approaches zero. Thus, students with a background
International d’Unités, referred to as the SI or the in mathematics will recognize that instantaneous
MKS system. Here, MKS stands for meters, kilo- velocity is equal to the derivative of displacement
grams, and seconds. An alternative scheme using with respect to time, or
smaller metric units coexists with MKS, which is
the cgs system (for centimeters, grams, and sec- dx
onds), as does the English system of weights and v= (1.3)
dt
measures. Table 1.1 presents a number of the major
basic and derived physical quantities we will deal
with, their units, and their conversion factors.* As common experience verifies, a fixed speed is
Velocity (v) is the speed at which an object is rarely maintained over time. Rather, an object may
moving, and is derived from the basic quantities of speed up or slow down over time. Such a change
displacement (which we have seen is a vector form of velocity over time is acceleration (a). Suppose
of length) and time. On average, velocity is the we are concerned with the average acceleration of
distance traveled divided by the amount of time it a body moving between two points. The velocity
takes to get from the starting point to the destina- of the body at the first point is v1 and the time as it
tion. Thus, if an object leaves point x l at time t1 and passes that point is t1. Similarly, its velocity at the
arrives at x 2 at time t2, then we can compute the second point and the time when it passes this point
average velocity as are, respectively, v2 and t2. The average accelera-
tion is the difference between these two velocities
( x 2 − x1 ) divided by the time interval involved:
v= (1.1)
( t 2 − t1 )
(v 2 − v1 )
a= (1.4)
( t 2 − t1 )
If we call (x 2 − x l) displacement (x) and (t2 − t l)
time (t), then, in general:
or, in general:
x
v= (1.2) v
t a= (1.5)
t
Because displacement (x) is measured in meters
and time (t) in seconds, velocity is expressed in If we recall that velocity corresponds to displace-
meters per second (m/s). ment divided by time (Equation 1.2), we can sub-
In contrast to average velocity as just defined, stitute x/t for v, so that
instantaneous velocity is used when we are con-
cerned with the speed of a moving body at a specific x
t x (1.6)
a= =
t t2
* Students with a penchant for trivia will be delighted
to know the following details. (1) One second is the
Therefore, acceleration is expressed in units of
time needed to complete 9,192,631,770 cycles of radi-
meters per second squared (m/s2) or centimeters
ation of cesium-133 atoms in an atomic clock (for an
per second squared (cm/s2).
interesting and informative discussion, see Finkleman
The acceleration of a body at a given moment is
et al., 2011). (2) The reference value for 1 kg of mass
called its instantaneous acceleration, which is the
is that of a cylinder of platinum–iridium alloy kept in
derivative of velocity with respect to time, or
the International Bureau of Weights and Measures in
France. (3) One meter is 1,650,763.73 times the wave-
dv
length of orange-red light emitted by krypton-86 a= (1.7)
under certain conditions. dt
Table 1.1 Principal physical quantities
Quantity Formula SI (MKS) units cgs units Equivalent values

