Digital Electronics

and
Computer Architecture

Bachelor of Computer Applications

Semester-1
 Mr. Aditya Tandon
Assistant Professor

Aditya Tandon has graduated with a B.Tech. CSE from the Apex Institute
of Engineering & Technology, Jaipur, Rajasthan, India. He secured a
Master of Technology in Computer Science and Engineering at Amity
University, Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India. He is pursuing a Ph.D. in
Computer Science Engineering at Quantum University, Roorkee,
Uttarakhand, India. He has been in the teaching profession for more than
10 years. He has presented 25 papers in National and International
Journals, conferences, and symposiums. His main areas of interest
include the Internet of Things and Data Science. He runs his own
YouTube channel, "C 4 Yourself,” with 130K+ subscribers.
Module 1: Logic Gates and Boolean Algebra
1. INTRODUCTION TO DIGITAL SYSTEMS AND COMPUTERS

Digital systems have revolutionized the way we live, work, and interact with the world. These
systems process and manipulate information using discrete values, most commonly represented
as binary digits (0 and 1). Digital systems offer advantages over traditional analog systems in
areas like accuracy, reliability, flexibility, and ease of design.

COMPONENTS OF A DIGITAL SYSTEM

A basic digital system comprises the following key components:

 Input devices: These devices allow the user to feed data or instructions into the
digital system. Examples include keyboards, mice, touchscreens, sensors, and
microphones.
 Central Processing unit (CPU): The CPU acts as the "brain" of the digital system. It
is responsible for interpreting and executing instructions, performing calculations, and
controlling the flow of data between the various components of the system.
 Memory: Memory refers to the storage area within a digital system. There are two
main types of memory:
o RAM (Random Access Memory): This is volatile memory, meaning its
contents are lost when the device loses power. RAM serves as a temporary
workspace for the CPU, storing currently running programs and the data they
process.
o ROM (Read-Only Memory): ROM is non-volatile memory, meaning it
retains its contents even when the power is switched off. It houses crucial
system instructions and data needed to start the computer and load the
operating system.
 Output devices: These devices present the results of the digital system's processing
to the user in a human-understandable form. Common examples include monitors,
speakers, and printers.
 Figure 1: Core Components of a typical digital computer

APPLICATIONS OF DIGITAL SYSTEMS

Digital systems are ubiquitous in the modern world. Some of the most prevalent applications
include:

 Computers: General-purpose digital devices that can be programmed to perform a

vast array of tasks, from basic word processing and web browsing to complex
scientific calculations and simulations.
 Smartphones: Mobile phones that integrate the capabilities of computers, allowing
users to communicate, access information, capture photos and videos, and take
advantage of numerous apps for entertainment, productivity, and more.
 Embedded Systems: These are specialized digital systems designed and integrated
within larger devices to perform specific control and monitoring functions. Examples
include embedded systems in cars, home appliances, medical equipment, and
industrial machinery.
 Communication Networks: Digital systems form the infrastructure of the internet
and other global communication networks, enabling the rapid transmission of
information across vast distances.
 Industrial Control Systems: Digital systems play a pivotal role in automating and
optimizing processes in various industries such as manufacturing, energy, and
transportation, leading to increased efficiency and safety.
WHAT IS DIGITAL LOGIC?

Digital logic forms the foundational basis of digital systems. It involves the use of discrete
values to represent logical and numeric values, which are processed by digital circuits. The
core of digital logic lies in binary, where two values, typically 0 and 1, represent different states
such as True/False, On/Off, or High/Low. These values are manipulated using various logic
gates and circuits to perform operations and make decisions.

2. BINARY NUMBERS

The binary number system is the foundation of how computers and other digital systems
represent and process information. Unlike our everyday decimal (base-10) system, the binary
system uses only two digits: 0 and 1. Understanding the binary number system is essential for
grasping fundamental concepts in digital electronics and computer science.

HISTORICAL CONTEXT

The binary system has been around for a while, dating back to ancient times in various forms.
However, it was the 17th century mathematician Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz who really
championed the binary system to represent numbers and perform calculations efficiently.

Figure 2: Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz

KEY CONCEPTS

 Base-2: The binary system is a base-2 number system, meaning it uses two unique
symbols (0 and 1) to represent all values. Each digit in a binary number is called a bit
(short for "binary digit").

Decimal Binary Decimal Binary Decimal Binary Decimal Binary

0 0000 4 0100 8 1000 12 1100
1 0001 5 0101 9 1001 13 1101
2 0010 6 0110 10 1010 14 1110
3 0011 7 0111 11 1011 15 1111

 Place Value: Similar to the decimal system, each position in a binary number has a
corresponding place value. However, instead of being powers of 10, place values in
binary are powers of 2, increasing from right to left. For example:
o Rightmost position: 20 (value of 1)
o Second from the right: 21 (value of 2)
o Third from the right: 22 (value of 4) ...and so on.

