Get Recent Trends in Wave Mechanics and Vibrations Select Proceedings of WMVC 2018 S. Chakraverty Free All Chapters

Download the full version of the textbook now at textbookfull.
com
Recent Trends in Wave Mechanics and

Vibrations Select Proceedings of WMVC 2018 S.
Chakraverty
https://textbookfull.com/product/recent-trends-in-
wave-mechanics-and-vibrations-select-proceedings-
of-wmvc-2018-s-chakraverty/
Explore and download more textbook at https://textbookfull.com

Recommended digital products (PDF, EPUB, MOBI) that
you can download immediately if you are interested.
Recent Advances in Traffic Engineering: Select Proceedings

of RATE 2018 Shriniwas S. Arkatkar
https://textbookfull.com/product/recent-advances-in-traffic-
engineering-select-proceedings-of-rate-2018-shriniwas-s-arkatkar/
textbookfull.com
Recent Trends in Mechanical Engineering : Select

Proceedings of ICIME 2020 G. S. V. L. Narasimham
https://textbookfull.com/product/recent-trends-in-mechanical-
engineering-select-proceedings-of-icime-2020-g-s-v-l-narasimham/
textbookfull.com
Emerging Trends in Mechanical Engineering: Select

Proceedings of ICETME 2018 L. Vijayaraghavan
https://textbookfull.com/product/emerging-trends-in-mechanical-
engineering-select-proceedings-of-icetme-2018-l-vijayaraghavan/
textbookfull.com
The Routledge Companion to Philosophy of Social Science

1st Edition Lee Mcintyre
https://textbookfull.com/product/the-routledge-companion-to-
philosophy-of-social-science-1st-edition-lee-mcintyre/
textbookfull.com
USAF McDonnell Douglas F 4 Phantom II 1st Edition Peter E
Davies
https://textbookfull.com/product/usaf-mcdonnell-douglas-f-4-phantom-
ii-1st-edition-peter-e-davies-2/
textbookfull.com
Methodological Challenges in Nature Culture and

Environmental History Research 1st Edition Jocelyn Thorpe
(Editor)
https://textbookfull.com/product/methodological-challenges-in-nature-
culture-and-environmental-history-research-1st-edition-jocelyn-thorpe-
editor/
textbookfull.com
Practical Handbook of Thematic Cartography Principles,

Methods, and Applications 1st Edition Christine Zanin
https://textbookfull.com/product/practical-handbook-of-thematic-
cartography-principles-methods-and-applications-1st-edition-christine-
zanin/
textbookfull.com
Investigation of Flow Behavior Characteristics for Iraqi

Crude Oil with Different Polymeric Additives 4th Edition
Auda J. Braihi
https://textbookfull.com/product/investigation-of-flow-behavior-
characteristics-for-iraqi-crude-oil-with-different-polymeric-
additives-4th-edition-auda-j-braihi/
textbookfull.com
The DevOps 2 1 Toolkit Docker Swarm Building testing

deploying and monitoring services inside Docker Swarm
clusters 1st Edition Viktor Farcic
https://textbookfull.com/product/the-devops-2-1-toolkit-docker-swarm-
building-testing-deploying-and-monitoring-services-inside-docker-
swarm-clusters-1st-edition-viktor-farcic/
textbookfull.com
The Linguistic Turn of the English Renaissance: A Lacanian
Perspective 1st Edition Zisser
https://textbookfull.com/product/the-linguistic-turn-of-the-english-
renaissance-a-lacanian-perspective-1st-edition-zisser/
textbookfull.com
Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering
S. Chakraverty
Paritosh Biswas Editors
Recent Trends
in Wave
Mechanics
and Vibrations
Select Proceedings of WMVC 2018
Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering (LNME) publishes the latest develop-
ments in Mechanical Engineering - quickly, informally and with high quality.
Original research reported in proceedings and post-proceedings represents the core
of LNME. Volumes published in LNME embrace all aspects, subfields and new
challenges of mechanical engineering. Topics in the series include:
• Engineering Design
• Machinery and Machine Elements
• Mechanical Structures and Stress Analysis
• Automotive Engineering
• Engine Technology
• Aerospace Technology and Astronautics
• Nanotechnology and Microengineering
• Control, Robotics, Mechatronics
• MEMS
• Theoretical and Applied Mechanics
• Dynamical Systems, Control
• Fluid Mechanics
• Engineering Thermodynamics, Heat and Mass Transfer
• Manufacturing
• Precision Engineering, Instrumentation, Measurement
• Materials Engineering
• Tribology and Surface Technology
To submit a proposal or request further information, please contact the Springer
Editor in your country:
China: Li Shen at [email protected]
India: Dr. Akash Chakraborty at [email protected]
Rest of Asia, Australia, New Zealand: Swati Meherishi at
[email protected]
All other countries: Dr. Leontina Di Cecco at [email protected]
To submit a proposal for a monograph, please check our Springer Tracts in
Mechanical Engineering at http://www.springer.com/series/11693 or contact
[email protected]
Indexed by SCOPUS. The books of the series are submitted for indexing to
Web of Science.
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/11236

S. Chakraverty Paritosh Biswas
•
Editors
Recent Trends in Wave

Mechanics and Vibrations
Select Proceedings of WMVC 2018
123
Editors
S. Chakraverty Paritosh Biswas
Department of Mathematics Vibration Research Group
National Institute of Technology Rourkela Von karman society
Rourkela, Odisha, India Jalpaiguri, India
ISSN 2195-4356 ISSN 2195-4364 (electronic)

ISBN 978-981-15-0286-6 ISBN 978-981-15-0287-3 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-0287-3
© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission
or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar
methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from
the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the
authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained
herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard
to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.
The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721,
Singapore
Preface
Wave mechanics and vibration principles are commonly encountered in various

problems of aeronautical, civil, architectural, robotics, marine, mechanical, nuclear,
biology, earthquake, tsunami, and other areas of science and technology. These
problems need to be analyzed by easy, fast, and efficient computational methods.
In view of the above, 8th National Conference on Wave Mechanics and
Vibrations (WMVC 2018) has been organized in the Department of Mathematics,
NIT Rourkela, Odisha, India, during November 26–28, 2018, in collaboration with
Von Karman Society for Advanced Study & Research in Mathematical Sciences,
Jalpaiguri, West Bengal. The aim of this important conference has been to bring
together leading researchers of wave mechanics and vibrations who use and
develop new theories as well as computational and experimental techniques.
Different mathematical theories of vibration and wave mechanics, numerical
simulations, machine intelligence techniques, physical experiments with computa-
tional investigations, and their various engineering, biological, and science appli-
cations have been targeted in this event. Accordingly, this conference deliberated an
outstanding opportunity to teachers, researchers, and industry experts for sharing
new ideas, experience, and progress. Researchers in different academic institutions,
universities, R&D establishments, and industries in India and abroad are continu-
ously investigating the above areas.
In response to our invitation, a very good number of papers pertaining to the
mentioned subject have been received from national as well as few from interna-
tional researchers. After the presentation of the papers in the above conference,
authors are invited to submit the full-length papers. Then, rigorous review of each
of the full papers was done by at least two learned reviewers. According to the
comments/suggestions of the reviewers, the papers are then revised/re-submitted by
the authors again. As such, 32 papers are finally accepted to be included in this book.
v
vi Preface
It is sincerely hoped that the readers will find this book purposeful and chal-
lenging. Finally, we are sure that the present book, which is the outcome of the
above conference, will help in nurturing the new thinking and new research in all
areas of science and engineering research in general and to wave mechanics and
vibration in particular.
Rourkela, India S. Chakraverty

Jalpaiguri, India Paritosh Biswas
Acknowledgements
We are indebted to Prof. Animesh Biswas, Director, National Institute of

Technology Rourkela, for his continuous support and encouragement. Collaboration
with Von Karman Society for Advanced Study & Research in Mathematical
Sciences, Jalpaiguri, West Bengal, is appreciated. Help and support from Dean &
staff of SRICCE office and HOD & Faculty colleagues of Mathematics Department
(NITR) are greatly appreciated. We express our sincere thanks to the Organizing
Committee members who have provided support to make this conference a grand
success. The efforts of the various members, especially all of my previous and
present Ph.D. scholars, are greatly appreciated. We thank all the paper presenters,
invited guests, and participants for helping us in bringing out this book on time.
Organizers are thankful to MoES, CSIR, and AERB too for their financial support.
We do also greatly appreciate ‘Springer’ Team for publishing the selected full-length
papers after rigorous peer review as Scopus Indexed (ISBN) proceedings.
Rourkela, India S. Chakraverty

Jalpaiguri, India Paritosh Biswas
vii
Contents
Transverse Vibration of Thick Triangular Plates Based on a Proposed

Shear Deformation Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
K. K. Pradhan and S. Chakraverty
Study on Some Recent Earthquakes of Sikkim Himalayan Region
and Construction of Suitable Seismic Model: A Mathematical
Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Ajit De
On the Design and Vibration Analysis of a Three-Link Flexible Robot
Interfaced with a Mini-Gripper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Prathamesh Warude, Manoj Patel, Pankaj Pandit, Vikram Patil,
Harshal Pawar, Chinmay Nate, Shreyash Gajlekar, Viinod Atpadkar
and Debanik Roy
Design, Dynamic Simulation and Test Run of the Indigenous
Controller of a Multi-gripper Revolute Robot by Minimizing
System Trembling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Harshal Pawar, Chinmay Nate, Manoj Patel, Pankaj Pandit, Vikram Patil,
Prathamesh Warude, Neel Wankhede, Pratik Chothe, Viinod Atpadkar
and Debanik Roy
Flow Analysis of Reiner–Rivlin Fluid Between Two Stretchable
Rotating Disks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Abhijit Das and Suman Sarkar
Effects of Viscosity, Thermal Conductivity, and Heat Source
on MHD Convective Heat Transfer in a Vertical Channel
with Thermal Slip Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
G. Kiran Kumar, G. Srinivas and B. Suresh Babu
Diffraction of Scalar-Impulsive(SH) Waves by a Spherical Cavity
Embedded in an Inhomogeneous Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Aditya Kumar Patnaik, S. M. Abo-Dahab and Sapan Kumar Samal
ix
x Contents
Love Type Surface Waves in Curved Layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

Aditya Kumar Patnaik, Sapan Kumar Samal and Anjana P. Ghorai
Numerical Solution of Fuzzy Stochastic Volterra-Fredholm Integral
Equation with Imprecisely Defined Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Sukanta Nayak
Characterization of Geometrical Complexity of the Landscape Patches
Using Fractional Dimension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Uttam Ghosh and Dilip Kumar Khan
Transverse Vibrations of an Axially Travelling String . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Shashendra Kumar Sahoo, H. C. Das and L. N. Panda
Structural Parameter Identification Using Interval Functional Link
Neural Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Deepti Moyi Sahoo and S. Chakraverty
Seismic Behaviour of Unreinforced Masonry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Nikhil P. Zade, Pradip Sarkar and P. Robin Davis
Numerical Modeling of Love Waves in Dry Sandy Layer Under
Initial Stress Using Different Order Finite Difference Methods . . . . . . . 165
Jayantika Pal and Anjana P. Ghorai
Traveling Wave Solutions of Some Nonlinear Physical Models
0
by Using ðGG Þ-expansion Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Sister Nivedita Swain and Jasvinder Singh Virdi
Control of Inherent Vibration of Flexible Robotic Systems
and Associated Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Debanik Roy
Some Relevant Calculations of Geometry Function with Area
Scattering Phase Functions Related to Vegetative Radiative Transfer
Equations in the Vegetative Canopy Scattering Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Goutam Kr. Biswas
Wavelet Transformation Approach for Damage Identification
of Steel Structure Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Chandrabhan Patel, S. K. Panigrahi, Ajay Chourasia, Timir B. Roy,
Ashutosh Bagchi and Lucia Tirca
Dynamic Analysis of Mini Climbing Crane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Ravindra S. Bisht, S. K. Panigrahi, Dinesh Kumar, Narendra Kumar,
Pawan Kumar, Syed Saif Ali, Sameer and Ajay Chourasia
Visit https://textbookfull.com
now to explore a rich
collection of eBooks, textbook
and enjoy exciting offers!
Contents xi
Seismic Qualification of In-Cell Crane Employed in the Hot Cell

of a Radio Chemical Plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Dharmick Kumar, Sanatana Maharana, T. Selvaraj, K. Rajan,
B. M. Ananda Rao and A. Ravisankar
Seismic Evaluation of Vertically Irregular RC Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Sayanti Bhattacharjee and Pradip Sarkar
Natural Convection of Non-Newtonian Nanofluid Flow Between Two
Vertical Parallel Plates in Uncertain Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
U. Biswal, S. Chakraverty and B. K. Ojha
Finite Difference Solution of Diffusion Equation Describing the Flow
of Radon Through Soil with Uncertain Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
T. D. Rao and S. Chakraverty
Boundary Characteristic Orthogonal Polynomials-Based Galerkin
and Least Square Methods for Solving Bagley–Torvik Equations . . . . . 327
Rajarama Mohan Jena and S. Chakraverty
Eigenvalue Problems of Structural Dynamics Using ANN . . . . . . . . . . . 343
S. K. Jeswal and S. Chakraverty
Differential Quadrature Method for Solving Fifth-Order KdV
Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
P. Karunakar and S. Chakraverty
Vibration Analysis of Nonuniform Single-Walled Carbon Nanotube
Resting on Winkler Elastic Foundation Using DQM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
Subrat Kumar Jena and S. Chakraverty
Artificial Neural Network Based Solution of Fractional Vibration
Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
Susmita Mall and S. Chakraverty
Affine Approach to Solve Nonlinear Eigenvalue Problems
of Structures with Uncertain Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
S. Rout and S. Chakraverty
Speech Emotion Recognition Using Neural Network
and Wavelet Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
Tanmoy Roy, Tshilidzi Marwala and S. Chakraverty
Solution of an Integro-Differential Equation by Double Interval
Spherical Harmonic Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
Mrityunjoy Ghosh
Validated Enclosure of Uncertain Nonlinear Equations Using SIVIA
Monte Carlo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
Nisha Rani Mahato, Luc Jaulin, S. Chakraverty and Jean Dezert
About the Editors
Dr. S. Chakraverty is working in the Department of Mathematics (Applied