Time (t) t second (s) s
Mass (M) M kilogram (kg) gram (g) 1 kg = 1000 g
Displacement (x) x meter (m) centimeter (cm) 1 m = 100 cm
Area (A) A m2 cm2 1 m2 = 104 cm2
Velocity (v) v = x/t m/s cm/s 1 m/s = 100 cm/s
Acceleration (a) a = v /t m/s2 cm/s2 1 m/s2 = 100 cm/s2
= x /t 2
Force (F) F = Ma newton (N) dyne (d) 1 N = 105 d
= Mv/t kg ∙ m/s2 g ∙ cm/s2
Work (w) w = Fx joule (J) erg 1 J = 107 erg
N∙m d ∙ cm
Power (P) P = w /t watt (W) watt (W) 1 W = 1 J/s = 107 erg/s
= Fx /t
= Fv
Intensity (I) I = P/A W/m2 W/cm2 Reference values:
10−12 W/m2
or
10−16 W/cm2
Pressure (p) p = F/A pascal (Pa) microbar (µbar) Reference values:
N/m2 d/cm2 2 × 10−5 N/m2 (µPa)
or
2 × 10−4 d/cm2 (µbar)a
a The reference value for sound pressure in cgs units is often written as 0.0002 dynes/cm2.
Recalling that velocity is the first derivative of that is, to change its speed or direction. The amount
displacement (Equation 1.3), and substituting, we of force is equal to the product of mass times accel-
find that acceleration is the second derivative of eration (Newton’s second law of motion):
displacement:
F = Ma (1.9)
d x
2
a= (1.8)
dt 2 Recall that acceleration corresponds to velocity
over time (Equation 1.5). Substituting v/t for a
Common experience and Newton’s first law of (acceleration) reveals that force can also be defined
motion tell us that if an object is not moving (is at in the form
rest), then it will tend to remain at rest, and that if
an object is moving in some direction at a given Mv
F= (1.10)
speed, that it will tend to continue doing so. This t
phenomenon is inertia, which is the property of
mass to continue doing what it is already doing. where Mv is the property of momentum. Stated
An outside influence is needed in order to make a in this manner, force is equal to momentum over
stationary object move, or to change the speed or time.
direction of a moving object. That is, a force (F) Because force is the product of mass and accel-
is needed to overcome the body’s inertia. Because eration, the amount of force is measured in kg ∙ m/
a change in speed is acceleration, we may say that s2. The unit of force is the newton (N), which is the
force is that which causes a mass to be accelerated, force needed to cause a 1-kg mass to be accelerated
4 Physical concepts
by 1 kg ∙ m/s2 (i.e., 1 N = kg ∙ m/s2). It would thus The opposing force of friction depends on
take a 2-N force to cause a 2-kg mass to be accel- two factors. Differing amounts of friction occur
erated by 1 m/s2, or a 1-kg mass to be accelerated depending upon what is sliding on what. The mag-
by 2 kg ∙ m/s2. Similarly, the force required to nitude of friction between two given materials is
accelerate a 6-kg mass by 3 m/s2 would be 18 N. called the coefficient of friction. Although the
The unit of force in cgs units is the dyne, where 1 details of this quantity are beyond current inter-
dyne = 1 g ∙ cm/s2 and 105 dynes = 1 N. est, it is easily understood that the coefficient of
Actually, many forces tend to act upon a given friction is greater for “rough” materials than for
body at the same time. Therefore, the force referred “smooth” or “slick” ones.
to in Equations 1.9 and 1.10 is actually the resultant The second factor affecting the force of fric-
or net force, which is the net effect of all forces act- tion is easily demonstrated by an experiment the
ing upon the object. The concept of net force is clari- reader can do by rubbing the palms of his hands
fied by a few simple examples: If two forces are both back and forth on one another. First rub slowly
pushing on a body in the same direction, then the and then rapidly. Not surprisingly, the rubbing
net force would be the sum of these two forces. (For will produce heat. The temperature rise is due to
example, consider a force of 2 N that is pushing an the conversion of the mechanical energy into heat
object toward the north, and a second force of 5 N as a result of the friction, and will be addressed
that is also pushing that object in the same direc- again in another context. For the moment, we will
tion. The net force would be 2 N + 5 N, or 7 N and accept the amount of heat as an indicator of the
the direction of acceleration would be to the north.) amount of friction. Note that the hands become
Alternatively, if two forces are pushing on the same hotter when they are rubbed together more rap-
body but in opposite directions, then the net force is idly. Thus, the amount of friction is due not only to
the difference between the two, and the object will the coefficient of friction (R) between the materials
be accelerated in the direction of the greater force. involved (here, the palms of the hands), but also to
(Suppose, for example, that a 2-N force is pushing an the velocity (v) of the motion. Stated as a formula,
object toward the east and that a 5-N force is simul- the force of friction (F) is thus
taneously pushing it toward the west. The net force
would be 5 N – 2 N, or 3 N which would cause the F = Rv (1.11)
body to accelerate toward the west.)
If two equal forces push in opposite directions, A compressed spring will bounce back to its
then net force would be zero, in which case there original shape once released. This property of a
would be no change in the motion of the object. deformed object to return to its original form is
This situation is called equilibrium. Thus, under called elasticity. The more elastic or stiff an object,
conditions of equilibrium, if a body is already mov- the more readily it returns to its original form after
ing, it will continue in motion, and if it is already being deformed. Suppose one is trying to compress
at rest, it will remain still. That is, of course, what a coil spring. It becomes increasingly more diffi-
Newton’s first law of motion tells us. cult to continue squeezing the spring as it becomes
Experience, however, tells us that a moving more and more compressed. Stated differently, the
object in the real world tends to slow down and will more the spring is being deformed, the more it
eventually come to a halt. This occurs, for example, opposes the applied force. The force that opposes
when a driver shifts to “neutral” and allows his car the deformation of a spring-like material is called
to coast on a level roadway. Is this a violation of the the restoring force.
laws of physics? Clearly, the answer is no. The rea- As the example just cited suggests, the restoring
son is that in the real world a moving body is con- force depends on two factors; the elastic modulus
stantly in contact with other objects or mediums. of the object’s material and the degree to which
The sliding of one body against the other consti- the object is displaced. An elastic modulus is the
tutes a force opposing the motion, called friction ratio of stress to strain. Stress (s) is the ratio of the
or resistance. For example, the coasting automo- applied force (F) to the area (A) of an elastic object
bile is in contact with the surrounding air and the over which it is exerted, or
roadway; moreover, its internal parts are also mov-
ing one upon the other. s = F/A (1.12)
The resulting relative displacement or change in accomplished. The rate at which work is done is
dimensions of the material subjected to the stress power (P) and is equal to work divided by time,
is called strain. Of particular interest is Young’s
modulus, which is the ratio of compressive stress P = w /t (1.15)
to compressive strain. Hooke’s law states that
stress and strain are proportional within the elastic in joules per second (J/s). The watt (W) is the unit
limits of the material, which is equivalent to stat- of power, and 1 W is equal to 1 J/s. In the cgs sys-
ing that a material’s elastic modulus is a constant tem, the watt is equal to 107 ergs/s.
within these limits. Thus, the restoring force (F) of Recalling that w = Fx, then Equation 1.15 may
an elastic material that opposes an applied force is be rewritten as
F = Sx (1.13) P = Fx /t (1.16)
where S is the stiffness constant of the material and If we now substitute v for x/t (based on Equation
x is the amount of displacement. 1.2), we find that
The concept of “work” in physics is decidedly
more specific than its general meaning in daily P = Fv (1.17)
life. In the physical sense, work (w) is done when
the application of a force to a body results in its Thus, power is equal to the product of force and
displacement. The amount of work is therefore the velocity.
product of the force applied and the resultant dis- The amount of power per unit of area is called
placement, or intensity (I). In formal terms,
w = Fx (1.14) I = P/A (1.18)
Thus, work can be accomplished only when where I is intensity, P is power, and A is area.
there is displacement: If the displacement is zero, Therefore, intensity is measured in watts per
then the product of force and displacement will square meter (W/m2) in SI units, or in watts per
also be zero no matter how great the force. Work square centimeter (W/cm2) in cgs units. Because
is quantified in Newton-meters (N ∙ m); and the of the difference in the scale of the area units in
unit of work is the joule (J). Specifically, one joule the MKS and cgs systems, we find that 10−12 W/m2
(1 J) is equal to 1 N ∙ m. In the cgs system, work corresponds to 10−16 W/cm2. This apparently pecu-
is expressed in ergs, where 1 erg corresponds to 1 liar choice of equivalent values is being provided
dyne-centimeter (1 d ∙ cm). because they represent the amount of intensity
The capability to do work is called energy. The required to just barely hear a sound.
energy of an object in motion is called kinetic An understanding of intensity will be better
energy and the energy of a body at rest is its poten- appreciated if one considers the following. Using
tial energy. Total energy is the body’s kinetic for the moment the common knowledge idea of
energy plus its potential energy. Work corresponds what sound is, imagine that a sound source is a tiny
to the change in the body’s kinetic energy. The pulsating sphere. This point source of sound will
energy is not consumed, but rather is converted produce a sound wave that will radiate outward in
from one form to the other. Consider, for exam- every direction, so that the propagating wave may
ple, a pendulum that is swinging back and forth. be conceived of as a sphere of ever-increasing size.
Its kinetic energy is greatest when it is moving the Thus, as distance from the point source increases,
fastest, which is when it passes through the mid- the power of the sound will have to be divided over
point of its swing. On the other hand, its potential the ever-expanding surface. Suppose now that we
energy is greatest at the instant that it reaches the measure how much power registers on a one-unit
extreme of its swing, when its speed is zero. area of this surface at various distances from the
We are concerned not only with the amount source. As the overall size of the sphere is get-
of work, but also with how fast it is being ting larger with distance from the source, so this
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6 Physical concepts
one-unit sample must represent an ever-decreasing another form, called decibels (dB), which make the
proportion of the total surface area. Therefore, less values both palatable and rationally meaningful.
power “falls” onto the same area as the distance One may conceive of the decibel as basically
from the source increases. It follows that the mag- involving two characteristics, namely ratios and log
nitude of the sound appreciated by a listener would arithms. First, the value of a quantity is expressed
become less and less with increasing distance from in relation to some meaningful baseline value in
a sound source. the form of a ratio. Because it makes sense to use
The intensity of a sound decreases with distance the softest sound one can hear as our baseline, we
from the source according to an orderly rule as long use the intensity or pressure of the softest audible
as there are no reflections, in which case a free field sound as our reference value.
is said to exist. Under these conditions, increasing As introduced earlier, the reference sound
the distance (D) from a sound source causes the intensity is 10−12 W/m2 and the equivalent ref-
intensity to decrease to an amount equal to 1 over erence sound pressure is 2 × 10−5 N/m2. Recall
the square of the change in distance (1/D2). This also that the equivalent corresponding values in
principle is known as the inverse-square law. In cgs units are 10−16 W/cm2 for sound intensity and
effect, the inverse square law says that doubling 2 × 10−4 dynes/cm2 for sound pressure. The appro-
the distance from the sound source (e.g., from 1 priate reference value becomes the denominator
to 2 m) causes the intensity to drop to 1/22 or 1/4 of our ratio and the absolute intensity or pressure
of the original intensity. Similarly, tripling the dis- of the sound in question becomes the numerator.
tance causes the intensity to fall to 1/32, or 1/9 of Thus, instead of talking about a sound having an
the prior value; four times the distance results in absolute intensity of 10−10 W/m2, we express its
1/42, or 1/16 of the intensity; and a tenfold increase intensity relatively in terms of how it relates to our
in distance causes the intensity to fall 1/102, or reference, as the ratio:
1/100 of the starting value.
Just as power divided by area yields intensity, so (10−10 W/m2 )
force (F) divided by area yields a value called pres-
(10−12 W/m2 )
sure (p):
p = F/A (1.19) which reduces to simply 102. This intensity ratio