Decimal Binary Decimal Binary Decimal Binary Decimal Binary

0 0000 4 0100 8 1000 12 1100
1 0001 5 0101 9 1001 13 1101
2 0010 6 0110 10 1010 14 1110
3 0011 7 0111 11 1011 15 1111

CONVERTING BINARY TO DECIMAL

To convert a binary number to its decimal equivalent, follow these steps:

1. Identify the place value of each digit in the binary number.

2. Multiply each digit by its corresponding place value.
3. Add up the results.
 Example: Convert (1011)2 to Decimal

1 * 23 1 * 8 8
0 * 22 0 * 4 0
1 * 21 1 * 2 2
1 * 20 1 * 1 1
Sum 11

Decimal Equivalent: 11

CONVERTING DECIMAL TO BINARY:

1. Repeatedly divide the decimal number by 2.

2. The remainders, read in reverse order, form the decimal number.

Example: Convert (11)10 to Binary

Divide Quotient Reminder

11/2 5 1
5/2 2 1
2/2 1 0
½ 0 1
Binary 1011

Binary Equivalent: 1011

IMPORTANCE OF BINARY

Digital systems use binary numbers because they can be easily represented by physical states:

 0 represents an off state or low voltage.

 1 represents an on state or high voltage.

This allows construction of circuits using simple switches and transistors, which form the
building blocks of all modern digital electronics.
3. NUMBER BASE CONVERSION

In the world of digital systems, it's often necessary to switch between different number systems.
The most common are decimal (base-10), binary (base-2), octal (base-8), and hexadecimal
(base-16). Understanding how to convert between these number systems is a fundamental skill
in digital electronics.

KEY CONCEPTS

 Number Bases: A number base (or radix) determines the number of unique digits
used to represent values within a number system.

Type Base Used Digits

Binary 2 0–1
Octal 8 0–7
Decimal 10 0–9
Hexadecimal 16 0–9;A–F

METHODS OF CONVERSION

There are two primary methods for converting between number bases:

1. Division Method: This method is used to convert from a higher base to a lower base.
It involves repeated division by the target base, with the remainders forming the
converted number.
2. Positional Value Method: This method is used to convert from a lower base to a
higher base. It involves multiplying each digit by its corresponding place value and
summing the results.

IMPORTANCE OF NUMBER BASE CONVERSION

 Compatibility: Conversion ensures that data is represented in a form suitable for the
specific digital system or hardware being used.
 Human Readability: Converting between hexadecimal and binary provides a more
compact and human-friendly way to represent large binary values.
  Data Manipulation: Different number systems might be better suited for specific
mathematical operations or data representation tasks.

4. OCTAL NUMBERS

The octal number system is used in some digital systems and programming applications. It
utilizes base-8 and offers a convenient way to represent groups of binary values since each
octal digit corresponds to three binary digits.

KEY CONCEPTS

 Base-8: The octal system uses eight digits: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7.

 Place Value: In the octal system, each position represents a power of 8, increasing
from right to left. For example:
o Rightmost position: 80 (value of 1)
o Second from the right: 81 (value of 8)
o Third from the right: 82 (value of 64) ...and so on

CONVERTING BETWEEN OCTAL AND OTHERS

3. Octal to Decimal:
1. Identify the place value of each digit.
2. Multiply each digit by its place value.
3. Sum the results.

Example: Convert (257)8 to decimal

2 * 82 2 * 64 128
5 * 81 5*8 40
7 * 80 7*1 7
Sum 175

Decimal Equivalent: 175

4. Decimal to Octal:
 1. Repeatedly divide the decimal number by 8.
2. The remainders, read in reverse order, form the octal number.

Example: Convert (175)10 to Octal

Divide Quotient Reminder

175/8 21 7
21/8 2 5
2/8 0 2
Octal 257

Octal Equivalent: 257

5. HEXADECIMAL NUMBERS

The hexadecimal number system is widely used in computer systems and programming
because it provides a compact and human-readable way to represent large binary values. It
utilizes base-16 and understanding it is essential for working with memory addresses, color
codes, and other digital data..

KEY CONCEPTS

 Base-16: The hexadecimal system uses sixteen symbols: 0-9 and A-F (where A
represents 10, B represents 11, and so on up to F, which represents 15).
 Place Value: In the hexadecimal system, each position represents a power of 16,
increasing from right to left. For example:
o Rightmost position: 160 (value of 1)
o Second from the right: 161 (value of 16)
o Third from the right: 162 (value of 256) ...and so on

CONVERTING BETWEEN OCTAL AND OTHERS

5. Hexadecimal to Decimal:
1. Identify the place value of each digit.
 2. Multiply each digit by its place value. (use 10-15 for digits A-F).
3. Sum the results.