Mathematics Group), National Institute of Technology Rourkela, Odisha as a full
Professor (Higher Administrative Grade). Prior to this, he was with CSIR Central
Building Research Institute, Roorkee, India. After completing his graduation from
St. Columba’s College (Ranchi University), his career started from the University
of Roorkee (presently Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee) where he did his
M.Sc. (Applied Mathematics) and M.Phil. (Computer Applications) securing the
First position in the University. He received his Ph.D. from IIT Roorkee in 1992.
Thereafter, he did his post doctoral research at Institute of Sound and Vibration
Research (ISVR), University of Southampton, UK, and at the Faculty of
Engineering and Computer Science, Concordia University, Canada. He was also a
visiting professor at Concordia and McGill Universities, Canada, during 1997-1999
and visiting professor at the University of Johannesburg, South Africa during
2011-2014. He has authored/co-authored 16 books and published 334 research
papers in journals and conferences. He is on the Editorial Boards of various
international journals, book series and conferences. Dr. Chakraverty is the Chief
Editor of the International Journal of Fuzzy Computation and Modelling
(IJFCM). His current research areas include soft computing and machine intelli-
gence, artificial neural network, fuzzy and interval computations, numerical anal-
ysis, differential equations, mathematical modeling, uncertainty modelling, and
vibration and inverse vibration problems.
Dr. Paritosh Biswas is a retired professor with over 50 year of experience in the
fields of linear and non-linear analysis of plates and shells, specifically deforma-
tions, buckling and vibrations. He is the founder member and one of the
co-organizers of the WMVC and ICOVP series of conferences. He has published
more than 100 research articles in international peer-reviewed journals and con-
ference proceedings. He has also contributed four chapters to the Encyclopedia of
Thermal Stresses, published by Springer.
xiii
Transverse Vibration of Thick
Triangular Plates Based on a Proposed
Shear Deformation Theory
K. K. Pradhan and S. Chakraverty
Abstract Natural frequencies of different thick triangular plates subject to classical

boundary conditions are found based on a proposed shear deformation plate theory in
this chapter. The stress distribution needs no shear correction factor in this proposed
plate theory. The numerical formulation is performed by means of Rayleigh–Ritz
method to obtain the generalized eigenvalue problem. The aim of this study is to find
the effect of different physical and geometric parameters on natural frequencies. New
results along with 3D mode shapes have been evaluated after the test of convergence
and validation with the available results.
Keywords Vibration · Triangular plate · Shear deformation theory · Rayleigh–ritz

method · 3D mode shapes
1 Introduction
Based on the importance of triangular plates in structural design and architecture,

the literature survey provides the research efforts on finding dynamic behavior of
triangular plates. Mirza and Bijlani [12] have depicted the natural frequencies and
mode shapes of cantilevered triangular plates with variable thickness using the finite
element technique. A highly accurate analytical solution (method of superposition)
has been proposed by Gorman [6–8] for free vibration of right triangular plates with
simply supported edge supports, with combinations of clamped-simply supported
boundary supports and different boundary conditions with one edge free, respec-
tively. Saliba [15] has given a highly accurate simplified solution to study the free
vibration of simply supported right triangular thin plates. An exhaustive study using
K. K. Pradhan (B)
Department of Basic Science, PMEC Berhampur, Sitalapalli 761003, Odisha, India
e-mail: [email protected]
S. Chakraverty
Department of Mathematics, NIT Rourkela, Rourkela 769008, Odisha, India
e-mail: [email protected]
© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 1

S. Chakraverty and P. Biswas (eds.), Recent Trends in Wave Mechanics
and Vibrations, Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-0287-3_1
2 K. K. Pradhan and S. Chakraverty
Rayleigh–Ritz method is provided by Singh and Chakraverty [18] to handle all sets
of classical edge supports in case of isotropic triangular plates. Wanji and Cheung
[21] have found the bending, vibration, and buckling of a refined triangular discrete
Kirchoff thin plate element (RDKT) in order to improve the results for the origi-
nal triangular discrete Kirchoff thin plate element (DKT). An approximate method
using Green function is developed by Sakiyama and Huang [14] for free vibration
of right triangular plates with variable thickness. Zhong [23] has applied a triangular
differential quadrature method to study free flexural vibration of isosceles triangular
Mindlin plates. Reddy’s third-order plate theory is used by Cheng and Batra [4] to
study buckling and steady-state vibrations of a simply supported FG polygonal plate
resting on a Winkler–Pasternak elastic foundation. Kang and Lee [10] have applied
nondimensional influence (Green’s) function in free vibration analysis of arbitrarily
shaped plates with clamped edges. Free vibration of cantilevered and completely free
isosceles triangular plates has been investigated by Cheung and Zhou [5] based on
exact three-dimensional elasticity theory. Moreover, very few authors have worked
especially on FG triangular plates.
Implication of shear deformation theory to the dynamic characteristics of plates
is also a major aspect of this investigation. So it is worth to address different studies
carried out on this scope. Two-variable refined plate theory was implemented by
Shimpi and Patel [16] for free vibration analysis of plates. Two new displacement-
based first-order shear deformation plate theories were introduced by Shimpi et al.
[17] to study the dynamic problems. Aydogdu [2] has proposed a new higher order
shear deformation laminated composite plate theory from 3D elasticity solutions by
using an inverse method. Various shear deformation theories have been implemented
by Xiang et al. [22] for the modeling of isotropic, sandwich, and laminated plates.
Flexural vibration of Lévy-type rectangular plates has been studied by Hosseini-
Hashemi et al. [9] within the framework of third-order shear deformation theory.
A new inverse tangent shear deformation theory (ITSDT) was presented by Thai et
al. [20] for the static, free vibration, and buckling analysis of laminated composite
and sandwich plates. A unified solution for arbitrary triangular laminated thin plates
with elastic boundary conditions is introduced by Lv and Shi [11] using Rayleigh–
Ritz method. Ansari et al. [1] have developed a variational differential quadrature
approach to study free vibration of arbitrary shaped thick functionally graded carbon
nanotube-reinforced composite (FG-CNTRC) plates based on the higher order shear
deformation theory (HSDT). Pradhan and Chakraverty [13] have given Rayleigh–
Ritz approximation to find the natural frequencies of only equilateral triangular plate
along with 3D mode shapes. In the present study, two different thick triangular
plates are being considered here with the same deformation theory in Rayleigh–Ritz
method.
In view of the above, the present investigation considers two right-angled trian-
gular plates. In particular, the first one assumes different perpendicular heights and
the second one is a particular case of right-angled triangular plate. The displacement
field is based on the generalized power-law exponent-based shear deformation plate
theory (PESDPT) and Rayleigh–Ritz approach has been considered here to obtain the
generalized eigenvalue problem. New results for natural frequencies for the assumed
Transverse Vibration of Thick Triangular Plates … 3
plates are computed after checking the test of convergence and validation in special
cases. In addition, three-dimensional mode shapes can also be depicted for different
triangular plates.
2 Triangular Plate
In this section, a triangular plate can be completely determined by three numbers a,

b, and c in the Cartesian coordinate system, as shown in Fig. 1. Let us now apply
a transformation of coordinates from Cartesian (x, y) to natural coordinate system
(ξ, η) to generate a standard triangle as given in Eq. (1) [18].
(x − by
) y
ξ= c
, η= ; x = aξ + bη, y = cη (1)
a c
One may notice as truly mentioned in Singh and Chakraverty [18] that unlike
finite element methods, where one element is transformed into another element of
similar shape, we use Eq. (1) globally for the whole plate.
In the present investigation, we have considered the following triangular plates
and their specifications are clearly mentioned as below.
◦ ◦ ◦
1. A right-angled triangle with angles 30 √ , 60 , and 90
√ is demonstrated in Fig. 2b.
Sides 1, 2, and 3 have the lengths as 1/ 3, 1, and
√ 2/ 3, respectively. Accordingly,
we can find the values of θ = 0 and μ = 1/ 3.
2. Second, Fig. 2b represents an isosceles triangle with angles 30◦ , 30◦ ◦
√ , and 120 . The
nondimensionalized
√ lengths√of the sides 1, 2, and 3 are 1, 1, and 3, respectively,
with θ = −1/ 3 and μ = 3/2.
In these figures, the boundary conditions may very well be controlled by the assigned
edges 1, 2, and 3, respectively.
Fig. 1 Coordinate transformation of given generalized triangle onto the standard triangle [18]
Fig. 2 Two different cases of thick triangular plates
3 Shear Deformation Plate Theory
Considering the deformation of the thick isotropic plate to be in the middle surface,
(x − y) plane based on generalized higher order shear deformation plate theory with
the similar assumptions to [2, 22] are as follows:
∂w
u x (x, y, z; t) = u(x, y; t) − z + f (z)φx (x, y; t)
∂x
∂w (2)
u y (x, y, z; t) = v(x, y; t) − z + f (z)φ y (x, y; t)
∂y
u z (x, y, z; t) = w(x, y; t)
where u, v, w, φx , and φ y are five unknown displacement components of the middle

plane of the plate and f (z) denotes the transverse shear function to determine the
parabolic distribution of the transverse shear strains and stresses across the thickness.
After following literature on proposition of theories, we have concluded that the
mathematical function deciding the shear deformation theories may take varieties
of forms. Hence, present investigation assumes a power-law exponent-based shear
deformation plate theory (PESDPT) with the corresponding shape function as f (z) =
2n+1 2n
h hz − (2n + 1)z 21 . In this shape function, n is a nonnegative integer which
plays a key role in determining various deformation theories and such assumption
is first of its kind in dealing with vibration analysis of thick right-angled triangular
plates.
4 Mathematical Formulation
Assume the nonzero linear strains for the above displacement field of Eq. (2) as
∂u x ∂u ∂ 2w ∂φx
x x = = − z 2 + f (z) (3a)
∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x
∂u y ∂v ∂ 2w ∂φ y
yy = = − z 2 + f (z) (3b)
∂y ∂y ∂y ∂y

∂u x ∂u y ∂u ∂v ∂ 2w ∂φx ∂φ y
γx y = + = + − 2z + f (z) + (3c)
∂y ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂ x∂ y ∂y ∂x
∂u y ∂u z
γ yz = + = f φy (3d)
∂z ∂y
∂u x ∂u z
γx z = + = f φx (3e)
∂z ∂x
where x x and yy are the normal strains in x− and y− directions, respectively and
γx y , γ yz , and γx z are the shear strains in x − y, y − z, and x − z planes, respectively.
Assuming the material constituents of the plate to obey the generalized Hooke’s law,
the stress–strain relationships can be written in matrix form
⎧ ⎫ ⎛ ⎞⎧ ⎫
⎪
⎪σx x ⎪⎪ Q 11 Q 12 0 0 0 ⎪
⎪ x x ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎪ ⎜ ⎪ ⎪
⎨σ yy ⎪⎬ ⎜ Q 21 Q 22 0 0 0 ⎟ ⎪
⎟ yy ⎬
⎨ ⎪
τx y = ⎜
⎜ 0 0 Q 66 0 ⎟
0 ⎟ γx y (4)
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪ ⎪ ⎪
⎪ τ
⎪ ⎭ ⎪
⎪
⎝ 0 0 0 Q 44 0 ⎠⎪ ⎪
⎪ γ yz ⎪
⎪
⎩ ⎪
yz
⎩ ⎭
τx z 0 0 0 0 Q 55 γx z
where σx x , σ yy are the normal stresses; τx y , τ yz , and τx z are the shear stresses. The
reduced stiffness coefficients, Q i j (i, j = 1, 2, 4, 5, 6) are then given by
E νE
Q 11 = Q 22 = , Q 12 = Q 21 = and
1−ν 2 1 − ν2
E
Q 44 = Q 55 = Q 66 = G =
2(1 + ν)
Here, E, G, and ν are Young’s modulus, shear’s modulus, and Poisson’s ratio of the
material constituent, respectively. We can now define the strain energy (U) and kinetic
energy (T) for the free vibration of isotropic plate by considering the constitutive
relations.
⎡ ⎤
h/2
1 ⎢ ⎥
U= ⎣ σx x x x + σ yy yy + τx y γx y + τ yz γ yz + τx z γx z dz ⎦ dxdy (5)
2
−h/2
⎡ ⎤
h/2 2 2 2
1 ⎢ ∂u x ∂u y ∂u z ⎥
T= ⎣ ρ + + dz ⎦ dxdy (6)
2 ∂t ∂t ∂t
−h/2
Substituting σii (i = x, y) and τi j (i, j = x, y, z) in Eq. (5), it becomes
h/2
1
U= Q 11 x2x + yy
2
+ 2Q 12 x x yy + Q 66 γx2y
2
−h/2

+Q 44 γ yz
2
+ Q 55 γx2z dz dxdy (7)
Substituting the stress–strain relations in Eq. (7), the strain energy (U) becomes

2 ! "
1 ∂u 2 ∂v ∂u ∂ 2 w ∂v ∂ 2 w
U= A11 + − 2B11 +
2 ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂x2 ∂ y ∂ y2
⎧! " ! "2 ⎫
⎨ ∂2w 2
∂u ∂φx ∂v ∂φ y ∂2w ⎬
+2C11 + + D11 +
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ⎩ ∂x2 ∂ y2 ⎭
! "
∂φx 2 ∂φ y 2 ∂φx ∂ 2 w ∂φ y ∂ 2 w
+E 11 + − 2F11 +
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂x2 ∂ y ∂ y2
! "
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂ 2 w ∂v ∂ 2 w ∂u ∂φ y ∂v ∂φx
+2 A12 − 2B12 + + 2C12 +
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y 2 ∂y ∂x 2 ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
! "
2
∂ w∂ w 2 ∂φx ∂φ y ∂φx ∂ w2 ∂φ y ∂ w2
+2D12 2 + 2E 12 − 2F 12 +
∂ x ∂ y2 ∂x ∂y ∂ x ∂ y2 ∂y ∂x2
2 2
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v ∂ w
+A66 + − 4B66 +
∂y ∂x ∂y ∂ x ∂ x∂ y
! "2
∂u ∂v ∂φx ∂φ y ∂2w ∂φx ∂φ y 2
+2C66 + + + 4D66 + E 66 +
∂y ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂ x∂ y ∂y ∂x
2 #
∂φx ∂φ y ∂ w
−4F66 + + H44 φ 2y + H55 φx2 dxdy (8)
∂y ∂x ∂ x∂ y
and taking time derivative of displacement components leads to the kinetic energy
(T) as
2 2 #
1 ∂u 2 ∂v ∂w ∂u ∂ 2 w ∂v ∂ 2 w
T= ρ0 + + − 2ρ1 +
2 ∂t ∂t ∂t ∂t ∂ x∂t ∂t ∂ y∂t
2 2 2 2 #
∂ w ∂ w ∂u ∂φx ∂v ∂φ y
+ρ2 + + 2ρ01 +
∂ x∂t ∂ y∂t ∂t ∂t ∂t ∂t
2 2 #
∂φx ∂φ y ∂φx ∂ 2 w ∂φ y ∂ 2 w
+ρ02 + − 2ρ11 + dxdy (9)
∂t ∂t ∂t ∂ x∂t ∂t ∂ y∂t
The extensional, coupling, bending, and transverse shear rigidities (as given in
Eq. (8)) for the higher order shear deformation theory can be expressed as
h/2
(Ai j , Bi j , Ci j ) = Q i j (1, z, f (z)) dz; where i, j = 1, 2, 6
−h/2
h/2
(Di j , E i j , Fi j ) = Q i j (z 2 , f 2 , z f (z)) dz; where i, j = 1, 2, 6
−h/2
h/2
Q kk f dz; where k = 4, 5
2
Hkk =
−h/2
whereas the cross-sectional inertial coefficients in Eq. (9) are written as

h/2
ρi = ρz i dz; where i, j = 0, 1, 2
−h/2
h/2
j
ρi = ρz i f j dz; where i = 0, 1; j = 1, 2.
−h/2
In particular, the displacement components can be assumed as harmonic type as
u(x, y, t) = U (x, y) exp(iωt)

v(x, y, t) = V (x, y) exp(iωt)
w(x, y, t) = W (x, y) exp(iωt)
1 (10)
φx (x, y, t) = x (x, y) exp(iωt)
a
1
φ y (x, y, t) = y (x, y) exp(iωt)
c
√
In Eq. (10), i = −1; U (x, y), V (x, y), W (x, y), x (x, y), and y (x, y) are
the respective amplitudes for these displacement components for free vibration of
isotropic plate and the exponential terms indicate the harmonic type variation where ω
is the natural frequency. The mathematical manipulation reveals that the coefficients
$ h/2 $ h/2
associated with Bi j , Ci j , ρ1 , and ρ01 will be zero since −h/2 z dz and −h/2 f (z) dz
yield the value as zeroes irrespective of the shear deformation theory considered.
Substituting the displacement components of Eq. (10) in Eqs. (8) and (9) yields the
maximum strain energy (Umax ) and the maximum kinetic energy (Tmax ) as stated
below