is then replaced with its common logarithm. The
reason is that the linear distance between numbers
so that pressure is measured in N/m2 or in dynes/ having the same ratio relationship between them
cm2. The unit of pressure is called the pascal (Pa), (say, 2:1) becomes wider when the absolute magni-
where 1 Pa = 1 N/m2. As for intensity, the softest tudes of the numbers become larger. For example,
audible sound can also be expressed in terms of its the distance between the numbers in each of the
pressure, for which 2 × 10−5 N/m2 and 2 × 10−4 following pairs increases appreciably as the size
dynes/cm2 are equivalent values.
of the numbers becomes larger, even though they
all involve the same 2:1 ratio: 1:2, 10:20, 100:200,
DECIBEL NOTATION and 1000:2000. The logarithmic conversion is used
because equal ratios are represented as equal dis-
The range of magnitudes we concern ourselves tances on a logarithmic scale.
with in hearing is enormous. As we shall discuss The decibel is a relative entity. This means that
in Chapter 9, the sound pressure of the loudest the decibel in and of itself is a dimensionless quan-
sound that we can tolerate is on the order of 10 mil- tity, and is meaningless without knowledge of the
lion times greater than that of the softest audible reference value, which constitutes the denomina-
sound. One can immediately imagine the cumber- tor of the ratio. Because of this, it is necessary to
some task that would be involved if we were to deal make the reference value explicit when the magni-
with such an immense range of numbers on a lin- tude of a sound is expressed in decibel form. This is
ear scale. The problems involved with and related accomplished by stating that the magnitude of the
to such a wide range of values make it desirable to sound is whatever number of decibels with respect
transform the absolute physical magnitudes into to the reference quantity. Moreover, it is common
Decibel notation 7
practice to add the word “level” to the original pressure level. Here, we must be aware that inten-
quantity when dealing with dB values. Intensity sity is proportional to pressure squared:
expressed in decibels is called intensity level (IL)
and sound pressure in decibels is called sound I ∝ p2 (1.22)
pressure level (SPL). The reference values indi-
cated above are generally assumed when decibels
and
are expressed as dB IL or dB SPL. For example,
one might say that the intensity level of a sound is
“50 dB re: 10−12 W/m2” or “50 dB IL.” p∝ I (1.23)
The general formula for the decibel is expressed
in terms of power as As a result, converting the dB IL formula into
the equivalent equation for dB SPL involves replac-
P ing the intensity values with the squares of the cor-
PL dB = 10 ⋅ log   (1.20) responding pressure values. Therefore,
 P0 
 p2 
SPL dB = 10 ⋅ log  2  (1.24)
where P is the power of the sound being mea-  p0 
sured, P0 is the reference power to which the for-
mer is being compared, and PL is the power level. where p is the measured sound pressure and p0 is
Acoustical measurements are, however, typically the reference sound pressure (2 × 10−5 N/m2). This
made in terms of intensity or sound pressure. The formula may be simplified to
applicable formula for decibels of intensity level is
thus:
 p 2
SPL dB = 10 ⋅ log   (1.25)
 p0 
I
IL dB = 10 ⋅ log   (1.21)
 I0 
Because the logarithm of a number squared cor-
responds to two times the logarithm of that num-
where I is the intensity (in W/m2) of the sound in ber (log x = 2 ∙ log x), the square may be removed
question, and I0 is the reference intensity, or 10−12 to result in
W/m2. Continuing with the example introduced
above, where the value of I is 10−10 W/m2, we thus p
find that SPL dB = 10 ⋅ 2 ⋅ log   (1.26)
 p0 
 10−10 W/m2 
IL dB = 10 ⋅ log  −12 
 10 W/m2  Therefore, the simplified formula for decibels of
SPL becomes
= 10 ⋅ log 102
= 10×2 p
SPL dB = 20 ⋅ log   (1.27)
= 20 dB re: 10−12 W/m2  p0 
In other words, an intensity of 10−10 W/m2 where the value of 20 (instead of 10) is due to having
corresponds to an intensity level of 20 dB re: 10−12 removed the square from the earlier described ver-
W/m2, or 20 dB IL. sion of the formula. One cannot take the intensity
Sound intensity measurements are important ratio from the IL formula and simply insert it into
and useful, and are preferred in certain situations. the SPL formula, or vice versa. The square root of
(See Rasmussen [1989] for a review of this topic.) the intensity ratio yields the corresponding pressure
However, most acoustical measurements involved ratio, which must then be placed into the SPL equa-
in hearing are made in terms of sound pres- tion. Failure to use the proper terms will result in
sure, and are thus expressed in decibels of sound an erroneous doubling of the value in dB SPL.
8 Physical concepts
By way of example, a sound pressure of 2 × 10−4 reference sound pressure of 2 × 10−5 N/m2. Notice
N/m2 corresponds to an SPL of 20 dB (re: 2 × 10−5 that 0 dB does not mean “no sound.” Rather, 0 dB
N/m2), which may be calculated as follows: implies that the quantity being measured is equal
to the reference quantity. Negative decibel values
 2×10−4 N/m2  indicate that the measured magnitude is smaller
SPL dB = 20 ⋅ log  
 2×10−5 N/m2  than the reference quantity.
Recall that sound intensity drops with distance
= 20 ⋅ log 101 from the sound source according to the inverse-
= 20×1 square law. However, we want to know the effect of
= 20 dB re: 10−5 N/m2 the inverse-square law in terms of decibels of sound
pressure level because sound is usually expressed in
these terms. To address this, we must first remem-
What would happen if the intensity (or pres- ber that pressure is proportional to the square root
sure) in question were the same as the reference of intensity. Hence, pressure decreases according
intensity (or pressure)? In other words, what is the to the inverse of the distance change (1/D) instead
dB value of the reference itself? In terms of inten- of the inverse of the square of the distance change
sity, the answer to this question may be found by (1/D2). In effect, the inverse-square law for inten-
simply using 10−12 W/m2 as both the numerator (I) sity becomes an inverse-distance law when we are
and denominator (I0) in the dB formula; thus, dealing with pressure. Let us assume a doubling as
the distance change, because this is the most use-
10−12 W/m2  ful relationship. We can now calculate the size of
IL dB = 10 ⋅ log  −12  (1.28)
10 W/m2  the decrease in decibels between a point at some
distance from the sound source (Dl, e.g., 1 m) and a
Because anything divided by itself equals 1, and point at twice the distance (D2, e.g., 2 m) as follows:
the logarithm of 1 is 0, this equation reduces to
Level drop in SPL = 20 ⋅ log(D2 /D1 )
IL dB = 10 ⋅ log 1 = 20 ⋅ log(2/1)
= 10×0 = 20 ⋅ log 2
= 0 dB re: 10−12 W /m2 = 20×0.3
= 6 dB
Hence, 0 dB IL is the intensity level of the refer-
ence intensity. Just as 0 dB IL indicates the inten-
In other words, the inverse-square law causes
sity level of the reference intensity, so 0 dB SPL
the sound pressure level to decrease by 6 dB when-
similarly implies that the measured sound pressure
ever the distance from the sound source is doubled.
corresponds to that of the reference
For example, if the sound pressure level is 60 dB at
 2×10−5 N/m2  1 m from the source, then it will be 60 − 6 = 54
SPL dB = 20 ⋅ log   (1.29) dB when the distance is doubled to 2 m, and
 2×10−5 N/m2  54 − 6 = 48 dB when the distance is doubled again
from 2 to 4 m.
Just as we saw in the previous example, this
equation is solved simply as follows:
HARMONIC MOTION AND SOUND
SPL dB = 20 ⋅ log 1 What is sound? It is convenient to answer this ques-
= 20×0 tion with a formally stated sweeping generality.
For example, one might say that sound is a form of
= 0 dB re: 10−5 N/m2
vibration that propagates through a medium (such
as air) in the form of a wave. Although this state-
In other words, 0 dB SPL indicates that the pres- ment is correct and straightforward, it can also be
sure of the sound in question corresponds to the uncomfortably vague and perplexing. This is so
Harmonic motion and sound 9
because it assumes knowledge of definitions and center (C), the rapidly moving prong overshoots
concepts that are used in a very precise way, but this point. It now continues rightward (arrow 3),
which are familiar to most people only as “gut-level” slowing down along the way until it comes to a
generalities. As a result, we must address the under- halt at point R (right). It now reverses direction
lying concepts and develop a functional vocabulary and begins moving leftward (arrow 4) at an ever-
of physical terms that will not only make the gen- increasing speed, so that it again overshoots the
eral definition of sound meaningful, but will also center. Now, again following arrow 1, the prong
allow the reader to appreciate its nature. slows down until it reaches a halt at L, where it
Vibration is the to-and-fro motion of a body, reverses direction and repeats the process.
which could be anything from a guitar string to The course of events just described is the result
the floorboards under the family refrigerator, or a of applying a force to an object having the proper-
molecule of air. Moreover, the motion may have a ties of elasticity and inertia (mass). The initial force
very simple pattern as produced by a tuning fork, to the tuning fork displaces the prong. Because the
or an extremely complex one such as one might tuning fork possesses the property of elasticity, the
hear at lunchtime in an elementary school caf- deformation caused by the applied force is opposed
eteria. Even though few sounds are as simple as by a restoring force in the opposite direction. In
that produced by a vibrating tuning fork, such an the case of the single prong in Figure 1.2, the initial
example provides what is needed to understand the force toward the left is opposed by a restoring force
nature of sound. toward the right. As the prong is pushed farther
Figure 1.1 shows an artist’s conceptualization to the left, the magnitude of the restoring force
of a vibrating tuning fork at different moments of increases relative to the initially applied force. As
its vibration pattern. The heavy arrow facing the a result, the prong’s movement is slowed down,
prong to the reader’s right in Figure 1.1a repre- brought to a halt at point L, and reversed in direc-
sents the effect of applying an initial force to the tion. Now, under the influence of its elasticity, the
fork, such as by striking it against a hard surface. prong starts moving rightward. Here, we must
The progression of the pictures in the figure from consider the mass of the prong.
(a) through (e) represents the movements of the As the restoring force brings the prong back
prongs as time proceeds from the moment that the toward its resting position (C), the inertial force of
outside force is applied. its mass causes it to increase in speed, or acceler-
Even though both prongs vibrate as mirror ate. When the prong passes through the resting
images of one another, it is convenient to consider position, it is actually moving fastest. Here, inertia
just one of them for the time being. Figure 1.2 high- does not permit the moving mass (prong) to simply
lights the right prong’s motion after being struck. stop, so instead it overshoots the center and con-
Point C (center) is simply the position of the prong tinues its rightward movement under the force of
at rest. Upon being hit (as in Figure 1.1a) the prong
is pushed, as shown by arrow 1, to point L (left).
L C R
The prong then bounces back (arrow 2), picking 1 4
up speed along the way. Instead of stopping at the 2 3
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
Figure 1.1 Striking a tuning fork (indicated by the