Example: Convert (C3A)16 to Decimal

C * 162 12 * 256 3072

3 * 161 3 * 16 48
A * 160 10 * 1 10
Sum 3130

Decimal Equivalent: 3130

6. Decimal to Octal:
1. Repeatedly divide the decimal number by 8.
2. The remainders, read in reverse order, form the octal number.

Example: Convert (3130)10 to Hexadecimal

Divide Quotient Reminder

3130/16 195 10 (A)
195/16 12 3 (3)
12/16 0 12 (C)
Hexadecimal C3A

Hexadecimal Equivalent: C3A

6. COMPLEMENT OF A BINARY NUMBER

In digital computer systems, representing negative numbers is essential. The complement

system is a method used to represent both positive and negative binary numbers, enabling
computers to perform arithmetic operations like subtraction. There are two main types of
complements:
  One's Complement:
 Two's Complement:

KEY CONCEPTS

 One's Complement: Obtained by inverting each bit of a binary number. To find the
one's complement, change every 1 to 0, and every 0 to 1.
 Two's Complement: Obtained by adding 1 to the one's complement of a binary
number.

Binary Number 10110

One’s Complement 01001
Two’s Complement 01010

IMPORTANCE OF TWO'S COMPLEMENT

Two's complement is the most widely used method for representing negative numbers in
computer systems because:

 Unique Representation of Zero: Zero has only one representation in the two's
complement system.
 Simplified Arithmetic Operations: Adding and subtracting positive and negative
numbers is done with the same circuitry, making implementation more efficient.

TWO'S COMPLEMENT OF A NEGATIVE NUMBER

To find the two's complement of a negative number, follow these steps:

1. Convert the absolute value of the negative number to binary.

2. Find the one's complement.
3. Add 1.

Decimal Value -5
Binary Number 0101
One’s Complement 1010
Two’s Complement 1011
7. INTRODUCTION TO LOGIC GATES – AND GATE

Logic gates are the fundamental building blocks of digital circuits. They perform
basic logical operations on two or more binary inputs (0 or 1) to produce a single binary
output. These are the basic building blocks of digital circuits. Logic gates perform basic
logical functions on one or more binary inputs to produce a single binary output. The most
common logic gates include AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, XOR, and XNOR. The AND
gate is one of the most basic and essential logic gates.

KEY CONCEPTS

 The AND Gate: The AND gate produces a HIGH output (1) only if ALL of its inputs
are HIGH (1). If any input is LOW (0), the output is LOW.
 Truth Table: A truth table lists all possible input combinations for a logic gate and
their corresponding outputs. Here's the truth table for a two-input AND gate:

Input (A) Input (B) Output (AB)

0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

 Boolean Expression: Logic gates can be represented using Boolean expressions. The
AND operation is denoted by a dot (.) or sometimes by an asterisk (*).
 Example: A . B or A * B
 Logic Symbol: Each logic gate has a unique symbol. Here's the symbol for the AND
gate:
REAL LIFE EXAMPLE

Consider a simple circuit with two switches (A and B) connected in series to a light bulb. The
light bulb will only turn ON if both switches A and B are closed. The above circuit
demonstrates the functionality of an AND gate.

8. OR GATE

The OR gate is another fundamental logic gate in digital circuits. It produces a HIGH output
(1) if at least one of its inputs is HIGH (1).

KEY CONCEPTS

 The OR Gate: The OR gate produces a HIGH output (1) only if any one of its inputs
are HIGH (1). If both inputs are LOW (0), the output is LOW.
 Truth Table: The truth table for a two-input OR gate is given below:

Input (A) Input (B) Output (A+B)

0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

 Boolean Expression: The OR operation is denoted by a plus sign (+)

 Example: A + B
 Logic Symbol: The symbol for the OR gate is shown below:

REAL LIFE EXAMPLE

Consider a simple circuit with two switches (A and B) connected in parallel to a light bulb.
The light bulb will only turn ON if anyone of the switches A and B are closed. The above
circuit demonstrates the functionality of an OR gate.

9. NOT GATE

The NOT gate, also known as an inverter, is a fundamental logic gate that performs a simple
yet crucial function in digital circuits. It takes a single binary input and produces an output
that is the inverse of the input.