1 ∂U 2 ∂V 2 ∂U ∂ V ∂U ∂V 2
Umax = A11 + + 2 A12 + A66 +
2 ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
2 2
2
∂2W ∂2W ∂2W ∂2W ∂2W
+D11 + + 2D 12 + 4D 66
∂x2 ∂ y2 ∂ x 2 ∂ y2 ∂ x∂ y
2 2
E 11 ∂x ∂ y 2E 12 ∂x ∂ y E 66 ∂x ∂ y 2
+ 2 + μ2 + + 2 +μ
a ∂x ∂y ab ∂ x ∂ y a ∂y ∂x

2F11 ∂x ∂ W 2 ∂ y ∂ W2 2F12 ∂x ∂ W 2 ∂ y ∂ W
2
− +μ − +μ
a ∂x ∂x2 ∂ y ∂ y2 a ∂ x ∂ y2 ∂y ∂x2
2 % &
4F66 ∂x ∂ y ∂ W H44
− +μ + 2 2x + μ2 2y dxdy (11)
a ∂y ∂x ∂ x∂ y a

1 % & ∂W 2 ∂W 2 ρ02 % 2 &
Tmax = 2 2 2
ρ0 U + V + W + ρ2 + + + μ2 2
x y
2 ∂x ∂y a2
#
2ρ11 ∂W ∂W
− x + μ y dxdy (12)
a ∂x ∂y
Introducing the transformation of coordinates as given in Eq. (1), the maximum

strain and kinetic energies take the following forms:

Dac ∂U 2 ∂V 1 ∂V 2 ∂U ∂V 1 ∂V
Umax = 12δ 2
+ −θ + + 2ν −θ +
2a 4 ∂ξ ∂ξ μ ∂η ∂ξ ∂ξ μ ∂η
2 2
1−ν ∂U 1 ∂V ∂V ∂ W
+ −θ + + +
2 ∂ξ μ ∂η ∂ξ ∂ξ 2
2
∂2W 2θ ∂ 2 W 1 ∂2W ∂2W 2 ∂2W 2θ ∂ 2 W
+ θ2 − + + 2ν θ −
∂ξ 2 μ ∂ξ ∂η μ ∂η
2 2 ∂ξ 2 ∂ξ 2 μ ∂ξ ∂η
2 2
1 ∂ W2 ∂ W 1 ∂ W
2 ∂x 2
+ 2 + 2(1 − ν) θ + + 12C 1
μ ∂η2 ∂ξ 2 μ ∂ξ ∂η ∂ξ
2
∂ y 1 ∂ y 2ν ∂x ∂ y 1 ∂ y
+ −θ + + −θ +
∂ξ μ ∂η μ ∂ξ ∂ξ μ ∂η
#
1−ν ∂x 1 ∂x ∂ y 2 ∂x ∂ 2 W
+ −θ + + − 24C2
2 ∂ξ μ ∂η ∂ξ ∂ξ ∂ξ 2

1 ∂ y 1 ∂ y ∂2W 2θ ∂ 2 W 1 ∂2W
+ −θ + θ2 − +
μ ∂η μ ∂ξ ∂ξ 2 μ ∂ξ ∂η μ2 ∂η2

∂x ∂ W
2 2θ ∂ W2 1 ∂ W2 1 ∂ y 1 ∂ y ∂ 2 W
+2ν θ2 − + + − θ +
∂ξ ∂ξ 2 μ ∂ξ ∂η μ2 ∂η2 μ ∂η μ ∂ξ ∂ξ 2

∂x 1 ∂x ∂ y ∂ W
2 1 ∂ W
2
+2(1 − ν) −θ + + −θ +
∂ξ μ ∂η ∂ξ ∂ξ 2 μ ∂ξ ∂η
! "#
2y
+6C3 (1 − ν)δ x + 2
2 2
dξ dη (13)
μ
Visit https://textbookfull.com
now to explore a rich
collection of eBooks, textbook
and enjoy exciting offers!

ρhω2 ac 2 2 2 1 ∂W 2 ∂W 1 ∂W 2
Tmax = (U + V + W ) + + −θ +
2 12δ 2 ∂ξ ∂ξ μ ∂η
! " #
C1 2y 2C2 ∂W 1 ∂W 1 ∂W
+ 2 2x + 2 − 2 x + −θ + dξ dη (14)
δ μ δ ∂ξ μ ∂ξ μ ∂η
where θ = b/c, μ = c/a, and δ = a/ h. The coefficients (Ci , i = 1, 2, and 3) involved

in Eq. (13) may be defined in terms of nondimensional thickness (−1/2 ≤ z̄ = z/ h ≤
1/2) as
1/2 2n #2
1
C1 = z̄ 2n+1 − (2n + 1)z̄ dz̄
2
−1/2
1/2 2n
1
C2 = z̄ 2n+2
− (2n + 1)z̄ dz̄2
2
−1/2
1/2 2n 2
1
C3 = (2n + 1) 2
z̄ 2n
− dz̄
2
−1/2
5 Rayleigh–Ritz Approximation
In this numerical approximation, the amplitudes of displacements are expressed as

linear combination of simple algebraic polynomials generated from Pascal’s triangle
as given below.
'
n '
n '
n '
n '
n
U= ci ϕiu , V = d j ϕ vj , W = ek ϕkw , x = gl ϕl1 , y = 2
h m ϕm
i=1 j=1 k=1 l=1 m=1
where ci , d j , ek , gl , and h m are the unknown constant coefficients to be determined

and ϕiu , ϕ vj , ϕkw , ϕl1 , and ϕm2 are the admissible functions corresponding to the ampli-
tudes; U , V , W , x , and y , respectively. The admissible functions must satisfy the
essential boundary conditions and can be represented as
ϕiu (x, y) = a f ψiu (x, y), i = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n

ϕ vj (x, y) = a f ψ vj (x, y), j = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n
ϕkw (x, y) = a f ψkw (x, y), k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n (15)
ϕl1 (x, y) = a f ψl1 (x, y), l = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n
ϕm2 (x, y) = a f ψm2 (x, y), m = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n
The function f = ξ p ηq (1 − ξ − η)r with the exponents p, q, and r , which con-

trol various BCs.1 The parameter p = 0, 1, or 2 according as the side ξ = 0 is free
(F), simply supported (S), or clamped (C). Similar interpretations can be given to
the parameters q and r corresponding to the sides η = 0 and ξ + η = 1, respec-
tively. Then the Rayleigh Quotient (ω2 ) can be obtained by equating Umax and Tmax .
Taking the partial derivatives of the Rayleigh Quotient with respect to the constant
coefficients involved in the admissible functions, we have
∂ω2
= 0; i = 1, 2, . . . , n
∂ci
∂ω2
= 0; j = 1, 2, . . . , n
∂d j
∂ω2
= 0; k = 1, 2, . . . , n
∂ek
∂ω2
= 0; l = 1, 2, . . . , n
∂gl
∂ω2
= 0; m = 1, 2, . . . , n.
∂h m
This will yield the governing equation for the free vibration of isotropic plate in the
form of generalized eigenvalue problem as mentioned below