heavy arrow) results in a pattern of movement
that repeats itself over time. One complete cycle Figure 1.2 Movements toward the right (R)
of these movements is represented from frames and left (L) of the center (C) resting position of
(a) through (e). Note that the two prongs move as a single tuning fork prong. The numbers and
mirror images of one another. arrows refer to the text.
10 Physical concepts
its inertia. However, the prong’s movement is now The events and forces just described are summa-
resulting in deformation of the metal again once rized in Figure 1.3, where the tuning fork’s motion
it passes through the resting position. Elasticity is represented by the curve. This curve represents
therefore comes into play with the buildup of an the displacement to the right and left of the center
opposing (now leftward) restoring force. As before, (resting) position as the distance above and below
the restoring force eventually equals the applied the horizontal line, respectively. Horizontal dis-
(now inertial) force, thus halting the fork’s distance from left to right represents the progression
placement at point R and reversing the direction of of time. The initial dotted line represents its initial
its movement. Here, the course of events described displacement due to the applied force. The elastic
above again comes into play (except that the direc- restoring forces and inertial forces of the prong’s
tion is leftward), with the prong building up speed mass are represented by arrows. Finally, damping
again and overshooting the center (C) position as a is shown by the reduction in the displacement of
result of inertia. The process will continue over and the curve from center as time goes on.
over again until it dies out over time, seemingly “of The type of vibration just described is called
its own accord.” simple harmonic motion (SHM) because the to-
Clearly, the dying out of the tuning fork’s vibra- and-fro movements repeat themselves at the same
tions does not occur by some mystical influence. rate over and over again. We will discuss the nature
On the contrary, it is due to resistance. The vibrat- of SHM in greater detail below with respect to the
ing prong is always in contact with the air around motion of air particles in the sound wave.
it. As a result, there will be friction between the The tuning fork serves as a sound source by
vibrating metal and the surrounding air particles. transferring its vibration to the motion of the sur-
The friction causes some of the mechanical energy rounding air particles (Figure 1.4). (We will again
involved in the movement of the tuning fork to be concentrate on the activity to the right of the fork,
converted into heat. The energy that has been con- remembering that a mirror image of this pattern
verted into heat by friction is no longer available occurs to the left.) The rightward motion of the
to support the to-and-fro movements of the tuning tuning fork prong displaces air molecules to its
fork. Hence, the oscillations die out as continuing right in the same direction as the prong’s motion.
friction causes more and more of the energy to be These molecules are thus displaced to the right of
converted into heat. This reduction in the size of their resting positions, thereby being forced closer
the oscillations due to resistance is called damping. and closer to the particles to their own right. In
Left Time
Displacement from center (C)
rce
Restoring Damping due to friction

ied fo
force Elasticity
resting position
Appl
Inertia Mass
Right
Figure 1.3 Conceptualized diagram graphing the to-and-fro movements of the tuning fork prong in
Figure 1.2. Vertical distance represents the displacement of the prong from its center (C) or resting
position. The dotted line represents the initial displacement of the prong as a result of some applied
force. Arrows indicate the effects of restoring forces due to the fork’s elasticity, and the inertia due
to its mass. The damping effect due to resistance (or friction) is shown by the decreasing displace-
ment of the curve as time progresses, and is highlighted by the shaded triangles (and double-headed
arrows) above and below the curve.
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air at this height. Understand?”
“Yes,” the lad muttered rather grumpily.
“All right, and if we wished to go higher—”
“We’d have to let out more of the compressed air,” Bob
interrupted, brightly.
“And if we desired to descend—”
“We’d have to pump more into the tank.”
“Of course,” mumbled the goblin. “You’ll make a great aëronaut
one of these days.”
Then he lifted a lid of the
locker, took out a small
instrument and busied himself
with the manipulation of its
mechanism. Bob leaned over the
edge of the car and devoted his
attention to the scene below.
Directly beneath lay the
sleeping village, its roofs
showing white in the bright
moonlight. To east and west the
hills rolled away, their summits
hoary, their bases shadowy and
obscure; and among them
wound the placid river—a
stream of molten silver
threading the narrow vale. The
roar of the distant mill-dam
sounded sullen and indistinct,
and the mists rising from it
waved as fairy plumes and
banners. The lad looked and
listened, entranced, enraptured.
“How beautiful it all is!” he murmured feelingly to himself, a catch
in his voice. “I—I like it; and I rather hate to leave it.”
“Homesick already, are you, before you’re out of sight of home?”
Fitz Mee queried, his eyes upon the curious instrument he had
placed in the bottom of the car.
“No, I’m not homesick!” Bob retorted sharply.
“You’re not?” Fitz grinned provokingly. “What did you mean by
your words, then?”
“I was just admiring the beautiful scene, that’s all,” Bob explained.
“Oh!” ejaculated the goblin, wagging his head and saucily
extruding his tongue.
“Uh-huh,” the lad nodded in return.
“Well, I’ll show you scenes far more beautiful—in Goblinland.”
It was Bob’s turn to sneer.
“Maybe you will,” he said.
“I will,” Fitz asserted positively.
“When?”
“When we get there, of course.”
“Yes; when we get there.”
“Well, we’ll get there.”
“We’re not going very fast; we’re still right over the town.”
And the boy laughed aloud, scornfully.
“We haven’t started yet,” the goblin countered.
“No; and we’re not likely to start, as far as I can see—unless a
wind storm comes on; and it may blow us in any direction.”
“Bosh!” barked the goblin.
“Bosh, yourself!” snarled the boy.
“Say, Bob?”
“What?”
“Let’s quit quarreling.”
“All right.”
“Shake!”
They solemnly shook hands.
“Now,” the goblin cried briskly, “if you’re ready to say good-bye to
home, we’ll be off.”
“I’m ready,” the lad answered; “but I don’t see how we’re going to
be off.”
“I’ll show you. See that little instrument on the floor of the car?”
“That compass?”
“That’s not a compass.”
A broad band of moonlight streamed in at the open window. (See
page 11.)
“It isn’t?”
“No.”
“Well, it looks like one. What is it?”
“A wireless selector.”
“And what’s that?”
“You’ve heard of wireless telegraph instruments?”
“Yes.”
“And you know they send messages with them without using
wires, don’t you?”
“Yes.”
“Then, too, you’ve heard or read that there are currents of
electricity running around the globe in all directions, haven’t you?”
“I—I think I have; yes.”
“Well, the selector picks up or selects any current the operator
desires, and enables him to travel over it in his balloon, using it as a
propelling power.”
“Well—well!” Bob exploded, in frank admiration. “Just like a trolley
car!”
“Yes, except no wire is needed.”
“I don’t see how you tell which way it’ll go, though.”
“The balloon?”
“Yes.”
“It’ll go whichever way the needle points.”
“Why will it?”
“Well, the needle of a compass points north, doesn’t it?”
“Yes.”
“Why does it?”
“Because—because—I don’t know, I guess,” Bob admitted.
“Because the attraction swings it, isn’t that it?”
“I suppose so.”
“Well, if the attraction swings the needle, won’t the needle swing
the attraction?”
“I—I don’t know,” the boy stammered; “I never heard of such a
thing!”
“Isn’t it a poor rule that won’t work both ways?”
“Yes; that’s what folks say, anyhow.”
“Well, it is—a mighty poor rule. Now I’ll show you. Watch me. I
desire to travel due east; so I point this little needle in that direction.
That done, I turn this thumb-screw, and off we start.”
Slowly the balloon began to move toward the east, over the
village, across the river, gradually leaving the valley behind.
“I turn the screw a little more and a little more,” said the goblin,
suiting the action to the words, “and we begin to travel faster and
faster.”
Soon they were going at a rapid and exhilarating speed. The air
appeared to whistle past as they cut through it; the moonlit
landscape appeared to flow away behind and beneath them.
“My—my!” Bob cried, gleefully clapping his hands. “I never
expected to travel as fast as this. Fitz, this is simply great.”
“You don’t call this gentle speed going fast, do you, Bob?” Fitz
returned, grinning broadly.
“Indeed I do,” the boy replied earnestly.
“Oh, we’re just loafing along!” the goblin chuckled. “I’ll show you
how I travel when I’m in a hurry to get along. Take off your cap, or
you’ll lose it, and hold on to the car. Now!”
With the last word he gave another turn to the thumb-screw of
the selector. The balloon leaped forward like a mad thing of life; the
fragile car strained and quivered. Bob clutched the seat with both
hands and held on for dear life. The air appeared to rush past in a
cutting, shrieking tempest of wrath, that blinded and deafened the
boy. He tried to scream out, but could not. He felt his grip upon the
seat weakening, and, fearing he might be swept overboard, he
loosened his hold and threw himself to the bottom of the car. There
he lay, panting and gasping—sick with mortal terror. Then, of a
sudden, the mad speed of the balloon began to slacken and the boy
gradually gathered up courage to open his eyes and look around.
There sat the impish Fitz Mee by the selector, his hand upon the
thumb-screw.
“Hello!” the goblin grinned apishly.
“Hello!” the boy muttered in reply.
“How did you like it?” queried the goblin.
“I didn’t like it,” answered the lad.
“Wasn’t it fast enough for you?”
“Too fast.”
“Oh!”
“Uh-huh.”
“Wouldn’t you like to try it just a little bit faster, eh?”
“No sir!”
“It’s great fun—when you learn to like it.”
“Yes,” Bob grumbled; “and taking pills is great fun—when you
learn to like ’em.”
“I can make the balloon go faster,” Fitz suggested.
“I’ll take your word for it,” Bob grinned, shaking his head.
They got up and seated themselves upon the locker.
“Well,” the goblin remarked, yawning, “what do you think of us
goblins as balloonists?”
“I think you’re the candy,” Bob replied, his voice and manner
evincing profound admiration.
“The candy?” snickered his companion. “What do you mean by
that?”
“I think you’re the best ever.”
“Oh! Better than you humans, eh?”
“Far better.”
“That so?”
“Yes, indeed. And When I come back from Goblinland, I’m going
to get patents on your air-ballast machine and your wireless
selector; and some day I’ll be a mighty rich man—a millionaire.”
The goblin grinned a very broad grin.
“You’re going to take out patents on our inventions, you say,
Bob?” he remarked.
“Yes,” the boy made reply.
“When you return from Goblinland, eh?”
“Yes.”
Fitz Mee gulped and screwed his features. Then he began to
chuckle silently, and at last he burst out laughing.
“What’s the matter?” Bob inquired, half in wonder, half in pique.
“Oh, it’s so funny,” croaked the goblin, and he went into another
spasm of rasping, cackling laughter.
“It must be funny,” the boy grunted peevishly. “But what’s so
funny?”
“The thought of your returning from Goblinland, Bob,” Fitz Mee
replied, sobering and wiping his eyes.
“Why, can’t I return—if I ever want to?”
“You can, I suppose; but I doubt if you ever will.”
“Why?”
“Oh, ’cause.”
“Well, ’cause what?”
“You won’t want to, after you’ve been there a day or two.”
“That’s it, eh?”
The goblin nodded and winked seriocomically, mysteriously. Then
he said:
“Now we’ve got to ascend a few thousand feet to clear the tops of
the Alleghany mountains. Let a little more air out of the tank. There
—that’s enough. It’ll be quite cool at the altitude to which we’ll rise,
so we’d better put on the fur coats that are in the locker under you,
Bob, and curl down in the car and snooze awhile.”
A few minutes later the two were asleep and the feather-bed
balloon was topping the Alleghanies.
CHAPTER III
THROUGH A STORM IN A BALLOON
n awaking Bob was a little confused. But soon he