KEY CONCEPTS

 The NOT Gate: The NOT gate performs the logical negation operation. If the input
is HIGH (1), the output is LOW (0), and if the input is LOW (0), the output is HIGH
(1).
 Truth Table: The truth table for the NOT gate is straightforward:

̅)
Input (A) Output (𝑨
0 1
1 0

 Boolean Expression: The NOT operation is denoted by a bar over the input variable
or by a prime symbol (').
o ̅ or A'
Example: If the input is A, the output is represented as 𝑨
 Logic Symbol: The symbol for a NOT gate is a triangle with a small circle at its
output:

The NOT gate is unique among basic logic gates because it has only one input. It is often
used in combination with other logic gates to create more complex functions.

10. XOR GATE

The XOR is short for Exclusive OR gate is another essential logic gate used in digital
circuits. It differs from the OR gate in that it only produces a HIGH output (1) when its inputs
are DIFFERENT. The XOR gate finds applications in arithmetic circuits, error detection, and
parity generation.

KEY CONCEPTS

 The XOR Gate: The XOR gate produces a HIGH output (1) only if ONE of its inputs
is HIGH (1). If both inputs are the SAME (either both LOW or both HIGH), the
output is LOW (0).
 Boolean Expression: The XOR operation is denoted by the symbol ⊕.
o Example: A ⊕ B
 Truth Table: The truth table for a two-input XOR gate:

Input (A) Input (B) Output (A ⊕ B)

0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

 Logic Symbol:The XOR gate symbol is similar to the OR gate but with an additional
curved line at the input:

ADDITIONAL NOTES

 Parity Bit Generation: XOR gates are used to generate parity bits, which are extra
bits added to data to detect errors during transmission.
 Half Adder: The XOR gate is a key component in the design of half adders, which
are simple circuits used to add two single binary digits.

11. XNOR GATE

The XNOR gate, short for Exclusive NOR is another essential logic gate used in digital
circuits. It can be thought of as the inverse of the XOR gate. The XNOR gate produces a
HIGH output (1) when its inputs are the SAME, and a LOW output (0) when its inputs are
DIFFERENT.

KEY CONCEPTS

 The XNOR Gate: The XNOR gate outputs a HIGH (1) when both inputs are either
HIGH (1) or LOW (0). The output is LOW (0) only if one input is HIGH and the
other is LOW.
 Boolean Expression: The XNOR operation is typically represented using the
equivalence symbol (≡) or sometimes with a bar over the XOR symbol (⊕).
o Example: A ≡ B or ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
A ⊕ B.
 Truth Table: The truth table for a two-input XNOR gate is given below:

̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
Input (A) Input (B) Output (A ⊕ B)
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

 Logic Symbol: The XNOR gate symbol is similar to the XOR gate, but with an
additional circle at the output. The XNOR gate can be seen as an XOR gate followed
by a NOT gate. In other words, it inverts the output of an XOR gate.

12. NAND GATE

The NAND gate is a versatile logic gate that plays a crucial role in digital electronics.
It is a combination of NOT and AND Gate. It's considered a universal gate because any other
logic function can be created using only NAND gates. This property makes NAND gates
fundamental in building complex digital circuits.
KEY CONCEPTS

 The NAND Gate: The NAND gate is essentially an AND gate followed by a NOT
gate. It produces a LOW output (0) only if ALL of its inputs are HIGH (1). If any
input is LOW (0), the output is HIGH.
 Boolean Expression: The NAND operation is denoted by an upward arrow (↑) or by
a bar over the AND operation (A.B)
o ̅̅̅̅)
Example: A ↑ B or (AB
 Truth Table: Here's the truth table for a two-input NAND gate:

̅̅̅̅)
Input (A) Input (B) Output (𝐀𝐁
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

 Logic Symbol: The NAND gate symbol is similar to the AND gate, but with a small
circle at the output:

UNIVERSALITY OF THE NAND GATE

The NAND gate's universality can be demonstrated by constructing other logic gates using
only NAND gates:

NOT Gate: Connect both inputs of a NAND

gate together to create a NOT Gate.

AND Gate: Invert the output of a NAND

gate to create an AND gate
OR Gate: Invert the inputs of a NAND gate,
then invert the output to create an OR gate.
ADVANTAGES OF NAND GATES

 Simplicity: NAND gates are relatively easy to manufacture, making them cost-
effective.
 Flexibility: Due to their universality, NAND gates can be used to build a wide range
of digital circuits, simplifying design and reducing component count.

13. NOR GATE

The NOR gate, like the NAND gate, is another universal gate. It is a combination of NOT
and OR gates. Other logic gates can be created by using only NOR gates. This universality
makes NOR gates a powerful tool in designing digital circuits.