[K] − λ2 [M] {} = 0 (16)
Here, [K] and [M] are the stiffness and inertia matrices, respectively, and {} is
the column vector of unknown constant coefficients. The eigenvalues (λ) in Eq. (16)
are the nondimensional frequencies for the concerned free vibration problem. In the
present study, free vibration eigenfrequencies obtained from this eigenvalue problem
are evaluated in further section by assuming different combinations of boundary
conditions. A comparison of nondimensional frequencies with the available literature
is also carried out for the validation after checking a test of convergence.
6 Numerical Results
The convergence of the first six nondimensional frequencies has been checked in
Table 1 with increase in number of polynomials involved in displacement components
along with n = 0. It may be observed that the natural frequencies converge gradually
with increase in n. It is now worth to report the new results in Tables 2 and 3 based on
different parameters mentioned in the formulation. In these computations, both the
triangular plates as mentioned in Fig. 2 are considered with C-S-F boundary supports
1 Boundary Conditions.
Table 1 Convergence and comparison of first six nondimensional frequencies of thick F-C-F
triangular plates
Plate δ n Mode
type
1 2 3 4 5 6
Fig. 2a 1000 2 20.3927 78.1541 9064.6489 17463.9348 30820.6806 34025.4136
5 17.2498 61.3124 124.1624 166.2471 403.5102 6832.6244
8 17.0642 51.5644 93.2703 156.6905 263.2885 335.0134
10 17.0598 51.0436 89.2063 154.3559 224.5704 274.2444
13 16.9793 50.7287 88.2901 110.4154 202.0650 263.1899
15 16.9768 50.6990 87.6855 110.4142 202.0283 249.3513
18 16.9720 49.7516 87.6317 108.5587 181.1437 210.5853
Singh and 16.960 49.737 87.604 108.46 180.78 –
Chakraverty
[18]
Singh and 16.948 49.712 87.338 – – –
Saxena [19]
5 2 19.5029 45.3232 65.5861 87.3197 154.1034 170.1271
5 16.6564 34.1631 52.2983 61.4083 77.9497 92.9045
8 16.4978 32.6346 45.0616 59.3493 69.2767 74.7328
10 16.4933 31.6979 44.6034 57.9253 67.4202 72.6854
13 16.4170 31.5352 44.3489 57.6123 65.9876 72.1428
15 16.9768 50.6990 87.6855 110.4142 202.0283 249.3513
18 16.4096 31.1154 43.6617 56.8823 65.0577 71.7023
Fig. 2b 1000 2 6.9213 59.8125 4280.1638 9831.4392 25667.3985 37102.6638
5 6.0356 26.4031 56.8614 104.2010 422.7189 2626.8857
8 5.8848 22.6825 49.6015 72.8403 142.4618 216.5425
10 5.8284 21.9921 44.8665 68.4445 119.0248 153.6323
13 5.7494 21.8362 38.8414 59.2241 100.3980 149.2491
15 5.7368 21.8189 38.7040 57.2716 94.8093 142.3618
18 5.7167 21.5245 37.4538 56.0593 74.6843 120.6403
Mirza and 5.7667 21.100 35.950 54.143 67.425 102.56
Bijlani [12]
Bhat [3] 5.7170 21.525 37.455 56.061 74.625 120.65
Singh and 5.7167 21.524 37.456 56.141 74.769 121.16
Chakraverty
[18]
5 2 6.8155 21.4008 49.1572 50.3630 128.3370 185.5133
5 5.9611 13.1344 24.5546 32.7670 44.5314 46.1200
8 5.8131 12.3677 21.2212 30.2262 37.0275 40.5099
10 5.7592 11.8457 20.7237 28.0859 35.9482 36.7639
13 5.6825 11.6816 20.5497 27.7580 33.2419 35.3455
15 5.6704 11.4236 20.5413 27.1825 33.0288 34.8645
18 5.6509 11.2123 20.2575 26.7289 31.9753 34.5557
Table 2 First six nondimensional frequencies of C-S-F right angled triangular plate with different
δ and n
n δ Mode
1 2 3 4 5 6
0 1000 26.3262 69.9065 126.3835 151.0697 230.2337 268.0560
100 26.3196 69.8720 126.2850 150.9336 229.8946 267.6597
10 25.6741 66.6537 117.4568 138.8612 154.3847 164.2517
5 23.9536 59.0575 77.1924 82.1259 99.0618 103.6633
1 1000 26.3260 69.9053 126.3812 151.0773 230.2371 267.8897
100 26.3076 69.5813 126.1510 150.7603 228.9596 259.5213
10 22.9766 50.7963 98.6327 124.9565 154.3847 164.2517
5 16.2340 52.7556 77.1924 82.1259 84.3379 101.1012
5 1000 26.3261 69.9048 126.3811 151.0649 230.2308 268.0705
100 26.3174 69.9241 126.3010 150.5828 229.7825 264.7317
10 25.6563 66.6495 117.4881 138.8225 154.3847 164.2517
5 23.9371 59.0518 77.1924 82.1259 99.0836 103.6633
10 1000 26.3262 69.9065 126.3835 151.0697 230.2337 268.0560
100 26.3196 69.8720 126.2850 150.9336 229.8946 267.6597
10 25.6741 66.6537 117.4568 138.8612 154.3847 164.2517
5 23.9536 59.0575 77.1924 82.1259 99.0618 103.6633
50 1000 26.3262 69.9065 126.3835 151.0697 230.2337 268.0560
100 26.3196 69.8720 126.2850 150.9336 229.8946 267.6597
10 25.6741 66.6537 117.4568 138.8612 154.3847 164.2517
5 23.9536 59.0575 77.1924 82.1259 99.0618 103.6633
with different δ and power-law indices (n) of PESDPT. It can be observed that the
results follow an ascending trend with an increase in δ for a fixed n, whereas these
frequencies are gradually increasing with n > 1 and merge with the solution at n = 0
for higher values of n. It is also worth mentioning that the plates may provide the
solution for corresponding thin plates for n = 0 and also for higher values of n.
Looking into present results, one may easily evaluate natural frequencies of different
triangular plates with various classical edge conditions. First six three-dimensional
mode shapes of C-S-F isosceles triangular plate with n = 100 and δ = 5 can also be
depicted in Fig. 3.
Table 3 First six nondimensional frequencies of C-S-F isosceles triangular plate with different δ
and n
n δ Mode
1 2 3 4 5 6
0 1000 19.0451 46.9083 81.8150 127.7056 136.2504 228.6029
100 19.0416 46.8930 81.7715 127.5945 136.1390 228.3057
10 18.6984 45.4371 77.7313 117.7430 124.9959 126.2656
5 17.7530 41.7137 62.4980 68.3409 71.3868 89.6326
1 1000 19.0429 46.9047 81.8141 127.6891 136.1965 228.8543
100 18.8632 46.8756 81.6949 125.8759 133.2544 242.1342
10 18.5502 57.0396 57.0396 116.0060 124.9959 142.7736
5 17.3846 34.4807 59.4301 62.4980 71.3868 89.6326
5 1000 19.0448 46.9100 81.8159 127.7077 136.2519 228.6361
100 19.0375 46.8746 81.7419 127.5040 135.9637 229.7807
10 18.6953 45.4358 77.7322 117.7026 124.9959 126.2499
5 17.7495 41.7143 62.4980 68.3409 71.3868 89.6326
10 1000 19.0451 46.9083 81.8150 127.7056 136.2504 228.6029
100 19.0416 46.8930 81.7715 127.5945 136.1390 228.3057
10 18.6984 45.4371 77.7313 117.7430 124.9959 126.2656
5 17.7530 41.7137 62.4980 68.3409 71.3868 89.6326
50 1000 19.0451 46.9083 81.8150 127.7056 136.2504 228.6029
100 19.0416 46.8930 81.7715 127.5945 136.1390 228.3057
10 18.6984 45.4371 77.7313 117.7430 124.9959 126.2656
5 17.7530 41.7137 62.4980 68.3409 71.3868 89.6326
−3 −4
x 10 x 10
2 0.01 5
1
0.005
0 0
−1 0
−2 −5
−0.005
−3
−4 −0.01 −10
1 1 1
1 1 1
0.5 0.8 0.5 0.8 0.5 0.8
0.6 0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2 0.2
η 0 0 ξ η 0 0 ξ η 0 0 ξ
1 2 3
−3 −3
x 10 x 10
6 0.015 2
4 0.01 1
2 0.005 0
0 0 −1
−2 −0.005 −2
−4 −0.01 −3
1 1 1
1 1 1
0.5 0.8 0.5 0.8 0.5 0.8
0.6 0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2 0.2
η 0 0 ξ η 0 0 ξ η 0 0 ξ
4 5 6
Fig. 3 First six 3D mode shapes of C-S-F isosceles triangular plate with n = 50 and δ = 5
Random documents with unrelated
content Scribd suggests to you:
Magnesium sulfate 34.00 “
Sodium chlorid 2.50 “
Water 11.60 “
The percentage of potash corresponding to the above composition is 27.2. This substance being so
rich in potash, and practically free of chlorids, is well suited to transportation to great distances and for
general use in the field. Since, however, a considerable expense attends the manufacture of the artificial
schönit, the advantages above named give it very little, if any, advantage in competition with the other
potash salts as they come from the mines. It has, however, an especial value for the fertilization of
tobacco and vineyards.
245. Potassium Sulfate.—Several grades of potassium sulfate are found in the market for fertilizing
purposes, some of them quite pure, containing over ninety-seven per cent of the pure sulfate. The
following data show the composition of a high grade and low grade potassium sulfate of commerce:
High grade. Low grade.
Potassium sulfate 97.20 per cent. 90.60 per cent.
Potassium chlorid 0.30 “ 1.60 “
Magnesium sulfate 0.70 “ 2.70 “
Magnesium chlorid 0.40 “ 1.00 “
Sodium chlorid 0.20 “ 1.20 “
Insoluble 0.20 “ 0.30 “
Water 0.70 “ 2.20 “
Naturally, high grade sulfates of this kind can only be prepared in chemical factories built especially
for the work. The result is that the potash per unit is raised greatly in price. When, however, the
fertilizers are to be transported to a great distance, the saving in freight often more than compensates
for the higher price of the potash. It therefore happens that there are many places in this country where
the actual price of potash per pound is less in high grade sulfates than in kainit or carnallit. When, in
addition to this, the especial fitness of the high grade sulfates for certain forms of fertilization, especially
tobacco growing, is considered, it is seen that at this distance from the mines these high grade salts are
of no inconsiderable importance. The percentage of potash in the high grade sulfates often exceeds fifty.
246. Potassium Magnesium Carbonate.—This salt has lately been manufactured and used to a
considerable extent, especially for tobacco fertilizing. As furnished to the trade it has the following
average composition:
Potassium carbonate 35 to 40 per cent.
Magnesium carbonate 33 to 36 “
Water of crystallization 25 “
Potassium chlorid, potassium sulfate,
and insoluble 2 to 3 “
The content of potash, as is seen from the above formula, amounts to from seventeen to eighteen
per cent. The compound is completely dry, is not hygroscopic, and is, therefore, always ready for
distribution. It is especially to be recommended for all those intensive cultures where it is feared that
chlorids and sulfates will prove injurious, especially in the cultivation of tobacco.
247. Potash in Factory Residues.—The residues from the potash factories in Stassfurt and vicinity
contain considerable quantities of potash and attempts have been made to recover this waste and put it
into form for fertilizing uses. The waste waters of the factories are sometimes collected and evaporated,
and the residue incinerated. The content of potash in these residues is extremely variable, usually quite
low, and they, therefore, cannot be recommended for fertilizing purposes, especially if they are to be
transported to any distance.
248. Quantity of Potash Salts Used.—The total quantity of potash delivered to consumers from the
Stassfurt mines in 1891, the last year for which complete statistics are at hand was 413,508 tons of
kainit and sylvinit, 39,444 tons of carnallit, 18,078 tons of sulfate, and 12,453 tons of the potassium
magnesium sulfate. Of the above quantities, 115,245 tons of kainit were shipped to North America, and
of the high grade sulfate mentioned, 13,322 tons were sent to other countries, and of the potassium
magnesium sulfate, 11,081 tons were exported.
METHODS OF ANALYSIS.
249. Classification of Methods.—To detect the presence of potash in a mixture the aid of the
spectroscope may be invoked. In the scale of the spectrum divided into 170 parts, on which the sodium
line falls at 50, potassium gives three faint rather broad bands, two red, falling at 17 and 27, and one
plum-colored band, near the extreme right of the spectrum, at 153. Potassium, however, does not give
brilliant and well-marked spectral bands, such as are afforded by its associates rubidium, caesium,
sodium, and lithium. A convenient qualitative test which, for practical purposes will be quite sufficient,
may be secured by dipping a platinum loop into a strong acid solution of the supposed potash
compound, and viewing through a piece of cobalt glass, the coloration produced thereby when held in
the flame of a bunsen. The red-purple tint thereby produced should be compared with that coming from
a pure potash salt similarly treated. If a fertilizer sample give no indication of potash when treated as
above it may be safely concluded that it does not contain any weighable quantity of potash.
For the estimation of the percentage of potash present in a given sample it may be safely assumed
that all of value in agriculture will be given up to an aqueous or slightly acid solution if organic matter
have been destroyed as indicated in a previous paragraph. In the case of minerals insoluble in a dilute
acid the potash may be determined by some one of the processes given in the first volume.[200] The
potash having been obtained in an aqueous or slightly acid (hydrochloric) solution, it may be determined
either by precipitation as potassium platinochlorid or as potassium perchlorate. The former method is
the one which has been almost exclusively used by analysis in the past, but the latter one is coming into
prominence and by reason of the greater economy attending its practice and the excellent results
obtained by some analysts, demands a generous consideration.
250. The Platinic Chlorid Method.—The principle of this method rests on the great insolubility of
the potassium platinochlorid in strong alcohol and the easy solubility of some of its commonly attending
salts; viz., sodium, etc., in the same reagent. Before the precipitation of the potash it is necessary to
remove the bases of the earths, sulfates, etc. Barium chlorid and hydroxid, ammonium oxalate or
carbonate, sulfuric acid, etc., are used in conjunction or successively to effect these purposes in the
manner hereinafter described. The filtrate and washings containing the potash are evaporated to
dryness and gently ignited to expel excess of ammonium salts and in the residue taken up with water
and acidulated with hydrochloric acid, the potash is precipitated with platinic chlorid solution. The best
methods of executing the analysis follow.
251. The Official Agricultural Method.—This method is based on the processes at first proposed
by Lindo[201] and Gladding,[202] and is given below as adapted to mixed fertilizers and mineral potash
salts.[203]
(1) In Superphosphates.—Boil ten grams with 300 cubic centimeters of water thirty minutes. To the
hot solution add ammonia in slight excess, and then a sufficient quantity of ammonium oxalate to
precipitate all the lime present; cool and make up to half a liter, mix thoroughly, and filter through a dry
filter; evaporate fifty cubic centimeters, corresponding to one gram, nearly to dryness, add one cubic
centimeter of dilute sulfuric acid (1 to 1), evaporate to dryness and ignite to whiteness. As all the potash
is in form of sulfate, no loss need be apprehended by volatilization of potash, and a full red heat must be
maintained until the residue is perfectly white. This residue is dissolved in hot water, plus a few drops of
hydrochloric acid, and a slight excess of platinum solution is added. This solution is then evaporated to
a thick paste in a small dish, and eighty per cent alcohol added. In evaporating, special precaution
should be taken to prevent absorption of ammonia. The precipitate is washed thoroughly with alcohol by
decantation and on the filter, as usual. The washing should be continued even after the filtrate is
colorless. Ten cubic centimeters of the ammonium chlorid solution, prepared as hereinafter directed, are
run through the filter, or the washing may be performed in the dish. The ten cubic centimeters will
contain the bulk of the impurities, and are thrown away. Fresh portions of ten cubic centimeters of the
ammonium chlorid are run through the filter several times (5 or 6). The filter is then washed thoroughly
with pure alcohol, dried, and weighed as usual. Care should be taken that the precipitate is perfectly
soluble in water. The platinum solution used contains one gram of metallic platinum in every ten cubic
centimeters. To prepare the washing solution of ammonium chlorid, place in a bottle 500 cubic
centimeters of water and 100 grams of ammonium chlorid and shake till dissolved. Now pulverize five or
ten grains of potassium platinochlorid, put in the bottle and shake at intervals for six or eight hours; let
settle over night, then filter off the liquid into a second bottle. The first bottle is then ready for preparation
of a fresh supply when needed.
(2) Potassium Chlorids.—In the analysis of these salts an aliquot portion of the solution, containing a
half gram, is evaporated with forty cubic centimeters of the platinum solution and a few drops of
hydrochloric acid, and washed as before.
(3) Potassium Sulfate, Kainit, Etc.—In the analysis of kainit, dissolve ten grams of the pulverized salt
in 300 cubic centimeters of boiling water, add ammonia to slight excess, then a sufficient quantity of
ammonium oxalate to throw down all lime present; cool and make up to half a liter, mix thoroughly, and
filter on a dry filter; from twenty-five cubic centimeters, corresponding to a half gram, proceed to remove
the ammonia, as in the analysis of superphosphates; dissolve the residue in hot water, plus a few drops
of hydrochloric acid, and add fifteen cubic centimeters of platinum solution. In the analysis of high-grade
sulfate and of double-manure salt (potassium sulfate, magnesium sulfate, containing about twenty-
seven per cent of potassium oxid), make up the solution as above, but omit the precipitation,
evaporation, etc.; to an aliquot part equal to a half gram add fifteen cubic centimeters of platinum
solution. In all cases special care must be taken in the washing with alcohol to remove all the double
platinum sodium chlorid which may be present. The washing should be continued some time after the
filtrate is colorless. Twenty-five cubic centimeters of the ammonium chlorid solution are employed
instead of ten cubic centimeters, and the twenty-five cubic centimeters poured through at least six times
to remove all sulfates and chlorids. Wash finally with alcohol; dry and weigh as usual.
252. Alternate Method for Potash.—Boil ten grams of the prepared sample for thirty minutes with
300 cubic centimeters of water, and, after cooling and without filtering, make up to one liter and filter
through a dry filter. If the sample have ten per cent of potassium oxid, use fifty cubic centimeters of the
filtrate; if less than ten per cent of potassium oxid (ordinary potash fertilizers), use 100 cubic centimeters
of the filtrate. In each case make the volume up to 150 cubic centimeters, heat to 100°, and add, drop
by drop with constant stirring, a slight excess of barium chlorid, and, without filtering, in the same
manner add barium hydrate in slight excess. Filter while hot and wash until the precipitate is free of
chlorids. Add to the filtrate one cubic centimeter of strong ammonium hydrate, and then a saturated
solution of ammonium carbonate, until the excess of barium is precipitated. Heat and add, in fine
powder, a half gram of pure oxalic acid or 0.75 gram of ammonium oxalate. Filter, wash free of chlorids,
evaporate the filtrate to dryness in a platinum dish, and ignite carefully over the free flame, below red
heat, until all volatile matter is driven off.
The residue is digested with hot water, filtered through a small filter, and washed with successive
small portions of water until the filtrate amounts to thirty cubic centimeters or more. To this filtrate, add
two drops of hydrochloric acid, in a porcelain dish, and from five to ten cubic centimeters of a solution of
ten grams of platinic chlorid in 100 cubic centimeters of water. The mixture is evaporated on a water-
bath to a thick sirup, as above, treated with alcohol of eighty per cent strength, washed by decantation,
collected in a gooch or other form of filter, washed with strong alcohol, afterwards with five cubic
centimeters of ether, dried for thirty minutes at 100°, and weighed.
It is desirable, if there be an appearance of foreign matter in the double salt, that it should be
washed, according to the previous method, with ten cubic centimeters of the half-concentrated solution
of ammonium chlorid, which has been saturated by shaking with potassium platinochlorid.
253. Method of Solution for Organic Compounds.—In case the potash is contained in organic
compounds, like tobacco stems, cottonseed hulls, etc., weigh ten grams, saturate with strong sulfuric
acid, and ignite in a muffle to destroy organic matter. Add a little strong hydrochloric acid to moisten the
mass and warm slightly so as to loosen it in the dish. Proceed then as in the lindo-gladding or alternate
method.
254. Factors.—The use of the factors 0.3056 for converting potassium platinochlorid to potassium
chlorid and 0.19308 for converting it to potassium oxid is advised. The latter number is almost identical
with that used by the Halle and Stassfurt chemists viz., 0.1927 and 0.1928 respectively.
255. Methods Used at the Halle Station.—(1) In Kainits and other Mineral Salts of Potash.[204]—
Five grams of the prepared sample are boiled for half an hour in a half liter flask with from twenty to
thirty cubic centimeters of concentrated hydrochloric acid and 100 cubic centimeters of water, and
afterwards as much water added as is necessary to fill the flask about three quarters full, and the
sulfuric acid is then precipitated with barium chlorid. To avoid an excess of barium chlorid the solution
used is of known strength and is added first in such quantity as would precipitate the sulfuric acid from a
kainit of low sulfuric acid content. The mixture is then boiled, allowed to settle and tried with a dropping
tube containing barium chlorid. If a further precipitate be given a few drops more of barium chlorid
solution are added, again boiled and allowed to settle. This is continued until barium chlorid gives no
precipitation. After the barium chlorid gives no more precipitate a drop of dilute sulfuric acid is added to
test for excess of barium. The operation is continued with the sulfuric acid until it no longer gives a
precipitate of barium sulfate. By the alternate use of the barium chlorid and sulfuric acid the exact
neutral point can soon be secured. When this point is reached the liquid is allowed to cool, the flask is
filled to the mark, its contents filtered, and of the filtrate fifty cubic centimeters, equal to half a gram of
the substance, taken for further estimation.
This quantity is evaporated on a water-bath to a sirupy consistence in a porcelain dish with ten cubic
centimeters of platinic chlorid. The platinic chlorid solution should contain one gram of platinum in each
ten cubic centimeters. The residue is treated with eighty per cent alcohol and, with stirring, allowed to
stand for an hour. The precipitate is then collected on a gooch, either of platinum or porcelain, washed
about eight times with eighty per cent alcohol and the potassium platinochlorid dried for two hours at
100°. After weighing the precipitate is dissolved in hot water and the residue washed under pressure,
first with hot water and then with alcohol. The crucible with the asbestos felt is dried at 100° and
weighed. Any impurities which the double salt may have carried down with it are left on the filter and the
weight of the original precipitate can thus be corrected. The weight of potassium platinochlorid is
multiplied by 0.1927 and the product corresponds to the weight of K₂O in the sample taken.
(2) Estimation of Potash in Guanos and Other Fertilizers containing Organic Substances.—Ten
grams of the substances are carefully incinerated at a low temperature in a platinum dish. After ignition
the contents of the dish are placed in a half liter flask and boiled for an hour with hydrochloric acid and a
few drops of nitric acid. The sulfuric acid can then be precipitated directly with barium chlorid, or better,
allow the flask to cool, fill to the mark, filter and treat an aliquot part of the filtrate with barium chlorid as
described above. The filtrate from the separated sulfate of barium is neutralized with ammonia and all
the bases, with the exception of magnesia and the alkalies, precipitated with ammonium carbonate; boil,
fill to the mark and filter. Of this filtrate evaporate from 100 to 200 cubic centimeters in a platinum dish.
After evaporation the ammonium salts are driven off by careful ignition, the residue taken up with hot
water and filtered through as small a filter as possible into a porcelain dish; the magnesia remaining in
the precipitate. The filtrate is acidified with a few drops of hydrochloric acid, ten cubic centimeters of
platinic chlorid added and the further determination conducted as with kainit.
256. Dutch Method.—The process used at the Royal Agricultural Station of Holland is almost
identical with that employed at Halle.[205]
A. Method for Stassfurt and other Potash Salts.—The necessary reagents are:
1. A dilute solution of barium chlorid:
2. A solution of platinic chlorid containing one gram of platinum in ten cubic centimeters: It must be
wholly free from platinous chlorid and nitric acid, and partially freed from an excess of hydrochloric acid
by repeated evaporations with water.
3. Alcohol of eighty per cent strength by the volume:
The methods of bringing the potash into solution and of precipitating the sulfuric acid are the same
as for the Halle process described above.
Add then twenty cubic centimeters of the platinum solution and evaporate the mixture nearly to
dryness. Add a sufficient quantity of eighty per cent alcohol and stir for some time. Allow to stand and
then filter through a gooch dried at 120°. Finally wash with eighty per cent alcohol, dry at 120°, and
weigh.
B. Method for Potash Superphosphate and other mixed Fertilizers.—The reagents necessary are the
same as under A, and, in addition, a saturated solution of barium hydrate and a solution of ammonium
carbonate mixed with ammonia.
Boil twenty grams of the substance with water for half an hour, cool, make up to half a liter and filter.
Boil fifty cubic centimeters of the filtrate, and add barium chlorid till no more precipitate forms. Mix with
baryta water to strong alkaline reaction, cool, make up to 100 cubic centimeters and filter. Raise fifty
cubic centimeters of the filtrate to the boiling temperature and add ammonium carbonate solution till no
more precipitate forms: Cool, make up to 100 cubic centimeters and filter. Transfer fifty cubic
centimeters of the filtrate to a platinum dish, evaporate and heat the residue, avoiding too high a
temperature, till the ammonia salts are expelled. Dissolve the residue in water, filter, and treat the filtrate
as described under A.
257. Swedish Methods.—The Swedish chemists determine the potash in mineral salts by the
platinum chlorid process, but with certain variations from the processes already given. The manipulation
is conducted as follows:[206]
Weigh one gram of the sample to be examined and pour about 300 cubic centimeters of hot water
over it in a beaker and filter after complete solution; add one cubic centimeter of hydrochloric acid, heat
nearly to boiling, add dilute barium chlorid solution from a pipette or burette in a very fine stream stirring,
slowly and carefully, till all sulfuric acid is completely precipitated, and only a trace of the precipitant is in
excess. If the precipitation be conducted in the way given the barium sulfate will come down in
crystalline condition, and settle rapidly within a few minutes, and almost immediately after the
precipitation is finished may be filtered clear. The filtrate and washings from the barium sulfate are
brought into a liter flask; fill this to the mark, take out fifty cubic centimeters with a pipette, evaporate the
greater portion on a water-bath in a porcelain dish, transfer the residue by means of ammonia-free water
to a beaker of fifty cubic centimeters capacity, add ten cubic centimeters of platinic chlorid solution, stir
well with a glass rod, evaporate on a water-bath to a sirupy condition, allow to cool, and if the residue be
too dry, add a few drops of water to allow the sodium platinochlorid to take up crystal water with
certainty, stir well, add alcohol after a few minutes, mix carefully, leave the mixture standing for a while
in the beaker covered with a watch glass, stirring occasionally; finally decant the solution, which must be
of a dark yellow color, through a very small filter, wash the precipitate in the beaker repeatedly with small
quantities of alcohol and decant; then transfer the precipitate to the filter, wash with alcohol, dry the filter
and the precipitate at a gentle heat till all alcohol has evaporated, carefully transfer the contents of the
filter to a watch glass placed on white glazed paper; dissolve the potassium platinochlorid still remaining
on the filter in small quantities of boiling water, evaporate the filtrate on a water-bath in an accurately
weighed platinum dish to dryness and transfer the same to the main portion of the chlorid from the
watch glass. In order to obtain the salt free of the corresponding combinations of sodium, barium,
calcium, and magnesium, which salts, although soluble in alcohol, may make the salt impure, before
weighing, treat the precipitate twice with small quantities of cold water which will dissolve these
impurities; evaporate the solution after addition of one cubic centimeter of platinic chlorid nearly to
dryness on a water-bath, treat the residue in the same way as given before, add the small quantity of
potassium platinochlorid which is hereby obtained together with the main portion to the platinum dish,
dry at 130°, and weigh. Only after having been treated in this way may the precipitated potassium
platinochlorid be considered absolutely pure. The Stassfurt salts contain magnesia, often in large
quantities and as a consequence the potassium platinochlorid precipitated directly is likely to be
contaminated therewith.
258. Methods for the Analysis of Carnallit, Kainit, Sylvinit, and Kieserit.—The chemists of the
German Potash Syndicate use the following methods in the analysis of the raw products mentioned
above.[207]
(1) Preparation of the Sample.—It is advisable to take from a large well mixed mass at least half a
kilogram for the analytical sample and this should be ground to a fine powder in a mill or mortar.
(2) Estimation of the Potash by the Precipitation Method.—In a half liter flask are placed 35.70 grams
of kainit or sylvinit, or 30.56 grams of carnallit or bergkieserit, which are boiled with 350 cubic
centimeters of water after the addition of ten cubic centimeters of hydrochloric acid. After cooling the
flask is filled to the mark with water, well shaken, and its contents filtered. Fifty cubic centimeters of the
filtrate are treated in a 200 cubic centimeter flask with a solution of barium chlorid, the flask filled to the
mark, well shaken, and its contents filtered. Twenty cubic centimeters of the filtrate, corresponding to
0.3570 or 0.3056 gram of the substance, are treated with five cubic centimeters of platinic chlorid
solution and the potassium estimated according to the usual methods.
(3) Estimation of Potash (K₂O) in Raw Potash Salts.—(a) For the determination of potash alone in
carnallit, kainit, and sylvinit one hundred grams of the well-mixed sample are put into a graduated flask
holding one liter and dissolved by boiling with half a liter of water, acidulated with ten cubic centimeters
of hydrochloric. The purpose of adding hydrochloric acid is to bring any polyhalit that might be present in
the salts into solution and which it is difficult to dissolve in pure water. After dissolving and cooling the
flask is filled up to the mark. The solution, after mixing, is filtered through a dry filter and 100 cubic
centimeters of the filtrate, corresponding to ten grams substance, are put into a half liter flask by means
of a pipette. After the addition of 200-300 cubic centimeters of water the solution is heated to boiling and
the sulfuric acid accurately precipitated with normal barium chlorid solution, containing 104 grams of the
dry salt in one liter. The volume of the precipitate is calculated from the amount of barium solution used
and from the specific gravity of the barium sulfate. After cooling, the flask is filled up with water as far
above the mark as equals the volume of the calculated barium precipitate, and, after thorough mixing,
the solution is filtered again through a dry filter. Fifty cubic centimeters of this filtrate, corresponding to
one gram substance, are evaporated upon the water-bath with a sufficient amount of platinic chlorid.
The residue of potassium platinochlorid is washed with ninety per cent alcohol, dried at 120°, and
weighed.
(b) If it be desired to determine separately the quantity of potash present in the form of sulfate and in
the form of chlorid, as for example in kainit and in sulfate of potash, or if it is to be determined whether
potassium sulfate is in combination with a proportionate amount of magnesium chlorid, as in kainit, or in
combination with magnesium sulfate alone, as in schönit, it then becomes necessary to determine
besides potash the percentages of chlorin, sulfuric acid, lime, magnesia, the total alkalies, water, and
the residue insoluble in water. For this purpose 100 grams of the sample are dissolved, the solution is
filtered, the filter washed, and the filtrate made up to one liter; a part of the liquid is taken for the
determination of sulfuric acid; by precipitating with barium chlorid, and another part for the determination
of lime and magnesia. For the determination of the alkali chlorids, 100 cubic centimeters of the solution,
corresponding to ten grams substance, are acidulated with hydrochloric, and, after heating to boiling,
the sulfuric acid is completely precipitated with barium chlorid, with the precaution of using not more of
the barium solution than is necessary for the complete precipitation. Fifty cubic centimeters of the
filtered solution, corresponding to one gram substance, are evaporated to dryness in order to drive off
the hydrochloric acid. Magnesium chlorid is decomposed by igniting with oxalic acid or with mercuric
oxid. After ignition, the residue is moistened with a little ammonium carbonate for the purpose of
converting the calcium oxid that may have been formed into calcium carbonate. The alkali chlorids,
which are entirely free of lime and magnesia, are weighed, and potassium chlorid is determined by
means of platinic chlorid. The amount of sodium chlorid is obtained by deducting potassium chlorid from
the mixed chlorids. For the water determination five grams of the sample are ignited and the loss of
weight is determined. The ignited mass is dissolved in water, and for the purpose of determining the
quantity of magnesium chlorid that may have been decomposed by the ignition the percentage of chlorin
is determined by titration. The difference in the contents of chlorin before and after ignition is subtracted
from the loss in weight, after allowance has been made for the absorption of oxygen and for the loss of
hydrogen. The rest is water. The results obtained are calculated in the following manner: From the total
amount of the sulfuric acid found, that portion is deducted which is combined with calcium as calcium
sulfate; the rest of the sulfuric acid is divided into two equal parts for the purpose of calculating the
contents of potassium sulfate and magnesium sulfate, according to the molecular proportion in which
these salts are present in kainit and in schönit. If there be an excess of potash left uncombined with
sulfuric acid, then it is in the form of potassium chlorid; likewise the amount of magnesia, uncombined
with sulfuric acid, is to be reckoned as magnesium chlorid. The result of this calculation will tell how
much potash is in the form of kainit (K₂SO₄, MgSO₄, MgCl₂ with 6H₂O) and how much of it is in the
form of schönit (K₂SO₄, MgSO₄, with 6H₂O) and how much in the form of potassium chlorid. The
sodium is reckoned as sodium chlorid.
(c) In calculating the contents of potash, of potassium chlorid, and of potassium sulfate from the
weighed potassium platinochlorid, the factors 0.1928, 0.3056, and 0.3566 are used, assuming that the
atomic weight of platinum is 197.18.
(d) The two methods which have been described under a and b, and which are in common use in the
Stassfurt potash industry, i. e., the so-called precipitation method, and the oxalic acid method, give
almost identical results. The first method, however, deserves preference on account of greater simplicity
in cases where potash alone is to be determined. Finkner’s method likewise gives results which agree
well with the results obtained by the customary methods. It consists in evaporating the salt solution with
a sufficient quantity of platinic chlorid without previously removing the sulfuric acid, reducing the
potassium platinochlorid, and weighing the metallic platinum.
The following are the results of comparative analyses:
1. After the precipitation method 22.02 per cent KCl
2. After the oxalic acid method 22.03 per cent KCl
3. After Finkner’s method 22.01 per cent KCl
In another sample of carnallit the following results were obtained:
In a third sample of carnallit the content of potassium chlorid was as follows:
The Anhalt chemists object to precipitating the sulfuric acid and alkaline earths with barium oxid and
ammonium carbonate, and afterwards the potash with platinic chlorid. The results obtained with this
method are, according to them, very inaccurate, and always too low. This is explained by the fact that it
is impossible to precipitate sulfuric acid without at the same time precipitating some of the potash,
unless it be in an acid solution.
A separation of the alkaline earths, if potash alone is to be determined, is superfluous, for the reason
that calcium and magnesium platinochlorid are soluble in ninety per cent alcohol, even with more facility
than sodium platinochlorid.
259. Methods for Concentrated Potash Salts.—In the preceding paragraphs have been given the
methods used by the Stassfurt syndicate for the estimation of potash in the raw salts as they come from
the mines. Following are the methods used by the same syndicate for the concentrated approximately
pure compounds and the other salts which accompany them.
Potassium Chlorid.—The following process is used for the estimation of potassium and other
constituents of the high grade chlorids of commerce. In a half liter flask are placed 7.6405 grams of the
finely powdered sample, which is dissolved and made up to the mark. With salts which contain more
than half a per cent of sulfuric acid the preliminary conversion of the sulfates into the corresponding
chlorin compounds, by precipitation with barium chlorid solution, is necessary. Twenty cubic centimeters
of the above solution, corresponding to 0.3056 gram of the salt, are placed in a flat porcelain dish
having a diameter of about ten centimeters and, after the addition of five cubic centimeters of the platinic
chlorid solution, evaporated on the water-bath with constant stirring until, after cooling, the sirupy liquid
passes quickly into a fine crystalline condition. The residue is rubbed into a fine powder with a glass rod,
mixed with twenty cubic centimeters of ninety-six per cent alcohol and dried at 120° to a constant
weight. It is weighed while warm and brought on a moistened filter with alcohol, care being taken that
the liquid does not touch the edge of the filter. The filtration can be carried on under a moderate
pressure. The complete washing of the potassium platinochlorid can be easily accomplished upon the
filter. The filter and the precipitate, after as much of the alcohol wash has been removed as is possible,
are dried at 120° to constant weight and weighed while still warm. One milligram of the potassium
platinochlorid thus obtained corresponds to a tenth per cent of potassium chlorid.
Estimation of Sodium Chlorid.—For the estimation of the sodium chlorid which may be present in the
potassium chlorid twelve and a half grams of the latter salt are dissolved in a quarter liter flask with
twenty-five cubic centimeters of boiling water after the addition of a little potassium carbonate for the
purpose of converting the magnesium and calcium compounds into carbonates. After filtration 100 cubic
centimeters corresponding to five grams of the salt are evaporated to dryness in a porcelain or platinum
dish after the addition of a few drops of concentrated hydrochloric acid in order to convert any calcium
carbonate which may be present into chlorid. The residue is gently ignited and weighed. In this mixture
of potassium and sodium chlorids the potassium chlorid may be estimated in the usual way and the
sodium chlorid determined by difference or the respective proportions of the two bases may be
calculated after the determination of the total chlorin by precipitation with a standard solution of silver
nitrate.
Estimation of Magnesium Chlorid.—In order to estimate the amount of magnesium chlorid in high
grade muriate of potash, twenty-five grams of the latter salt are dissolved in a half liter flask and treated
with ten cubic centimeters of a normal solution of potash lye. The flask is then filled to the mark with
water, thoroughly shaken and its contents filtered. Fifty cubic centimeters of the filtrate are then titrated
with one-tenth normal sulfuric acid. The calcium compounds which remain in solution do not influence
the result. The quantity of magnesium chlorid originally present corresponds to the number of cubic
centimeters of the normal potash lye which has disappeared in the operation. The reaction which takes
place is represented by the following equation:
MgCl₂ + 2KOH = MgO₂H₂ + 2KCl.