remembered where he was, and he sat up and
blinked and looked around for his companion.
Fitz Mee stood upon the locker, a tiny binocular
glued to his pop eyes, gazing intently at the
western horizon. It was gray daylight, and they
were making good speed.
“What’s the matter, Fitz?” Bob demanded, alert and interested at
once. “What’re you looking at?”
“Looking at a storm gathering,” the goblin replied, without turning
his head.
The boy rose to his feet, removed his fur coat, and wadded it into
a ball and stuffed it into the locker.
“Storm?” he said. “I don’t see any signs of a storm.”
“Don’t you see that blue line along the horizon?” Fitz asked.
“Yes. Is that the storm?”
“No; that’s the mountains we crossed. But take this glass and you
can see the storm gathering on their tops. See it?”
“My!” Bob exclaimed, the glass to his eyes. “I guess I do see it!
It’s a black one, too; and it’s moving this way. How soon will it
overtake us?”
This question he asked in some trepidation.
“It won’t overtake us at all, unless we care to have it do so,” the
goblin made answer.
“Why, can we outrun it?”
“Yes.”
“Sure?”
“Sure, if we want to.”
“Well, we’ll want to, won’t we?”
“It’ll be fun to wait till it’s nearly upon us and then run away from
it, I think. Don’t you?”
“I—I don’t know,” Bob returned, dubiously shaking his head, his
gaze still riveted upon the rising storm; “it might not be fun.”
“You’re afraid,” sneered the goblin.
“No, I’m—I’m not.”
“Yes, you are; you’re a coward.”
“Don’t you call me that!” the lad cried, snatching the binocular
from his eyes and angrily turning upon his Companion.
“I won’t,” the goblin promised. “Now turn your glass toward the
east. What do you see?”
“I see the sea!” Bob cried rapturously.
“It’s plain to me as plain can be—

In fact, I see you see the sea,”
hummed Fitz Mee in sing-song. Then he continued:

“If you’ll take a glance at the ground beneath us, you’ll notice
we’re moving very slowly. I’m loitering—waiting for the storm to
catch up with us; then we’ll have a race with it, out across the
ocean. In the meantime we’ll have breakfast.”
“Breakfast?” Bob questioned. “Where’s breakfast coming from?”
“From the locker,” smiled the goblin, rubbing his round little belly
and smacking his lips in anticipatory gusto, “where everything else
we need’ll come from. I always keep my air-ship stored for a long
voyage, for when I leave Goblinland on business,
I never know when I’ll get back home again. Are
you hungry?”
“You bet!” was the lad’s expressive but
inelegant rejoinder.
“Well, what do you think you need this
morning? You can have whatever you require.”
“What do I think I need?” Bob tittered. “What a
question! I need breakfast, of course, Fitz.”
“Of course,” snapped the goblin. “But do you
need muscle food, or nerve food, or fat food, or
what?”
“I—I don’t know,” stammered the boy,
scratching his head in perplexity. “I never heard
of such things, I guess. I know what I’d like,
though; I’d like steak and gravy and hot biscuits,
and some fruit and a glass of milk.”
“Huh!” the goblin snorted in supreme contempt. “You’ll find, Bob,
we don’t indulge in such indigestible truck in Goblinland. Our foods
are scientifically prepared, not slapped together haphazard. We use
nothing but the concentrated extracts—the active principals of food
stuffs. I’ll show you.”
He went to the locker and brought forth a small leather hand-case
or satchel.
“Why—why,” Bob muttered, his eyes bulging, “that looks just like
papa’s medicine-case!”
“Well, it isn’t,” Fitz Mee grunted irritably; “it’s my portable pantry.”
And he loosened the catch and flung the case open, displaying
several rows of tiny bottles containing tablets and pellets of various
shapes, sizes and colors.
“Ugh!” the boy gagged. “Pills!”
“They’re not pills,” rasped the goblin; “they’re food tablets and
drink pellets.”
“They’re pills to me, all the same.”
“They’re not pills, I tell you,” Fitz Mee reiterated sharply, snapping
his jaws shut and angrily grating his teeth. “Now I’ll select what
you’re to eat; and you’ll eat it. The storm’s approaching rapidly; I
hear the thunder muttering and see the black clouds rolling. So
you’ll need something to make you strong and courageous. Here’s a
tiger-muscle tablet and a lion-heart tablet. Down ’em.”
Bob shut his mouth and shook his head.
“Down ’em!” the goblin repeated.
“Uk-uh!” the lad grunted.
“You must!”
“I won’t!”
“You’ll starve if you don’t eat.”
“I’d rather starve than take pills.”
“Nonsense!”
“I would!”
“It won’t take you but a second to swallow ’em, Bob,” Fitz Mee
said coaxingly. “That’s one of the advantages of our kind of food; it
don’t take long to eat a meal.”
“I never begrudged the time I spent in eating,” Bob remarked,
with rather a sickly grin.
“Well, down the tablets—that’s a good boy.”
“Are those—those things all you’ve got to eat?”
“Yes.”
“And don’t you have anything else in Goblinland?”
“No, of course not.”
“Oh, dear!” wailed the boy. “I wish I was back home! Nothing to
eat but pills! Golly!”
“There, there, Bob!” the goblin said soothingly, kindly even. “You
don’t wish you were back home; you’re just hungry and nervous.
Take these tablets and you’ll be all right in a jiffy.”
Bob silently held out his hand, his face a picture of lugubrious
woe, and silently took the tablets and swallowed them.
Fitz Mee idly fingered the tiny bottles in the case for a minute or
two, mumbling over the names upon the labels. Then he looked up
and asked:
“Feel better, Bob?”
“Yes,” the lad admitted rather reluctantly, “I feel stronger and
better, but I’m still awful empty.”
“But you’re not hungry?”
“No; just hollow-like.”
“That’s because you’ve been used to filling your stomach with
gross food,” the goblin stated sagely; “you’ll get over that condition
after you’ve lived on tablets and pellets a month or two.”
“A month or two!” the lad groaned. “Oh, dear!”
“You haven’t had anything to drink,” Fitz remarked, smiling
brightly. “Take this pellet.”
“What is it?”
“A water pellet. It contains a pint of water.”
“That teenty-weenty thing?”
“Yes.”
“Oh, nonsense!”
“It does.”
“I don’t believe it; it can’t.”
“You down it and you’ll soon see.”
Bob took the tiny clear pellet and instantly announced:
“My thirst’s all gone, Fitz, and I feel fuller.”
“But you’re still a little lank—a little empty-like, eh?”
“A little, yes.”
“Well, I’ll fix you. Take this.”
“Oh, stop,” the boy demurred. “I’m not going to take all the pills in
that case.”
“This is the last dose I’ll ask you to take,” the goblin returned,
batting his eyes at a bright flash of lightning from the rapidly
approaching storm.
“Well, what is it?” Bob demanded, dodging the sharp clap of
thunder almost immediately following the lightning.
“A sponge tablet.”
“What’s it for?”
“It’s to absorb some of the water you’ve taken, and to swell and
fill your stomach.”
“I don’t want it—I don’t need it,” Bob said, decidedly shaking his
head.
“All right,” Fitz laughed, “you don’t have to take it. We just make
’em for folks who aren’t satisfied unless their stomachs are full all
the time. Now I’ll eat my breakfast.”
He hastily selected and swallowed a number of tablets and pellets;
then he closed the leather case with a bang and a snap and thrust it
into the locker.
“Now,” he smiled, “I guess we’re all ready to play tag with that
tempest. And we’ll show it a thing or two—oh, won’t we!”
“Maybe it’ll show us a thing or two,” Bob replied, grinning a sickly
grin and shaking his head dubiously. “It’s getting pretty close and I
don’t like the looks of it. My! Just see those clouds rolling and
whirling! Fitz, I believe it’s a cyclone!”
“No, it isn’t,” his companion muttered contemptuously; “it’s
nothing but a summer thunder gust.”
By this time the storm was close upon them, coming swiftly. The
lightning was forking and flashing incessantly; the thunder was
crackling and crashing continuously. Bob gazed at the rolling,
tumbling masses of black clouds, at the play of electricity, and the
forest and fruit trees bending before the blast, and shivered; he
listened to the mingled, indescribable uproar of booming thunder
and bellowing wind, and shuddered.
“Oh, let’s be off, Fitz!” he pleaded.
“We’re off!” his comrade cried, giving a half turn to the thumb-
screw of the selector.
Before the raging storm they sped, the boy frightened and
miserable, the goblin elated and jubilant. Rapidly they approached
the ocean, and soon they were sailing over a city on the shore.
Binocular in hand, Bob watched the storm behind and the earth
beneath, and trembled. He saw people rushing to shelter; saw
fences and groves leveled, and skyscrapers and steeples sent
crashing to earth.
“Oh, Fitz—Fitz!” the lad groaned. “It is a cyclone!”
“I guess it is,” the goblin answered nonchalantly.
“And it’s coming closer!” the boy cried in terror. “Let’s go faster!”
“Oh, this is all right; this is fine sport,” the goblin laughed,
capering about the car and gleefully rubbing his hands.
Out over the ocean they flew—out of sight of land—out over the
boundless expanse of heaving, tossing waters. After them raced the
storm, each minute drawing a little nearer and a little nearer. It was
almost upon them!
“Please, please let’s go faster, Fitz!” Bob screeched, dancing up
and down in an ecstacy of keen affright.
But his shrill cry was
whirled away in the tumult
of rushing air that
enveloped them, and if the
goblin heard, which is
doubtful, he paid no
attention to his
companion’s frantic plea.
Then of a sudden the
balloon stopped with a
smart jerk and began to
whirl round and round
dizzily. Fitz Mee’s fat face
went white as paper, and
he let out a cry of alarm
and dismay.
“What’s the matter,
Fitz?” Bob bawled,
staggering to his
comrade’s side and
shouting in his ear. “What’s
the matter?”
“The lightning has
magnetized the selector!”
the goblin bellowed. “Look at the needle—pointing right back toward
the storm! We’re drifting right back into it! There is nothing now to
prevent it!”
It was too true!
Immediately they were engulfed—overwhelmed in the maelstrom
of cloud and wind and rain. They could neither see nor hear for the
fury of the elements. The balloon spun round and round like a top;
the light car jerked and swayed and shot this way and that with
lightning-like and awful suddenness. One of the small ropes
supporting it broke and hung dangling from the side. Another parted
and the car sagged dangerously. A frightful lurch and Fitz Mee was
flung upon the locker, the breath knocked out of him; another lurch,
and, with a despairing scream that sounded above the deafening
tumult of the tornado, he rolled overboard and disappeared.
Bob threw himself into the bottom of the car, his eyes tight shut,
his palms over his ears, and lay there groaning and moaning. His
comrade was gone and he gave himself up for lost. Oh, how he
wished he was safe at home! But in the midst of the tumultuous
storm and his tumultuous thoughts a bright idea suddenly came to
him. He started, he sprang to his feet and was flung flat again.
Then, shaking his head and gritting his chattering teeth, he wriggled
over to the air-tank and turned the cock. The hiss of the escaping air
was music to him. Little by little the buffeted balloon rose, and soon
it floated serenely above the zone of the warring winds and clouds.
Bob was saved!
A little while he lay upon the floor of the car, looking at the clear
sky overhead and wondering what he was to do. Then he thought of
his lost companion, and murmured feelingly:
“Poor old Fitz! Poor old Spasms!”
As if in answer to his pitying words, he heard a voice calling faintly
but snappishly:
“Bob, you rascal! Don’t you dare to call me Spasms!”
Electrified, the boy sprang to his feet and looked all around.
“Fitz!” he ejaculated. “But where can he be?” Then in superstitious
fear:
“He’s dead; it must be his ghost!”
“Ghost nothing!” came the voice again, a little louder, more
vigorous. “Bob, you’re a fool!”
“Is—is that you, Fitz?” the boy faltered in reply.
“Of course, dunce!”
“Well, where are you?”
“Right down here, dummy!”
Bob flew to the side of the car, hunkered upon the locker and
peered over. There, a few feet down, was Fitz Mee hanging to one of
the broken ropes.
“Why—why, Fitz, what are you doing down there?” Bob asked
foolishly.
“Oh, just enjoying myself; surely you can see that,” the goblin
sneered wrathfully. “But I’ve had enough; I’m no pig. Pull me up.”
“I don’t know whether I can or not,” Bob answered. “But reach me
up your hand; I’ll try.”
After a deal of struggling and kicking and grunting on the part of
both, Fitz was safely aboard.
“I thought I was a goner when I fell over,” he panted; “I just
happened to catch the rope.” Then, with unusual feeling: “And you
saved us both, Bob, by thinking to let out the air. I couldn’t have
hung on, in that storm, a minute longer; and, then the balloon was
fast going to wreck. It was my foolhardiness that caused all the
trouble, and your thoughtfulness that got us out of it. I’ll never go
back on you, Bob, old boy, never! But now the storm’s past, we must
get under way again.”
“Will the selector work?” the boy asked in some anxiety.
“It’ll be all right, now,” the goblin assured him. “See? Off we go
again. And I’ll give her an extra turn for good speed; I’m keen to get
along toward home. It must be the middle of the forenoon.”
For an hour or two they sailed along steadily, covering mile after
mile of aërial space with the swiftness of an arrow. At last, however,
Bob remarked:
“Fitz, it appears to me we’re closer to the ocean than we were a
while back; we must be descending. I wonder if the rain wet the
feathers in the bag.”
“No,” the goblin replied positively. “They can’t get wet. They, and
the bag, too, for that matter, have been treated with goose oil; and
they won’t wet.”
“Won’t wet?”
“No. You know a goose’s feathers never get wet, no matter how
much it goes in the water. We raise thousands of geese in Goblinland
just for the feathers and the oil to treat them and our balloon bags
with. We can’t be descending, Bob.”
But he stepped to the side of the car and cast his eyes upward.
Then suddenly he started and collapsed upon the seat, white and
trembling.
“What is it, what’s the matter, Fitz?” the lad questioned falteringly,
fearing what the answer would be.
“Bob,” his companion muttered hoarsely, “we are descending!
We’re lost—we’ll be drowned in the ocean! There’s a rip in the bag
and the feathers are escaping one by one!”
CHAPTER IV
IN DANGER OF THE SEA
ob drew a deep breath and dropped down