KEY CONCEPTS

 The NOR Gate: The NOR gate essentially combines an OR gate with a NOT gate. It
produces a HIGH output (1) only if ALL of its inputs are LOW (0). If any input is
HIGH (1), the output is LOW.
 Boolean Expression: The NOR operation is denoted by a down arrow (↓) or by a bar
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
over the OR operation (A + B)
o ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
Example: A ↓ B or (A + B)
 Truth Table: Here's the truth table for a two-input NOR gate:

̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
Input (A) Input (B) Output (𝐀 + 𝐁)
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0

 Logic Symbol: The NOR gate symbol is similar to the OR gate, but with a small
circle at the output.
UNIVERSALITY OF THE NOR GATE

The NOR gate's universality can be demonstrated by constructing other logic gates using only
NOR gates:

NOT Gate: Connect both inputs of a NOR

gate together to create a NOT Gate.

AND Gate: Invert the inputs of a NOR gate,

then invert the output to create an AND gate.

OR Gate: Invert the output of a NOR gate

to create an OR gate

ADVANTAGES OF NOR GATES

 Simplicity: Like NAND gates, NOR gates are relatively simple to manufacture.
 Flexibility: Due to their universality, NOR gates offer flexibility in designing digital
circuits, often reducing the overall component count and simplifying the design
process.

14. INTRODUCTION TO BOOLEAN ALGEBRA THEOREMS

Boolean algebra provides a mathematical framework for analyzing and simplifying

digital logic circuits. It uses variables, operators, and theorems to represent logical
relationships and manipulate Boolean expressions. Boolean algebra theorems are essential
tools for simplifying logic expressions and designing efficient digital circuits.

KEY CONCEPTS

 Boolean Variables: Variables that can have only two possible values: 0 (false) or 1
(true).
 Boolean Operators: Symbols representing logical operations:
o AND (.)
 o OR (+)
o NOT (¯ or ')
 Boolean Expression: A combination of Boolean variables and operators that
represents a logical relationship.

Fundamental Boolean Algebra Theorems

The following are some of the most important Boolean algebra theorems:

A+0=A
Identity Laws
A.1=A
A+1=1
Null Laws
A.0=0
A +A = A
Idempotent Laws:
A.A=A
A + A̅ = 1
Inverse Laws
A . A̅ = 0
A+B=B+A
Commutative Laws:
A.B=B.A
A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C
Associative Laws
A . (B . C) = (A . B) . C
A . (B + C) = A . B + A . C
Distributive Laws
A + (B . C) = (A + B) . (A + C)
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
(𝐴 + 𝐵) = 𝐴̅ . 𝐵̅
DeMorgan's Theorems:
̅̅̅̅ ) = 𝐴̅ + 𝐵̅
(𝐴𝐵

Each of the Boolean laws above are given with just a single or two variables, but the
number of variables defined by a single law is not limited to this as there can be an infinite
number of variables as inputs too the expression. These Boolean laws detailed above can be
used to prove any given Boolean expression as well as for simplifying complicated digital
circuits.
IMPORTANCE OF BOOLEAN ALGEBRA THEOREMS

 Simplification: These theorems allow for the reduction of complex Boolean

expressions to simpler forms, leading to more efficient circuit designs.
 Analysis: Theorems help analyze the behavior of logic circuits and predict their
outputs under different input conditions.
 Design: Boolean algebra theorems guide the design process of digital circuits,
ensuring that the circuits implement the desired logical functions correctly.

15. SIMPLIFICATION USING BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

Boolean algebra provides a powerful set of tools for manipulating and simplifying
logical expressions. Applying Boolean algebra theorems and properties can reduce complex
expressions to simpler, equivalent forms. This simplification process not only makes
expressions easier to understand but also leads to more efficient circuit implementations.

KEY CONCEPTS

 Simplification: The process of reducing a Boolean expression to its simplest form

while maintaining its logical equivalence.
 Boolean Algebra Theorems: Fundamental laws and properties (as discussed in 1.14)
that govern Boolean operations.
 Equivalent Expressions: Expressions that produce the same output for all possible
input combinations.

STEPS FOR SIMPLIFYING BOOLEAN EXPRESSIONS

1. Identify Theorems: Look for opportunities to apply Boolean algebra theorems such
as distributive, commutative, associative, DeMorgan's, and others.
2. Eliminate Redundancies: Look for terms that can be eliminated or combined using
idempotent and inverse laws.
3. Factorization: Factor out common terms to further simplify the expression.
4. Complementation: Apply DeMorgan's theorems to complement terms or the entire
expression.

Example:
Simplify the Boolean expression: A . (A + B) + A . B

A . (A + B) + A.B
A . A + A . B + A.B Distributive Law applied
A+A.B + A.B Idempotent Law applied
A+A.B Idempotent Law applied
A (1+B) Combining the terms
A.1 Null Law applied
A Identity Law applied

Therefore, the simplified expression is A.