Potassium Sulfate.—The quantity of potassium sulfate contained in the high grade sulfates of
commerce is determined in the following manner: In a half liter flask are placed 8.9235 grams of the
finely ground sample which is dissolved in about 350 cubic centimeters of boiling water after the addition
of twenty cubic centimeters of hydrochloric acid. The sulfuric acid is thrown out by the addition, drop by
drop, of a barium chlorid solution, the contents of the flask being kept boiling meanwhile and thoroughly
stirred. From time to time the addition of the barium chlorid is stopped and the upper part of the liquid
allowed to become clear by the subsidence of the barium sulfate. It is then noticed whether or not an
additional drop of the barium chlorid solution produces a turbidity. Any excess of barium chlorid is
removed by the careful addition of sulfuric acid. After the precipitation is complete and the contents of
the flask are cooled, it is filled up to the mark with water and its contents filtered. Twenty cubic
centimeters of the filtrate, corresponding to 0.357 gram of the original salt are precipitated by platinic
chlorid in the usual manner and the resulting potassium platinochlorid collected and weighed. One
milligram of the potassium platinochlorid thus obtained corresponds to one-tenth per cent of potassium
sulfate in the original salt. To the percentage of potassium sulfate thus found three-tenths per cent are to
be added for a correction when high grade potassium sulfate is taken. If the sample be a high grade
sulfate of potassium and magnesium no correction should be applied.
Estimation of Potassium Chlorid and Potassium Sulfate in Calcined Manurial Salts.—In these salts
15.281 grams for potassium chlorid or 17.847 grams for potassium sulfate are dissolved in a half liter
flask after the addition of ten cubic centimeters of hydrochloric acid. The flask is filled to the mark and its
contents filtered and 250 cubic centimeters placed in a half liter flask and treated with barium chlorid
solution as indicated above. The rest of the operation is exactly as has been described. In each case
one milligram of the potassium platinochlorid corresponds to one-tenth per cent of the desired salt.
Estimation of Magnesium Sulfate in Kieserit.—Ten grams of the finely powdered kieserit are boiled
for one hour in a half liter flask two-thirds full of water. After cooling, from fifty to sixty cubic centimeters
of double normal potash lye and twenty cubic centimeters of a ten per cent neutral potassium oxalate
solution are added, the flask filled to the mark, and after being well shaken and standing for a quarter of
an hour, filtered. The reaction is represented by the formula
MgSO₄ + 2KOH = MgO₂H₂ + K₂SO₄.
Fifty cubic centimeters of the filtrate are then titrated with one-tenth normal sulfuric acid. To the
percentage of magnesium sulfate found by this process two-tenths per cent are to be added as a
correction.
Barium Chlorid Solution.—Dissolve 122 grams of crystallized barium chlorid in water in a liter flask.
Add fifty cubic centimeters of hydrochloric acid and water to the mark and shake well.
260. The Barium Oxalate Method.—The principle of this process, worked out by Schweitzer and
Lungwitz[208] is based on the fact that in an ammoniacal solution, by means of barium oxalate, all the
alkaline earths can be precipitated as oxalates, and sulfuric acid in similar circumstances can be thrown
down as a barium salt and the iron and alumina as hydroxids. The reagents used to secure this
precipitation are ammonia and barium oxalate.
For the determination of potash in a superphosphate the analytical process is conducted as follows:
Ten grams of the superphosphate are mixed with half a liter of water and fifteen grams of barium oxalate
dissolved in hydrochloric acid.
The mixture is boiled for twenty minutes and treated with some hydrogen peroxid to oxidize any
ferrous iron that may be present. Afterwards the solution is made alkaline with ammonia. After cooling, it
is made up to a given volume (half a liter) and filtered. An aliquot part of the filtrate is evaporated to
dryness, ignited, extracted with hot water and, after the addition of a few drops of hydrochloric acid, the
potassium is precipitated with platinic chlorid, and collected and weighed in the usual manner: Or the
ignited residue may be dissolved directly in dilute hydrochloric acid and the rest of the process carried
out as indicated.
In kainit the process is conducted as follows: Ten grams of the powdered sample are treated with a
hydrochloric acid solution of the barium oxalate containing ten grams of the salt. The rest of the
operation is conducted as described above. In the use of this method it is important that always enough
of the barium oxalate solution be employed to fully saturate all the sulfuric acid which may be present.
261. Method of DeRoode for Kainit.—All the potash contained in kainit, according to de Roode,
passes readily into aqueous solution.[209] On evaporating this aqueous solution to a pasty condition with
enough platinic chlorid to unite with all the halogens present all the other bodies can be washed out of
the potassium platinochlorid by ammonium chlorid solution and the pure platinum salt thus obtained,
which is washed and dried in the usual way. De Roode therefore asserts that it is quite useless to
previously precipitate the solution of kainit with barium chlorid, ammonium oxalate, or carbonate. Before
the addition of alcohol to the residue obtained by evaporation with platinic chlorid the sodium sulfate
present renders the platinum salt sticky and difficult to wash, but the disturbing sodium compound can
be readily removed by washing with ammonium chlorid solution.
The method of direct treatment has the advantage of avoiding the occlusion of potash in other
precipitates and the danger of loss on ignition. The method as used by de Roode gives results about
one-tenth per cent higher than are obtained by the official processes.
262. The Calcium Chlorid Method.—Huston has proposed the addition of calcium chlorid to the
solution of a fertilizer in the determination of potash, in order to furnish sufficient calcium to form
tricalcium phosphate with all the phosphoric acid present, and thereby permit of the use of platinum
dishes in the lindo-gladding method.[210] In testing this process de Roode found that when sufficient
calcium chlorid was added to combine with all the phosphoric acid present and then ammonia added in
excess and a portion of the solution filtered, no test for phosphoric acid could be obtained; but, that if in
addition to the calcium chlorid and ammonia, some ammonium oxalate or carbonate was added, a
filtered portion of the solution gave a test for phosphoric acid.[211] This is accounted for by the fact that
the calcium phosphate, which is precipitated by the ammonia, is changed by the ammonium oxalate or
carbonate into calcium oxalate or carbonate and ammonium phosphate, so that the very object for
which the calcium chlorid was added is defeated by the addition of the ammonium oxalate or carbonate.
In order to make the use of calcium chlorid effective it is necessary to filter the liquid from the precipitate
formed by the calcium chlorid and ammonia and then add the ammonium oxalate or carbonate to the
filtrate. This necessitates two separate filtrations and makes the proposed method of Huston as long as
the old process.
263. Rapid Control Method for Potash Salts.—For rapid control work where great accuracy is not
required Albert recommends that the finely ground substance be placed in a liter flask and about 400
cubic centimeters of water added and three cubic centimeters of hydrochloric acid.[212] After boiling,
barium chlorid is added drop by drop as long as a precipitate is produced. After cooling, the flask is filled
to the mark and shaken and its contents filtered through a dry filter. An aliquot portion of the filtrate is
evaporated with platinum chlorid solution in a smooth porcelain dish almost to dryness and the mass
treated with alcohol, filtered through a weighed filter, and well washed with alcohol. The filter is then
dried in an air-bath to a constant weight. For the different kinds of potash materials on the market the
following proportions are recommended:
Kainit or Carnallit.—Twenty grams in one liter: Fifty cubic centimeters of the filtrate are evaporated
with forty of platinic chlorid solution. The weight of potassium platinochlorid obtained × 19.3 gives the
per cent of K₂O.
Sulfate of Potash.—Fifteen grams in one liter: Twenty cubic centimeters of the solution are
evaporated with fifteen of platinic chlorid. The weight of potassium platinochlorid obtained × 64.33 gives
the per cent of K₂O.
Potassium Chlorid.—Ten grams in one liter: Twenty-five cubic centimeters are evaporated with
fifteen of platinic chlorid solution. The weight of the precipitate obtained × 77.2 gives the per cent of
K₂O.
264. Weighing the Precipitate as Metallic Platinum.—Hilgard calls attention to the difficulty of
weighing the double chlorid of platinum and potash as such, although he acknowledges that in the
gooch this weighing can be made with great accuracy.[213] He prefers to estimate the platinum in the
metallic state and uses for this purpose a platinum crucible the inside of which, half way up from the
bottom, is coated with a layer of platinum sponge, which is conveniently prepared by the decomposition
of a few decigrams of the platinum double salt by inclining the crucible and rotating it during the
progress of the reduction, using about a quarter of an hour in all. The platinum sponge produced in this
way greatly favors the decomposition of the double salt for analytical purposes. The decomposition of
the salt takes place quickly and quietly and at conveniently low temperatures.
When the decomposition is ended the crucible is strongly heated so as to hold the platinum sponge,
which is produced, together sufficiently to prevent its being removed in the subsequent washing of the
crucible by decantation. By the ignition at a high temperature necessary to secure this, the greater part
of the calcium chlorid is volatilized. After cooling, a few drops of concentrated hydrochloric acid are
placed in the crucible and if the slightest yellow color be shown the acid is evaporated and the ignition
repeated, with the addition of a little oxalic acid. In most cases the slight yellow color produced comes
from a trace of iron and will therefore appear again after the second ignition. The crucible is
subsequently washed by repeated decantations, finally with boiling water, and after drying is ignited and
weighed.
The advantage of this process is that without further trouble the reduced metal is completely freed of
any salts of the alkaline earths, etc., which have been carried down with it and also from any of the
uncombined sodium chlorid which may not have been washed out by the alcohol. In fact, the results
obtained in this way are nearly always lower than those obtained through the direct weighing of the
double salt, and the wash water which is first poured off contains, as a rule, traces of the alkaline earths
and almost without exception some sodium chlorid. Correction for the filter ash is unnecessary because
the ash is completely dissolved by the treatment received. The platinum sponge which is collected in the
crucible in this way is removed in case it does not adhere to the sides and the crucible is then ready for
the next operation.
265. Sources of Error in the Platinum Method.—In the comparative work done in the
determination of potash by the members of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists there has
been noted, from year to year, marked differences in the data obtained by different analysts. Such
differences often are due to personal errors, or a failure to accurately follow the directions for
manipulation. Sometimes, however, they are due to sources of error in the processes employed. In the
platinum method these sources of error have been long known to exist. Chief among these is the
remarkable facility with which potash becomes incorporated with the precipitates of other bodies. The
character and magnitude of some of these errors have lately been studied by Robinson.[214]
Many precipitates occlude potash and hold it so firmly that it cannot be washed out with hot water
although the potash compounds present in the precipitate are perfectly soluble. It appears to be a kind
of molecular adhesion. Barium sulfate has this property of attaching potash molecules in a high degree,
and ferric and aluminic compounds only to a slightly less extent. To reduce the losses, consequent on
the conditions just mentioned, to a minimum, the sulfuric acid and earthy bases should be very slowly
precipitated, with violent agitation, at a boiling temperature.
Another source of loss in the platinum method arises from the use of a solution of ammonium chlorid
for washing the potassium platinochlorid precipitate. There is danger here, not only of the solution of the
impurities present in the precipitate, but also of a double decomposition by means of which some
ammonium may be substituted for the potassium in the washed product. In the official method,
moreover, there is danger of securing a final precipitate which may contain traces of calcium and
magnesium sulfates when these bodies are abundantly present in the sample taken for analysis. The
careful analyst must guard against these sources of error, but it is probably true that he will never secure
a practically chemically pure precipitate of potassium platinochlorid when working on the mixed
fertilizers found in commerce.
266. Effect of Concentration on the Accuracy of Potash Analysis.—Winton has also studied the
sources of error in the determination of potash as platinochlorid, especially with reference to the effect of
the concentration of the solution at the time of precipitation.[215]
He finds that the method of precipitating in concentrated solutions and drying the potassium
platinochlorid at 130°, depends for its accuracy upon the mutual compensation of three errors; viz., (1)
to the solubility of the potassium salt in eighty per cent alcohol, (2) to the presence of water in the
crystals which is not driven off at 130°, and (3) the use of a factor based on the wrong atomic weight of
platinum.
He finds, further, that the error due to the presence of water occluded in the crystals can be reduced
to a minimum, and the process of drying greatly simplified, by adding the solution of platinum chlorid to
the potash solution in a dilute condition, not exceeding one per cent in strength. The potassium
platinochlorid thus produced can be very effectively dried at 100°. The error due to the solubility of the
salt in eighty per cent alcohol can also be greatly reduced by using ninety-five per cent alcohol. The
error due to the wrong factor, based on the old atomic weight of platinum, viz., 0.3056, can be corrected
by using the factor based on the recently determined atomic weight of platinum, viz., 195, which is
0.30688.
267. Differences in Crystalline Form.—Winton has also observed a distinct difference in the
crystals of potassium platinochlorid when obtained from concentrated and dilute solutions.[216] When
platinic chlorid is added to a concentrated solution of potassium chlorid, a large part of the salt which is
formed is precipitated in a pulverulent state, the remainder being deposited on evaporation. After
treating with alcohol, filtering, and drying, the double salt is found in the state of a fine powder which,
when examined under the microscope, is found to consist largely of radiating crystals. The characteristic
form is one having six arms formed by the intersection, at right angles, of three bars. Numerous globular
cavities in the crystals are observed in which mother liquid is enclosed. For this reason the salt is not
easily dried at 100°, but when so dried loses additional moisture at 130°, and still more at 160°. The total
additional loss, after drying at 100°, from this cause may amount to as much as six-tenths per cent of
potassium chlorid.
When, however, the solution of the potassium salt is so dilute that no precipitate at all is formed on
the addition of platinic chlorid, the double salt is all deposited, as well as formed slowly, during the
evaporation and occurs exclusively as octahedra. These octahedra are comparatively free of cavities,
and give up practically all their moisture when dried at 100°. A method of procedure therefore for potash
determination, based on the above principle of the addition of the reagent to dilute solutions, and drying
the double salt produced upon evaporation, after washing with ninety-five per cent alcohol at 100°, and
using the factor 0.30688 for potassium chlorid and 0.1939 for potassium oxid, gives good results and is
regarded as better than any of the methods which prescribe the addition of platinic chlorid to highly
concentrated potash solutions.
268. Factors for Potash Estimation.—The factor now in use by the official chemists to convert
potassium platinochlorid into potash (K₂O) is 0.19308, and for potassium chlorid 0.3056.
Wolfbauer gives the differences which may arise by computing the potash from its platino-double
chlorid by the different values assigned to the atomic weight of platinum.[217]
The common factor used to obtain potassium chlorid from potassium platinochlorid is based on the
atomic weight 197.18 and is derived from the formula:
2(39.13 + 35.46) 149.18
= = 0.30557.
2 × 39.13 + 197.18 + 6 × 35.46 488.20
The variations arising from taking other assigned values for the atomic weight of platinum are shown
in the following table:
Factor for potassium Relation to factor 0.30557
chlorid from in per cent
Atomic
Determined or Potassium Potassium
weight of Platinum. Platinum.
calculated by platinochlorid. platinochlorid.
Platinum.
197.18 Berzelius 0.30557 0.75658 100.00 100.00
197.88 Andrews 0.30517 0.75390 99.86 99.65
195.06 Haberstadt 0.30690 0.76468 100.44 101.07
Seubert and
194.87 0.30700 0.76555 100.47 101.20
Clark
The factor 0.3056 is regarded as the best for the computation from potassium platinochlorid and
0.7566 from platinum. It is also suggested that it is better to make the computation from the reduced
platinum than from the double salt.
269. Recovery of the Platinum Waste and Preparation of the Platinic Chlorid Solution.—(1) By
Reduction in Alkaline Alcohol.—All filtrates containing platinic chlorid, all precipitates of potassium
platinochlorid and all residues of metallic platinum should be carefully preserved and the platinum
recovered therefrom by the following process: The platinum residues are placed in a large porcelain
dish. Since these residues contain a large amount of alcohol they should be diluted with about one-third
their volume of water, and when boiling treated with some sodium carbonate. The solid potassium
platinochlorids should not be added until the liquid is boiling, and then only little by little. The heating on
the water-bath is continued until the liquid floating over the platinum sponge is quite clear and only
slightly yellow. The liquid is then poured off and the reduced platinum purified by boiling with
hydrochloric acid and water. It is then dried and ignited to destroy any organic matter which may be
present. It is advisable to boil the finely divided platinum once with strong nitric acid, and after this is
poured off the solution of the platinum is effected in a large porcelain dish over a water-bath by adding
about four times its weight of hydrochloric acid, warming, and adding nitric acid, little by little. After the
platinum is in solution the evaporation is continued until a drop of the liquid, removed by a glass rod,
quickly solidifies. The crystalline mass which is formed on cooling is taken up with water and filtered,
and then a sufficient amount of water added so that each ten cubic centimeters will contain one gram of
platinum. The specific gravity of this solution is 1.18 at ordinary temperatures. Special care must be
taken that the solution contains neither platinous chlorid nor nitrogen compounds. If the first named
compound be present it should be converted into platinic chlorid by treatment with fuming hydrochloric
acid and a little nitric acid. The last mentioned compound may be removed by evaporating successively
with hydrochloric acid and water. If the platinic chlorid be made from waste platinum, the danger of
contamination with iridium must be considered. In such a case the platinum should be separated as
ammonium platinochlorid, which can afterwards be reduced as above indicated. A convenient test of the
purity of platinic chlorid solution is accomplished by the precipitation of a known weight of chemically
pure potassium salt.
(2) By Reduction in Nascent Hydrogen.—The platinum residues, filtrates containing platinum, etc.,
are collected in a large flask and evaporated in a large dish on a water-bath, and reduced by means of
zinc and hydrochloric acid to metallic platinum, the mass being warmed until all the zinc has been
dissolved. The supernatant liquid standing over the spongy platinum is decanted and the spongy mass
boiled twice with distilled water. The spongy platinum is then brought on a filter and washed till the
filtrate shows no acid reaction. The filter and platinum sponge are next incinerated in a platinum dish
and the residue weighed. The weighed mass of pure platinum is dissolved in hydrochloric acid, with the
addition of as little nitric acid as possible, and, after cooling, filtered. The filtrate is afterwards evaporated
in a porcelain dish on a water-bath to a sirupy consistence, taken up with water and filtered. To this
filtrate enough water is now added to make the solution correspond to one gram of metallic platinum in
ten cubic centimeters.
THE ESTIMATION OF POTASH AS PERCHLORATE.