beside his companion. For several minutes they
sat silent, each staring stonily into the other’s
white face. At last the boy murmured huskily:
“Fitz, are the feathers es—escaping very fast?
Can’t we do something to stop the leak?”
The goblin shook his head.
“Not very fast,” he said slowly, moistening his dry lips by rubbing
them together, “just one at a time.”
“Is the rip in the bag a very big one?”
“No.”
Bob brightened.
“Couldn’t we climb up some way and fix it?” he inquired.
The goblin gave a negative shake of the head.
“No,” he replied, “it’s ’way up near the top of the bag.”
“Well, what’re we going to do, Fitz?”
“There’s nothing we can do, Bob. The feathers are escaping—one
now and then; and, little by little, the balloon will lose its buoyancy
and sink into the sea. We’re lost!”
“Look here, Fitz,” Bob cried sharply. “Surely you’re not going to
give up that way. I didn’t think it of you. There must be something
we can do to save ourselves.”
The goblin dropped his chin upon his breast and, rolling his head,
muttered: “Nothing!”
“But,” the lad persisted, “we must do something. There’s a little air
still left in the tank, and when we sink too low we can let that out,
and rise again. If we sail as fast as we can, can’t we cross the ocean
before we drop into it?”
Fitz Mee leaped to his feet like one electrified.
“Thank you, Bob—thank you!” he cried, grasping his companion’s
hand. “You’ve given me hope. We’ll try your project; and if we lose,
we’ll have the satisfaction of knowing we died trying!” And he set his
jaws with a resolute snap.
“I can’t see where there’ll be much satisfaction in that for us—
after we’re dead,” the lad muttered under his breath.
The goblin hurried to the selector, and gradually turned the
thumb-screw until the machine was wide open—the current was all
on.
The balloon instantly responded, and began to fly through the air
at a speed little short of miraculous; its two occupants had to throw
themselves prostrate and cling to the locker for safety. The still
summer air appeared to be blowing a hurricane; the placid, heaving
ocean appeared to be racing toward the west, a foaming, tossing
torrent. One by one, a few each minute, the feathers escaped
through the rent in the striped bag; and foot by foot, very slowly
and very surely, the aërial vehicle yielded to the overmastering
power of gravitation.
On, on and on they sped, reeling off miles as a watch ticks off
seconds. Neither the boy nor the goblin found anything to say. Both
fully realized that they were running a race with death, and the
knowledge awed them to silence.
The noon hour came, and still they were flying like mad, due east.
Fitz cautiously lifted his head, put the binocular to his eyes, and
looked away toward the south.
“There’s the Azores,” he said, shouting in order to make himself
heard, his tone expressing relief and satisfaction.
“The Azores?” Bob bellowed in reply.
“Yes—the islands.”
“Oh!”
“Yes; we’re making good time.”
“Well, hadn’t we better stop there?”
“No.”
“We’re only a few hundred feet above the water.”
The goblin shook his big head in a decided negative.
“Why not?” the boy insisted.
“I’m afraid to stop there.”
“Afraid?”
“Yes; I’m afraid there’s no geese on those islands.”
“Geese?”
“Yes, we’ve got to have goose feathers to refill our balloon bag.”
“Oh, I see! Well, what’re you going to try to do, Fitz?”
“Going to try to make the coast of Portugal. We’ll find geese
there.”
“You’re sure?”
“Yes; Portuguese.”
And Fitz Mee laughed at his own pun until his fat face became
purple and his breath came and went in wheezing gasps.
“Oh, shut up!” Bob cried angrily. “This is no time to be laughing.”
“Laughing will do just as much good as crying, Bob,” Fitz made
answer, but instantly sobering. “I believe we’ll come out all right.
There are geese in Portugal; and I think we’ll be able to make the
coast of that country. We’re making good time; and we’ve not had to
exhaust the air-tank yet. We’ll drive ahead and hope for the best.”
One hour, two hours, three hours passed. The balloon descended
so low that the car threatened to dip into the waves. The goblin
released the remaining air in the tank, and again they soared aloft,
but only a few hundred feet. Another hour and again they were
dangerously near to the water.
Bob cried: “Why Fitz, the sun’s ’most down! This has been an
awful short afternoon.”
“Yes,” the goblin nodded, “and
the forenoon was short, too. You
must remember we’re moving
east very rapidly—running away
from the sun, running to meet
the night. It’ll be dark soon. I
wish we’d sight the coast; it
seems to me it’s about time we
were doing so.”
“What’s that wavy blue line
ahead of us?” Bob inquired.
“I don’t see anything,” Fitz
answered.
“I do,” the boy insisted
positively. “Give me the glass.”
“It must be land, then,” the goblin suggested.
“It is land!” Bob cried joyfully. “We’re going to be all right, Fitz.”
“I—I hope so,” Fitz made answer; “I hope we’ll make it.”
Warned by his companion’s tone and manner that danger was
imminent, the lad jerked the binocular from his eyes and dropped his
gaze to the ocean. One glance was sufficient; the car was
threatening to dip into the water at any moment.
“Oh, Fitz!” the boy wailed. “What are we to do?”
“I don’t know!” Fitz whimpered, wringing his hands and wriggling
about upon the locker. “We can’t do anything—oh, we can’t do
anything! We’re lost—lost!”
“Look here, Fitz Mee, you old Convulsions!” Bob cried angrily. “You
got me into this thing; now you’ve got to help get me out. Wake up!
You’re playing the baby. And you called me a coward! You’re the
coward! Wake up!” roughly shaking him, “We’ve got to throw
something overboard; and I’ll throw you, in about a minute.”
Just then the car hit the water a glancing spat that threw a
blinding cloud of brine over the two aëronauts. The balloon
rebounded from the impact and continued its mad speed.
“Whee!” screamed Fitz Mee. “You’re right, Bob. We must lighten
the balloon some way; one more lick like that will tear the car loose
from the bag. Raise the lids of the locker, and throw out a lot of the
old stuff we won’t need.”
Frantically they began to lighten ship, flinging into the sea odds
and ends of various kinds—the accumulation of many voyages. It
availed them little, however; the balloon ascended but a few feet,
and skimmed dangerously near to the water, into which it threatened
to take a final plunge at any moment.
Now the coast line was plainly visible to the naked eye; and now it
was but a few miles away, the hills and rocks standing out distinctly.
Yet how far off it seemed to the despairing aëronauts! Neither
spoke; each held his breath and his tongue, expecting to have to
make a final struggle and swim for life.
Lower and lower sank the balloon. Once more the car spatted the
water, and this time it did not rebound, but went tearing along at
railroad speed, deluging and almost drowning its occupants. For a
few minutes the two lost all sense of their surroundings, nearly lost
consciousness. Then the car struck the shelving, sandy shore with a
smart bump, and the balloon came to a full stop. The wild and
dangerous ride was over!
“Saved!” sputtered Fitz Mee, jumping from the car and dancing up
and down.
“Saved!” coughed Bob, indulging in similar antics.
Then they tearfully embraced, whirling round and round, their
saturated garments dripping a circle of wet upon the yellow sands.
The sun was gone from sight; the shades of night were stealing in
upon them.
“We can’t do anything to-night toward resuming our voyage,” the