IMPORTANCE OF SIMPLIFICATION

 Reduced Circuit Complexity: Simpler Boolean expressions lead to digital circuits

with fewer gates, which are less expensive to manufacture and consume less power.
 Improved Performance: Simplified circuits often have shorter propagation delays,
leading to faster operation.
 Enhanced Readability: Simpler expressions are easier to understand and analyze,
aiding in the design and troubleshooting of digital systems.

16. SUM-OF-PRODUCT (SOP) FORM IN BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

In Boolean algebra, logical expressions can be represented in various forms. One of

the most common and useful forms is the Sum-of-Products (SOP), also known as Disjunctive
Normal Form (DNF). SOP expressions provide a systematic way to describe the logical
behavior of digital circuits and simplify their design.

KEY CONCEPTS

 Sum-of-Products (SOP) Form: An SOP expression is a Boolean expression that is

formed by summing together multiple product terms. Each product term is formed by
multiplying one or more variables or their complements.
 Minterm: A product term that includes all the variables in a Boolean expression,
either in their true form or complemented form. Each minterm corresponds to a
specific input combination that results in a HIGH (1) output for the function.
  Canonical SOP: A special SOP form where all the minterms of a Boolean function
are included.

EXPRESSING BOOLEAN FUNCTIONS IN SOP FORM

To express a Boolean function in SOP form, follow these steps:

1. Truth Table: Create a truth table for the Boolean function, listing all possible input
combinations and their corresponding outputs.
2. Identify Minterms: Identify the rows in the truth table where the output is 1. These
rows represent the minterms of the function.
3. Form Product Terms: For each minterm, create a product term by including the
variables in their true form if they are 1 in the minterm and in their complemented
form if they are 0.
4. OR the Product Terms: Combine all the product terms using the OR (+) operator.

Example:

Consider the Boolean function F(A, B, C) with the following truth table:

A B C F(A,B,C)
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1

The minterms where F(A,B,C) = 1 are:

 A̅B̅C
 A̅BC
 ABC̅
 ABC
  The SOP expression for F(A, B, C) is: A̅B̅C + A̅BC + ABC̅ + ABC

ADVANTAGES OF SOP FORM

 Systematic Representation: SOP form provides a structured way to represent

Boolean functions, making them easier to analyze and manipulate.
 Circuit Implementation: SOP expressions can be directly translated into logic
circuits using AND and OR gates, simplifying the design process.
 Simplification: SOP form is often a starting point for further simplification using
Boolean algebra techniques, leading to more efficient circuit implementations.

17. PRODUCT-OF-SUM (POS) FORM IN BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

In addition to the Sum-of-Products (SOP) form, Boolean expressions can also be

expressed in the Product-of-Sums (POS) form, also known as conjunctive normal form
(CNF). POS is another systematic way to represent Boolean functions, offering an alternative
perspective to SOP and proving useful in certain applications.

KEY CONCEPTS

 Product-of-Sums (POS) Form: A POS expression is a Boolean expression formed

by multiplying multiple sum terms together. Each sum term is formed by adding one
or more variables or their complements.
 Maxterm: A sum term that includes all the variables in a Boolean expression, either
in their true form or complemented form. Each maxterm corresponds to a specific
input combination that results in a LOW (0) output for the function.
 Canonical POS: A special POS form where all the maxterms of a Boolean function
are included.

EXPRESSING BOOLEAN FUNCTIONS IN POS FORM

1. Truth Table: Create a truth table for the Boolean function, listing all input
combinations and their corresponding outputs.
2. Identify Maxterms: Identify the rows in the truth table where the output is 0. These
rows represent the maxterms of the function.
 3. Form Sum Terms: For each maxterm, create a sum term by including the variables
in their true form if they are 0 in the maxterm and in their complemented form if they
are 1.
4. AND the Sum Terms: Combine all the sum terms using the AND (.) operator.

Example:

Consider the Boolean function F(A, B, C) with the same truth table as in Topic 16.

A B C F(A,B,C)
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1

The maxterms where F(A,B,C) = 0 are:

 A+B+C
 A + B̅ + C
 A̅ + B + C
 A̅ + B + C̅

The POS expression for F(A, B, C) is: (A + B + C) . (A + B̅ + C) . (A̅ + B + C) . (A̅ + B + C̅)

ADVANTAGES OF POS FORM

 Alternative Representation: POS offers a different perspective on Boolean

functions, which can be useful in certain analysis and design scenarios.
 Circuit Implementation: POS expressions can be directly implemented using NOR
gates or a combination of OR and AND gates, providing flexibility in circuit design.
 DeMorgan's Theorems: POS form is directly related to SOP form through
DeMorgan's theorems, allowing for conversion between the two forms.
18. BOOLEAN EXPRESSION REALIZATION USING LOGIC GATES

Boolean expressions, represented in either SOP (Sum-of-Products) or POS (Product-of-Sums)

form, provide the blueprint for designing digital logic circuits. This topic focuses on translating
these expressions into actual circuit implementations using basic logic gates like AND, OR,
and NOT.