270. General Principles.—By reason of the great cost of platinum chlorid analysts have sought for a
reagent of a cheaper nature and yet capable of forming an insoluble compound with potash.
Phosphomolybdic and perchloric acids are the reagents which have given the most promising results.
[218] The principle of the method with the latter salt is based on the insolubility of potassium perchlorate
in strong alcohol containing a little perchloric acid and the comparative easy solubility of the other bases
usually associated with potassium in water. The French chemists have stated that magnesia, when
present in considerable quantities, interferes with the accuracy of the results. Since in soil analysis
considerable quantities of magnesia are often found, this base, according to the French chemists,
should previously be removed when present in any considerable quantity, by the process described in
the first volume. Kreider, however, as will be seen further on, working in the presence of magnesia, did
not notice any disturbing effects caused thereby. The method is applicable to the common potash salts
of the trade and with certain precautions to mixed salts. As will be mentioned later on, sulfuric acid
should be previously removed and this is likely to introduce an error on account of the tendency of
barium sulfate to entangle particles of potash among its molecules and thus remove them from solution.
The barium sulfate should be precipitated slowly and in a strongly acid (nitric or hydrochloric) solution.
The loss, which is inevitable, is thus reduced to a minimum and does not seriously affect the value of the
numbers found. It is important to have an abundant supply of pure perchloric acid, and as this is not
readily obtainable in the market the best methods of preparing it are given below. The method, while it
has not been worked out extensively, is one of merit, and seemingly is worthy of fair trial by analysts.
The process is by no means a new one, but it will not be necessary to describe here its development
any further than to refer to the methods proposed by Serullas,[219] Schlösing,[220] Kraut,[221] and
Bertrand,[222] The method was fully developed by a committee appointed by the French agricultural
chemists in 1887.[223]
Wense has also described an improved method of estimating potash as perchlorate after the
removal of sulfuric acid and also a process of preparing perchloric acid by distilling potassium
perchlorate with sulfuric acid in a vacuum.[224] He was also the first who proposed the plan of rendering
potassium perchlorate insoluble in alcohol by dissolving a little perchloric acid therein.[225] The best
approved methods now known of preparing the perchloric acid and conducting the analysis will be
described in the following paragraphs.
271. Caspari’s Method for Preparing Perchloric Acid.—A hessian crucible about fifteen
centimeters high is filled with moderately well compressed pure potassium chlorate and gradually
heated in a suitable furnace until the contents become fluid.[226] The heat must then be carefully
regulated to avoid loss by foaming due to the evolution of oxygen. The heat is continued until oxygen is
no longer given off and the surface of the liquid becomes encrusted, which will take place in from one
and a half to two hours.
After cooling, the contents of the crucible are pulverized and heated, with vigorous stirring, to boiling,
with one and a half times their weight of water. By this process the potassium chlorid which has formed
during the first reaction is dissolved and is thus removed. The residual salt is washed with additional
quantities of cold water and finally dried. To remove the potassium salt from the crude potassium
perchlorate obtained as above, recourse is had to hydrofluosilicic acid. The reaction is represented by
the following formula: 2KClO₄ + H₂SiF₆ = K₂SiF₆ + HClO₄. In order to effect this decomposition the
potassium perchlorate is dissolved in seven times its weight of hot water and an excess of
hydrofluosilicic added to the boiling solution. The boiling is continued for about an hour until particles of
potassium perchlorate can no longer be detected with addition of water to compensate for evaporation.
On cooling the gelatinous potassium silicofluorid is deposited and the perchloric acid separated
therefrom as completely as possible by decantation. The residue is again boiled with water and a little
hydrofluosilicic acid and the clear liquor thus obtained added to the first lot. Finally, any residual
perchloric acid may be removed on an asbestos felt under pressure. The clear liquid thus obtained is
evaporated on a steam-bath to the greatest possible degree of concentration and allowed to stand in a
cool place for twenty-four hours, whereby is effected the separation of any remaining potassium
silicofluorid or potassium perchlorate. The residual liquid when filtered through an asbestos felt should
give a perfectly clear filtrate. In order to throw out the last traces of hydrofluosilicic acid and any sulfuric
acid present an equal volume of water is added, and while cold small quantities of barium chlorid are
successively added until the barium salt is present in a very slight excess. The clear supernatant liquid
is poured off after a few hours and evaporated until the hydrochloric acid is all expelled and white fumes
of perchloric acid are noticed. Any potassium perchlorate still remaining will now be separated and, in
the cold, sodium perchlorate will also be separated in crystals. The clear residue is again diluted with an
equal volume of water and any barium salts present carefully removed with sulfuric acid. The mass is
allowed to stand for one or two days, and is then filtered through paper and is ready for use. The purity
of the acid obtained depends chiefly on the purity of the hydrofluosilicic acid at first used. Hence to get
good results this acid must be free from foreign bodies. If an absolutely pure product be desired the acid
above obtained must be distilled in a vacuum.
272. Method of Kreider.—Kreider has worked out a simpler method of preparing perchloric acid
which will make it easy for every analyst to make and keep a supply of this admirable yet unappreciated
reagent. This method is conducted as follows:[227]
A convenient quantity of sodium chlorate, from 100 to 300 grains, is melted in a glass retort or round-
bottomed flask and gradually raised to a temperature at which oxygen is freely, but not too rapidly
evolved, and kept at this temperature till the fused mass thickens throughout, indicating the complete
conversion of the chlorate to the chlorid and perchlorate, which requires from one and one-half to two
hours: or the retort may be connected with a gasometer and the end of the reaction determined by the
volume of oxygen expelled, according to the equation
2NAClO₃ = NACl + NAClO₄ + O₂.