goblin remarked; “it’s almost dark now. Then you’re wet and weak
and I’m famished and faint. We’ll spend the hours of darkness here
upon the warm sands, and in the morning we’ll look around us.”
“All right,” the boy agreed; “I guess that’s the best we can do.”
By dint of a deal of tugging and grunting, they drew the balloon
up out of reach of wave and tide. Then they wrung their garments,
swallowed a number of food-tablets and drink-pellets and lay down
to sleep under the shelter of an overhanging cliff.
The sun was an hour high when they awoke. Simultaneously they
opened their eyes and sprang to their feet. Sleep had much
refreshed them; the warm air and sand had dried their garments.
After partaking of a hearty but hasty breakfast, they began to look
around them.
At their feet lay their balloon, a sorry wreck. But close examination
made plain the fact that it could be easily repaired and put in shape.
A short distance to the north a river put into the sea. They
sauntered to the mouth of it, and took in the view of the broad
fertile valley. A mile or two up the stream lay a small village.
“I’ll tell you what we’ve got to do, Bob,” Fitz remarked reflectively,
scratching his head.
“Well, what?” inquired the boy.
“We’ve got to go into that town.”
“What for?”
“For cord and goose feathers. We need the cord to splice the
broken ropes of our car, and we need the feathers to refill our bag.”
“Yes,” the lad mumbled, “we need those articles all right, Fitz; but
maybe the people of the village don’t have such things.”
“Of course they do,” the goblin sneered superiorly.
“How do you know?” the boy said tauntingly.
“Well, I know.”
“No, you don’t; you just guess.”
“A goblin never guesses at anything.”
“I guess he does; you guessed we’d get drowned—but we didn’t.”
“Shut up!”
“You shut up!”
“I won’t!”
“Neither will I!”
Then they stood and silently glared at each other for a full half
minute. Finally both began to look foolish, and burst out laughing.
“Fitz, you’re too hot-headed, you old Epilepsy,” Bob giggled.
“I know it,” tittered the goblin; “but so are you, Roberty-Boberty.”
“I know it,” the boy admitted; “but I can’t stay mad at you, Fitz.”
“I can’t stay mad at you, either, Bob. Now let’s stop our
foolishness and go to that village, and see about the cord and
feathers we need.”
“All right. But how are we to get the things, Fitz? Have you any
money?”
“I’ve got gold; that’s just as good.”
“Gold?”
“Yes. Look here.”
The goblin took a bag of yellow nuggets from his pocket and
emptied them out and shook them before the boy’s eyes.
“Is that gold?” Bob inquired, interested and not a little excited.
“Yes, to be sure,” Fitz Mee answered.
“Where did you get it?”
“In Goblinland.”
“Is there much of it there?”
“Bushels of it. These nuggets are as common there as pebbles are
in your country.”
“Indeed!” the lad exclaimed, in wide-eyed wonder and admiration.
“You goblins must be mighty rich.”
“We don’t put any value upon gold,” was the complacent reply;
“we never use it at home.”
Bob was thoughtfully silent for some seconds.
“What’re you thinking about?” his companion inquired with a
shrewd and cunning smile.
“Thinking how rich I can be when I go back home,” was the a
frank admission. Then abruptly: “What’s that coming down the road
yonder, Fitz?”
“Hello!” the goblin ejaculated delightedly. “We won’t have to tramp
to the village. That’s a gooseherd. See; he has the geese tethered
together with twine and is guiding them with a crook. We’ll wait here
and buy them of him.”
The gooseherd and his flock drew near. He was a tall, angular
young man, ragged and barefoot. His merry whistle rose above the
strident quacks of his charges, and his flat feet softly spatted the
dust of the highway in time to his own music.
Fitz Mee stepped forward, politely lifted his cap and said in
greeting:
“Good morning, Sir
Gooseherd.”
The young man stopped in his
tracks and dropped his crook
and his jaw at the same time.
Plainly he was startled at the
sudden appearance of the little
green sprite and his companion,
and just as plainly he was
greatly frightened.
“We desire to purchase your
geese,” the goblin ventured,
boldly advancing. “How much
gold will buy them?”
The gooseherd let out a shrill
yell of terror and turned and fled
up the road as fast as his long
legs could carry him. The geese
attempted to flee also, but, being tethered together, became
hopelessly and helplessly entangled and fell to the ground, a
flapping, quacking mass.
Bob and Fitz laughed heartily.
“Hurrah!” the goblin whooped. “The geese and cord are ours,
anyhow.”
“But we didn’t pay the fellow,” Bob objected.
“I’ll fix that,” his comrade assured him. “When we’ve plucked the
feathers off the geese, I’ll tie the bag of nuggets around the neck of
one, and then we’ll turn ’em loose. The young fellow’ll find ’em and
get the gold. And now we must hurry up and get through with this
job and be off from this coast; the gooseherd may come back and
bring his friends with him.”
The two diminutive aëronauts laboriously disentangled the geese
and drove them to the immediate vicinity of the wrecked balloon.
There they plucked the feathers off the quacking, quaking fowls, and
refilled the balloon-bag and closed the rent. Then they turned the
stripped and complaining birds loose, one meekly bearing the bag of
gold; and finally they spliced the broken ropes of the car and were
ready to resume their voyage.
“Jump in and pump up the tank a little, Bob,” Fitz cried joyfully.
“I’ll be ready to weigh anchor when you say the word.”
But at that moment came the patter of many feet upon the dry
sand, followed by a shower of clubs and stones that rattled about
the car and the heads of its occupants, and instantly the balloon was
surrounded by a crowd of gaping, leering villagers!
“Captured!” groaned Fitz Mee.
“Captured!” echoed Bob.
The villagers began to close in upon them, brandishing rude
weapons and uttering hoarse cries of rage.
In sheer desperation the goblin squirmed and grimaced, and
ended his ridiculous performance by uttering a blood-curdling “boo!”
The startled villagers fell back in indecision and alarm, tumbling
over one another in frantic efforts to get out of reach of the little
green sprite. Taking instant advantage of the respite, Bob whipped
out his knife and cut the anchor rope, and with a smart jerk the
balloon sprang aloft.
“Saved!” murmured the boy. “Saved, Fitz Mee!”
He received no answer; and he hurriedly turned to look for his
companion who, a moment before, had been at his side. Then he
sank back upon the locker, overcome with wonder and dismay. Fitz
Mee was not in the car; Bob was alone!

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Whole-nerve action potentials 151

Two-interval and N-interval f­ orced-­choice methods 222

Beats, harmonics, and combination tones 301

13 Binaural and spatial hearing 321

14 Speech and its perception 357

Word recognition models 375

Table 1.1 Principal physical quantities

Quantity Formula SI (MKS) units cgs units Equivalent values

w = Fx (1.14) I = P/A (1.18)

p = F/A (1.19) which reduces to simply 102. This intensity ratio

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

Figure 1.1 Striking a tuning fork (indicated by the

Restoring Damping due to friction

n awaking Bob was a little confused. But soon he

“It’s plain to me as plain can be—

hummed Fitz Mee in sing-song. Then he continued:

ob drew a deep breath and dropped down

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Two-interval and N-interval f orced-choice methods 222