KEY CONCEPTS

 Logic Gate Implementation: Each term in a Boolean expression corresponds to a

specific arrangement of logic gates.
o AND Term: Implemented using an AND gate. The inputs to the AND gate
are the variables (or their complements) in the product term.
o OR Term: Implemented using an OR gate. The inputs to the OR gate are the
product terms that are being ORed together.
 SOP Implementation: An SOP expression is directly implemented using a two-level
AND-OR structure.
o First Level (AND Gates): Each product term in the SOP expression is
implemented using an AND gate.
o Second Level (OR Gate): The outputs of the AND gates are fed into an OR
gate to produce the final output of the function.
 POS Implementation: A POS expression is directly implemented using a two-level
OR-AND structure.
o First Level (OR Gates): Each sum term in the POS expression is
implemented using an OR gate.
o Second Level (AND Gate): The outputs of the OR gates are fed into an AND
gate to produce the final output of the function.

SOP IMPLEMENTATION

Consider the SOP expression: F(A,B,C) = A̅B̅C + A̅BC + AB̅C + ABC

1. Implement Each Product Term:

o A̅B̅C: Connect A̅, B̅, and C to a 3-input AND gate.
o A̅BC: Connect A̅, B, and C to a 3-input AND gate.
 o AB̅C: Connect A, B̅, and C to a 3-input AND gate.
o ABC: Connect A, B, and C to a 3-input AND gate.
2. Combine Outputs with OR Gate: Connect the outputs of all four AND gates to a 4-
input OR gate. The output of this OR gate will be F(A, B, C).

POS IMPLEMENTATION

Consider the POS expression: F(A+B+C) = (A+B+C) + (A+B̅+C) + (A̅+B+C) + (A̅ +B+ C̅)

1. Implement Each Sum Term:

o A + B + C: Connect A, B, and C to a 3-input OR gate.

o A + B̅ + C: Connect A, B̅, and C to a 3-input OR gate.
o A̅ + B + C: Connect A̅, B, and C to a 3-input OR gate.
o A̅ + B + C̅: Connect A̅, B, and C̅ to a 3-input OR gate.
2. Combine Outputs with AND Gate: Connect the outputs of all four OR gates to a 4-
input AND gate. The output of this AND gate will be F(A, B, C).

19. INTRODUCTION TO KARNAUGH MAPS (K-MAPS)

Karnaugh Maps (K-Maps) offer a visual and intuitive method for simplifying Boolean
expressions. While Boolean algebra theorems can be used for simplification, K-Maps provide
a graphical approach that often leads to quicker and easier solutions, especially for expressions
with a moderate number of variables. It is a table consisting of cells which represents a Minterm
or Maxterm. Karnaugh map or K-map is named after Mayrice Karnough.

KEY CONCEPTS

 Graphical Representation: K-Maps are grids where each cell represents a minterm
(for SOP simplification) or a maxterm (for POS simplification).
 Cell Arrangement: The arrangement of cells follows a Gray code pattern, ensuring
that adjacent cells differ by only one variable.
  Grouping: The simplification process involves grouping adjacent cells that contain 1s
(for SOP) or 0s (for POS).
 Larger Groups: Larger groups of cells lead to simpler expressions.
 Wrap-around: The edges of the K-Map are considered adjacent, allowing for wrap-
around grouping.

STEPS FOR SIMPLIFYING BOOLEAN EXPRESSIONS USING K-MAPS

1. Create K-Map: Construct a K-Map with the appropriate number of variables. The
number of cells in the K-Map is 2^n, where n is the number of variables.
2. Suppose there are two variables, then there will be 22 = 4 cells in the K-map. Each
cell has a subscripted number at the bottom right corner. It is the value of the
minterm. Similarly, if we have three variables, then there will be 23 = 8 cells in the K-
map.
3. Fill the K-Map: Fill the K-Map with 1s for minterms (in SOP) or 0s for maxterms (in
POS) based on the truth table of the Boolean function.
4. Identify Groups: Group adjacent cells containing 1s (for SOP) or 0s (for POS) to
form rectangular or square groups.
5. Form Terms: For each group, write a product term (for SOP) or a sum term (for
POS) that includes only the variables that remain constant within the group.
6. Combine Terms: Combine all the terms using the OR operator (for SOP) or the AND
operator (for POS).