The product thus obtained is washed from the retort to a capacious evaporating dish where it is
treated with sufficient hydrochloric acid to effect the complete reduction of the residual chlorate, which, if
the ignition has been carefully conducted with well distributed heat, will be present in but small amount.
It is then evaporated to dryness on the steam-bath, or more quickly over a direct flame, and with but little
attention until a point near to dryness has been reached, when stirring will be found of great advantage
in facilitating the volatilization of the remaining liquid and in breaking up the mass of salt. Otherwise the
perchlorate seems to solidify with a certain amount of water and its removal from the dish, without
moistening and reheating, is impossible.
After triturating the residue, easily accomplished in a porcelain mortar, an excess of the strongest
hydrochloric acid is added to the dry salt, preferably in a tall beaker where there is less surface for the
escape of hydrochloric acid and from which the acid can be decanted without disturbing the precipitated
chlorid. If the salt has been reduced to a very fine powder, by stirring energetically for a minute, the
hydrochloric acid will set free the perchloric acid and precipitate the sodium as chlorid, which in a few
minutes settles, leaving a clear solution of the perchloric acid with the excess of hydrochloric acid. The
clear supernatant liquid is then decanted upon a gooch, through which it may be rapidly drawn with the
aid of suction, and the residue retreated with the strongest hydrochloric acid, settled, and again
decanted, the salt being finally brought upon the filter where it is washed with a little strong hydrochloric
acid. A large platinum cone will be found more convenient than the crucible, because of its greater
capacity and filtering surface. When the filter will not hold all the sodium chlorid, the latter, after washing,
may be removed by water or by mechanical means, with precautions not to disturb the felt, which is then
ready for the remainder. Of course, if water is used, the felt had better be washed with a little strong
hydrochloric acid before receiving another portion of the salt. This residue will be found to contain only
an inconsiderable amount of perchlorate, when tested by first heating to expel the free acid and then
treating the dry and powdered residue with ninety-seven per cent alcohol, which dissolves the
perchlorate of sodium but has little soluble effect on the chlorid.
The filtrate, containing the perchloric acid with the excess of hydrochloric acid and the small per cent
of sodium chlorid which is soluble in the latter, is then evaporated over the steam-bath till all hydrochloric
acid is expelled and the heavy white fumes of perchloric acid appear, when it is ready for use in
potassium determinations. Evidently the acid will not be chemically pure because the sodium chlorid is
not absolutely insoluble in hydrochloric acid; but a portion tested with silver nitrate will prove that the
sodium, together with any other bases which may have gone through the filter, has been completely
converted into perchlorate, and unless the original chlorate contained some potassium or on
evaporation the acid was exposed to the fumes of ammonia, the residue of the evaporation of a portion
is easily and completely soluble in ninety-seven per cent alcohol and its presence is therefore
unobjectionable. One cubic centimeter of the acid thus obtained gives on evaporation a residue of only
0.036 gram, which is completely soluble in ninety-seven per cent alcohol.
Caspari’s acid under similar treatment gave a residue in one case of 0.024 gram and in another
0.047 gram. If, however, a portion of pure acid be required, it may be obtained by distilling this product
under diminished pressure and, as Caspari has shown, without great loss providing the heat is
regulated according to the fumes in the distilling flask.
Some modification of the above treatment will be found necessary in case the sodium chlorate
contains any potassium as an impurity, or if the latter has been introduced from the vessel in which the
fusion was made. In these circumstances the hydrochloric acid would not suffice for the removal of
potassium, since a trace might also go over with the sodium and thus on evaporation a residue insoluble
in ninety-seven per cent alcohol be obtained. To avoid this difficulty, the mixture of sodium perchlorate
and chlorid, after treating with hydrochloric acid for the reduction of the residual chlorate, being reduced
to a fine powder, is well digested with ninety-seven per cent alcohol, which dissolves the sodium
perchlorate but leaves the chlorid, as well as any potassium salt insoluble. By giving the alcohol time to
become saturated, which was facilitated by stirring, it was found on filtering and evaporating that an
average of about two-tenths of a gram of sodium perchlorate are obtained for every cubic centimeter of
alcohol and that the product thus obtained is comparatively free of chlorids, until the perchlorate is
nearly all removed, when more of the chlorid seems to dissolve. This treatment with alcohol is continued
until on evaporation of a small portion of the latest filtrate, only a small residue is found. The alcoholic
solution of the perchlorate is then distilled from a large flask until the perchlorate begins to crystallize,
when the heat is removed and the contents quickly emptied into an evaporating dish, the same liquid
being used to wash out the remaining portions of the salt. When the distillation is terminated at the point
indicated, the distillate will contain most of the alcohol employed, but in a somewhat stronger solution,
so that it requires only diluting to ninety-seven per cent to fit it for use in future preparations. The salt is
then evaporated to dryness on the steam-bath and subsequently treated with strong hydrochloric acid
for the separation of the perchloric acid.
One cubic centimeter of the acid prepared in this way, on evaporation gave a residue in one case of
0.0369 gram, and in another 0.0307 gram, completely soluble in ninety-seven per cent alcohol, which
was then ignited and the chlorin determined by silver from which the equivalent of perchloric acid in the
form of salts was calculated as 0.0305 gram. By neutralizing the acid with sodium carbonate,
evaporating, igniting in an atmosphere of carbon dioxid till decomposition was complete, collecting the
oxygen over caustic potash, allowing it to act on hydriodic acid by intervention of nitric oxid, according to
a process soon to be published, titrating the iodin liberated, with standard arsenic and calculating the
equivalent of perchloric acid, after subtracting the amount of acid found in the form of salts, the amount
of free acid per cubic centimeter proved to be 0.9831 gram.
The whole process, even when the separation with alcohol is necessary, can not well require more
than two days and during the greater part of that time the work proceeds without attention.
273. Keeping Properties of Perchloric Acid.—By most authorities it is asserted that perchloric acid
is a very unstable body and is liable to decompose with explosive violence even when kept in the dark.
It is probable that this tendency to spontaneous decomposition has been exaggerated. It is not even
mentioned in Gmelin’s Handbook.[228]
The most concentrated aqueous acid has a specific gravity of 1.65, is colorless, fumes slightly when
exposed to the air, and boils at 200°. It has no odor, possesses an oily consistence and has a strong
and agreeably acid taste. It reddens litmus without bleaching it and is slowly volatilized at 138° without
decomposition. It is unaffected by exposure to the light, even the sun’s rays. It is not decomposed by
hydrosulfuric, sulfurous, or hydrochloric acids, nor by alcohol. Paper saturated with the strong acid does
not take fire spontaneously, but it deflagrates with red-hot charcoal.
The acid prepared by the method of Kreider has approximately the composition of the di-hydrate,
HClO₄·2H₂O.[229] Unless well evaporated, however, it is a little more dilute than is shown by the above
formula. The di-hydrate is quite stable and the more dilute acid can be kept for an indefinite time.
Kreider has kept the acid for six months and noticed no change whatever in its composition. Acid
containing one gram of perchloric acid in a cubic centimeter has been kept three months with perfect
safety. There is no reason why the strong aqueous acid should not be made a regular article of
commerce by dealers in chemical supplies, under proper restrictions for storage and transportation.
The strong acid made in this laboratory by the Kreider method has not given the least indication of
easy or spontaneous decomposition.
274. The Analytical Process.—The perchlorate process cannot be applied in the presence of
sulfuric acid or dissolved sulfates. This acid, when present, is to be removed by the usual methods
before applying the perchloric acid. Phosphoric acid may be present, but in this case a considerable
excess of the reagent must be used. The process, as originally proposed by Caspari and carried out by
Kreider, is as follows:[230]
The substance, free from sulfuric acid, is evaporated for the expulsion of free hydrochloric acid, the
residue stirred with twenty cubic centimeters of hot water and then treated with perchloric acid, in
quantity not less than one and one-half times that required by the bases present, when it is evaporated,
with frequent stirring, to a thick, sirup-like consistency, again dissolved in hot water and evaporated, with
continued stirring, till all hydrochloric acid has been expelled and the fumes of perchloric acid appear.
Further loss of perchloric acid is to be compensated for by addition of more. The cold mass is then well
stirred with about twenty cubic centimeters of wash alcohol—ninety-seven per cent alcohol containing
two-tenths per cent by weight of pure perchloric acid, with precautions against reducing the potassium
perchlorate crystals to too fine a powder. After settling, the alcohol is decanted on the asbestos filter and
the residue similarly treated with about the same amount of wash alcohol, settled, and again decanted.
The residual salt is then deprived of alcohol by gently heating, dissolved in ten cubic centimeters of hot
water and a little perchloric acid, when it is evaporated once more, with stirring, until fumes of perchloric
acid rise. It is then washed with one cubic centimeter of wash alcohol, transferred to the asbestos,
preferably by a policeman to avoid excessive use of alcohol, and covered finally with pure alcohol; the
whole wash process requiring from about fifty to seventy cubic centimeters of alcohol. It is then dried at
about 130° and weighed.
The substitution of a gooch for the truncated pipette employed by Caspari will be found
advantageous; and asbestos capable of forming a close, compact felt should be selected, inasmuch as
the perchlorate is in part unavoidably reduced, during the necessary stirring, to so fine a condition that it
tends to run through the filter when under pressure. A special felt of an excellent quality of asbestos was
prepared for the determinations given below and seemed to hold the finer particles of the perchlorate
very satisfactorily.
A number of determinations made of potassium, unmixed with other bases or non-volatile acids, is
recorded in the following table:
Potassium Potassium Error on Error on
Volume of Error on
chlorid perchlorate potassium potassium
filtrate. potash.
taken. found. perchlorate. chlorid.
Cubic
Grams. Grams. Grams. Grams. Grams.
centimeters.
0.1000 54 0.1851 0.0008— 0.0004— 0.0003—
0.1000 58 0.1854 0.0005— 0.0002— 0.0002—
0.1000 51 0.1859 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
0.1000 50 0.1854 0.0005— 0.0002— 0.0002—
0.1000 48 0.1859 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
0.1000 52 0.1854 0.0005— 0.0002— 0.0002—
Considerable difficulty, however, was experienced in obtaining satisfactory determinations of
potassium associated with sulfuric and phosphoric acids. As Caspari has pointed out, the sulfuric acid
must be removed by precipitation as barium sulfate before the treatment with perchloric acid is
attempted, and unless the precipitation is made in a strongly acid solution, some potassium is carried
down with the barium. Phosphoric acid need not be previously removed, but to secure a nearly
complete separation of this acid from the potassium, a considerable excess of perchloric acid should be
left upon the potassium perchlorate before it is treated with the alcohol. When these conditions are
carefully complied with, fairly good results may justly be expected. Below is given a number of the
results obtained:
(A) = Volume of filtrate. Cubic centimeters.