ADVANTAGES OF K-MAPS

 Visual: K-Maps provide a visual aid for simplifying expressions, making the process
more intuitive.
 Efficiency: K-Maps often lead to faster simplification than algebraic manipulation.
 Minimization: K-Maps help identify the optimal grouping of terms to achieve the
simplest possible expression.
20. K-MAPS USING 2 VARIABLES

Let us consider an example for SOP. A 2-variable K-Map is a 2x2 grid, with each cell
representing a minterm (for SOP) or maxterm (for POS). Identify adjacent cells containing 1s
(for SOP) or 0s (for POS) and group them together to form rectangular or square groups of
sizes 1, 2, or 4. Larger groups lead to simpler expressions. The edges of the K-Map are
considered adjacent, allowing for wrap-around grouping.

SOP SIMPLIFICATION EXAMPLE

Consider the Boolean function F(A, B) with the following truth table:

A B F(A,B)
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

The K-Map for F(A, B) is:

B
0 1
A
0 0 1
1 1 0

Grouping the 1s, we get two groups, A̅B and AB̅

The simplified SOP expression is: A̅B + AB̅

POS SIMPLIFICATION EXAMPLE

Consider the Boolean function F(A, B) with the same truth table:

The K-Map for F(A, B) is:

B
0 1
A
 0 1 0
1 0 1

Grouping the 0s, we get two groups, A̅+B̅ and A+B

The simplified SOP expression is: (A̅+B̅).(A+B)

It can be seen that both the SOP and POS forms represent the same Boolean function,
but they do so in different ways. The choice between SOP and POS often depends on the
specific requirements of the circuit design or simplification process.

21. K-MAPS USING 3 VARIABLES

Karnaugh maps (K-Maps) can be extended to simplify Boolean expressions with three
variables. The process is similar to that used for two-variable K-Maps, but with a larger grid
and additional considerations for grouping cells. A 3-variable K-Map is a 2x4 grid (or 4x2,
depending on the arrangement of variables), where each cell represents one of the eight
possible minterms (for SOP simplification) or maxterms (for POS simplification).

SOP SIMPLIFICATION EXAMPLE

Consider the Boolean function F(A, B,C) with the following truth table:

A B C F(A,B,C)
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 1
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1

The K-Map for F(A, B, C) is:

BC 00 01 11 10
 A
0 0 0 1 1
1 0 1 1 0

Grouping the 1s, we get

 A'BC' + A'BC +AB'C +ABC

 A'B(C'+C)+AB'C +ABC
 A'B +AB'C +ABC

Simplified SOP expression: F(A, B, C) = A'B + AB'C + ABC

POS SIMPLIFICATION EXAMPLE

Consider the Boolean function F(A, B, C) with the same truth table for POS:

The K-Map for F(A, B, C) is:

BC
00 01 11 10
A
0 1 1 0 0
1 1 0 0 1

Grouping the 0s, we get (A + B + C)(B + C')(A + C')

Simplified POS expression: F(A, B, C) = (A + B + C)(B + C')(A + C')

22. K-MAPS USING 4 VARIABLES

K-Maps can be further extended to simplify Boolean expressions with four variables.
The principles remain the same as with two- and three-variable K-Maps, but the grid is larger
(4x4) to accommodate the increased number of possible combinations. A 4-variable K-Map
is a 4x4 grid, with each cell representing one of the sixteen possible minterms (for SOP) or
maxterms (for POS)

SOP SIMPLIFICATION EXAMPLE

Consider the Boolean function F(A, B,C, D) with the following truth table:
 A B C D F(A,B,C,D) A B C D F(A,B,C,D)
0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0
0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1
0 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1
0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1

The K-Map for F(A, B, C, D) is:

CD
00 01 11 10
AB
00 1 0 1 0
01 0 1 0 0
11 1 0 1 0
10 0 1 1 1

There are several possible groupings of 1s. Here's one optimal solution:

 Group 1 (4 cells): A'C'

 Group 2 (4 cells): BD
 Group 3 (2 cells): BC'D'

Simplified SOP expression: F(A, B, C, D) = A'C' + BD + BC'D'

POS SIMPLIFICATION EXAMPLE

Consider the Boolean function F(A, B, C, D) with the same truth table for POS:

The K-Map for F(A, B, C, D) is:

CD
00 01 11 10
AB
00 0 1 0 1
 01 1 0 1 1
11 0 1 0 1
10 1 0 0 0

Grouping the 0s:

 Group 1 (4 cells): B'D'

 Group 2 (4 cells): A'D

Write a sum term for each group, remembering to negate the variables:

 Group 1: (B + D)
 Group 2: (A + D')

Simplified POS expression: F(A, B, C, D) = (B + D)(A + D')