(B) = Potassium perchlorate found.
(C) = Error on potassium perchlorate.
(D) = Error on potassium chlorid.
(E) = Error on potassium potash.
Compounds
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E)
taken.
Cubic
Grams Grams. Grams. Grams. Grams.
centimeters.
Potassium chlorid = 0.10
Calcium carbonate = 0.13 50 0.1887 0.0027+ 0.0014+ 0.0005+ [231]
Magnesium sulfate = 0.13 82 0.1875 0.0016+ 0.0008+ 0.0005+ [232]
Ferric chlorid = 0.05 80 0.1861 0.0002+ 0.0001+ 0.0001+ [233]
Magnesium sulfate = 0.05 80 0.1843 0.0016- 0.0008- 0.0005- [234]
Manganese dioxid = 0.05 92 0.1839 0.0020- 0.0010- 0.0006- [235]
Sodium phosphate = 0.40 60 0.1854 0.0005- 0.0002- 0.0002- [236]
In the last three experiments of the above table the amount of perchloric acid was about three times
that required to unite with the bases present, and the phosphoric acid subsequently found with the
potassium was hardly enough to appreciably affect the weight, although its absolute removal was found
impossible.
That the magnesia does not produce any disturbing effect, as is supposed by the French chemists,
Kreider has proved by the following test: One hundred and fifty milligrams of magnesium carbonate
were treated with perchloric acid, evaporated till fumes of perchloric acid appeared, and cooled, when
the magnesium perchlorate crystallized: But on treating it with about fifteen cubic centimeters of ninety-
seven per cent alcohol containing two-tenths per cent of perchloric acid a perfectly clear solution was
obtained. If, therefore, a sufficient excess of acid be used, no interference will be caused by the
presence of magnesium.
While it is true, therefore, that the potassium perchlorate obtained may be contaminated with a trace
of phosphoric acid, if the latter be present in large quantity, no fear of contamination with magnesia need
be entertained if a sufficient quantity of the perchloric acid be used.
275. Removal of the Sulfuric Acid.—The practical objection to the removal of the sulfuric acid in
the form of barium sulfate rests on the fact of the mechanical entanglement of some of the potash in the
barium salt. Unless special precautions are taken, therefore, a considerable amount of the potash will
be found with the barium sulfate.
Caspari has succeeded in reducing this amount to a minimum by the following procedure:[237] The
solution of barium chlorid is prepared by dissolving 127 grams of crystallized barium chlorid in water,
adding 125 cubic centimeters of thirty-five per cent hydrochloric acid, and bringing the total volume up to
one liter with water.
Five grams of the substance from which the sulfuric acid is to be removed are boiled with 150 cubic
centimeters of water and twenty of strong hydrochloric acid. While the solution is still in ebullition it is
treated, drop by drop with constant stirring, with the barium chlorid solution above mentioned, until a
slight excess is added. This excess does not cause any inconvenience subsequently. After the
precipitation is complete the boiling is continued for a few minutes, the mixture cooled and made up to a
quarter of a liter with water. No account is taken of the volume of the barium sulfate formed since, even
with the precautions mentioned, a little potassium is thrown down and the volume of the barium sulfate
tends to correct this error. With a solution from which the sulfuric acid had been removed as above
indicated, Caspari found a loss of only one milligram of potassium perchlorate in a precipitate weighing
over 800 milligrams.
276. Applicability of the Process.—Experience has shown that sulfuric acid is the only substance
which need be removed from ordinary fertilizers preparatory to the estimation of the potash by means of
perchloric acid. The fact that this process can be used in the presence of phosphoric acid is a matter of
great importance in the estimation of potash in fertilizers, inasmuch as these fertilizers nearly always
contain that acid. The fact that the French chemists noticed that magnesia was a disturbing element in
the process, as has been indicated in volume first, probably arose from its presence as sulfate. Neither
Caspari nor Kreider has noticed any disturbance in the results which can be traced to the presence of
magnesia as a base.
If ammonia be present, however, there is a tendency to the production of ammonium perchlorate
which is somewhat insoluble in the alcohol wash used. Solutions therefore containing ammonia before
treating by the perchlorate method for potash should be rendered alkaline by soda-lye and boiled. With
the precautions above mentioned, the method promises to prove of great value in agricultural analysis,
effecting both a saving of time and expense in potash determinations.
277. Accuracy of the Process.—The perchlorate was tried in conjunction with the platinum method
on the two samples of potash fertilizer prepared and distributed by the official reporter on potash for
1893.[238] One of the samples was of a fertilizer which had been compounded for the Florida trade and
contained bone, dried blood, and potash, mostly in the form of sulfate. The other sample consisted of
mixed potash salts, sulfate, chlorid, double salt, kainit, and about five per cent of the triple sulfate of
calcium, potassium, and magnesium.
The results obtained by Wagner and Caspari on the two samples follow:
Sample No. 1. Sample No. 2.
Per cent potash. Per cent potash.
By the platinum method 13.25 37.98
By the perchlorate method 13.09 37.82
The perchlorate method on the whole appears to be quite as accurate as the platinum process,
requires less manipulation and can be completed in a shorter time and at less expense for reagents.
AUTHORITIES CITED IN
PART THIRD.
[185] Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin No. 97,
p. 7.
[186] Annual Report Connecticut Station, 1892, p. 32.
[187] Colorado Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin No. 10.
[188] Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin No.
103, p. 9.
[189] Annual Report, Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment
Station, 1888, p. 202.
[190] Vid. op. cit. 2, 1890, p. 110.
[191] Traité de la Fabrication de Sucre, Horsin-Déon, p. 511.
[192] Chemical Division, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin
No. 37, p. 350.
[193] Journal of the American Chemical Society, Vol. 17, p. 86.
[194] Volume First, pp. 19, et seq.
[195] Precht: Die Stassfurter Kalisalze.
[196] Maercker: Die Kalidüngung, S. 1.
[197] Vid. op. cit. supra, p. 3.
[198] Vid. op. cit. 12, p. 5.
[199] Vid. op. cit. 12, p. 7.
[200] Volume First, pp. 378, et seq.
[201] Chemical News, Vol. 44, pp. 77, 86, 97, and 129.
No. 7, p. 38.
[203] Vid. supra, Bulletin No. 43, p. 349.
[204] Die Agricultur-Chemische Versuchs-Station, Halle a/S., S.
76.
[205] Methoden van onderzock aan de Rijkslandbouw-
proefstations, 1893, p. 7.
[206] From the Official Swedish Methods. Translated for the
Author by F. W. Woll.
No. 35, p. 63.
[208] Chemiker Zeitung, Band 18, S. 1320.
[209] Journal of the American Chemical Society, Vol. 17, p. 85.
No. 43, p. 26.
[211] Vid. op. cit. 25, Vol. 17, p. 46.
[212] Zeitschrift für angewandte Chemie, 1891, S. 281.
[213] Zeitschrift für analytische Chemie, Band 32, S. 184.
[214] Vid. op. cit. 25, Vol. 16, p. 364.
[215] Vid. op. cit. 25, Vol. 17, p. 463.
[216] Vid. op. et. loc. cit. supra.
[217] Chemiker Zeitung, 1890, S. 1246.
[218] Volume First, pp. 369, 375.
[219] Annales de Chimie et de Physique {2}, Tome 46, p. 294.
[220] Comptes rendus, Tome 73, p. 1296.
[221] Zeitschrift für analytische Chemie, Band 14, S. 152.
[222] Chemical News, Vol. 44, p. 316.
[223] Rapport adressé par la Comité des Stations Agronomiques,
1887, p. 10.
[224] Zeitschrift für angewandte Chemie, 1891, S. 691.
[225] Vid. op. cit. supra, 1892, S. 233.
[226] Vid. op. cit. 40, 1893, S. 68.
[227] American Journal of Science, June, 1895, from advance
proofs sent by author.
[228] Watt’s Translation, Vol. 2, pp. 317-318.
[229] Manuscript communication from Mr. Kreider.
[230] Vid. op. et loc. cit. 43.
[231] The residue showed phosphoric acid plainly when tested.
[232] The residue showed phosphoric acid plainly when tested.
[233] Only traces of phosphoric acid found in the residue.

Get Recent Trends in Wave Mechanics and Vibrations Select Proceedings of WMVC 2018 S. Chakraverty Free All Chapters

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Get Recent Trends in Wave Mechanics and Vibrations Select Proceedings of WMVC 2018 S. Chakraverty Free All Chapters

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Get Recent Trends in Wave Mechanics and Vibrations Select Proceedings of WMVC 2018 S. Chakraverty Free All Chapters

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Download the full version of the textbook now at textbookfull.

Recent Trends in Wave Mechanics and

Explore and download more textbook at https://textbookfull.com

Recent Advances in Traffic Engineering: Select Proceedings

Recent Trends in Mechanical Engineering : Select

Emerging Trends in Mechanical Engineering: Select

The Routledge Companion to Philosophy of Social Science

Methodological Challenges in Nature Culture and

Practical Handbook of Thematic Cartography Principles,

Investigation of Flow Behavior Characteristics for Iraqi

The DevOps 2 1 Toolkit Docker Swarm Building testing

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/11236

Recent Trends in Wave

ISSN 2195-4356 ISSN 2195-4364 (electronic)

Wave mechanics and vibration principles are commonly encountered in various

Rourkela, India S. Chakraverty

We are indebted to Prof. Animesh Biswas, Director, National Institute of

Rourkela, India S. Chakraverty

Transverse Vibration of Thick Triangular Plates Based on a Proposed

Love Type Surface Waves in Curved Layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

Seismic Qualiﬁcation of In-Cell Crane Employed in the Hot Cell

Dr. S. Chakraverty is working in the Department of Mathematics (Applied

K. K. Pradhan and S. Chakraverty

Abstract Natural frequencies of different thick triangular plates subject to classical

Keywords Vibration · Triangular plate · Shear deformation theory · Rayleigh–ritz

Based on the importance of triangular plates in structural design and architecture,

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 1

In this section, a triangular plate can be completely determined by three numbers a,

Fig. 2 Two different cases of thick triangular plates

3 Shear Deformation Plate Theory

where u, v, w, φx , and φ y are five unknown displacement components of the middle

Substituting σii (i = x, y) and τi j (i, j = x, y, z) in Eq. (5), it becomes

whereas the cross-sectional inertial coefficients in Eq. (9) are written as

In particular, the displacement components can be assumed as harmonic type as

u(x, y, t) = U (x, y) exp(iωt)

Introducing the transformation of coordinates as given in Eq. (1), the maximum

where θ = b/c, μ = c/a, and δ = a/ h. The coefficients (Ci , i = 1, 2, and 3) involved

In this numerical approximation, the amplitudes of displacements are expressed as

where ci , d j , ek , gl , and h m are the unknown constant coefficients to be determined

ϕiu (x, y) = a f ψiu (x, y), i = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n

The function f = ξ p ηq (1 − ξ − η)r with the exponents p, q, and r , which con-

MgCl₂ + 2KOH = MgO₂H₂ + 2KCl.

THE ESTIMATION OF POTASH AS PERCHLORATE.

2NAClO₃ = NACl + NAClO₄ + O₂.

(A) = Volume of filtrate. Cubic centimeters.

You might also like